VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

HCMC UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT

ECOLOGY

REPORT

BLACK CARBON IN CITIES AND HEALTH

RISKS TO CITIZENS
Lecturer: Assoc.Prof. Dr. Dao Thanh Son

Class CC01
Name ID Contribution

Tran Trong Nhan 2053288 120%

Vo Minh Hoang 1952707 105%

Bui Ngoc Quoc Khanh 1952769 105%

Pham Nguyen Nhat Minh 1952339 70%

HCMC, 04/2024

i
ii
iii
 BACKGROUND

Climate change is considered one of the greatest challenges to humanity's development

and existence in the 21st century. According to assessments by the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the main cause of global climate change is excessive
greenhouse gas emissions from human socioeconomic development activities. Analyzing
and identifying black carbon accounting methods are critically important for accounting
black carbon emissions in three sectors: cement, coal-fired power, and road
transportation; thereby contributing to the task of investigating carbon tracing and black
carbon monitoring systems in Vietnam. Urbanization has exacerbated deteriorating air
quality issues. Black carbon (BC) emitted from urban activities causes air pollution,
climate change, and endangers public health. Studies have linked BC exposure to
respiratory illnesses and shown it to be a serious pollutant, with cardiovascular patients
experiencing more severe symptoms that could influence birth rates and the central
nervous system. Additional reports associated higher BC levels with increased mortality
from respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.

iv
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Air pollution is a pressing issue worldwide and Vietnam is no exception. According to

the annual Environmental Performance Index (EPI) report by the US Environmental
Protection Agency, Vietnam is one of the top 10 most air-polluted countries in Asia,
notably in terms of particulate matter pollution (PM10, PM2.5). Ha Noi and Ho Chi
Minh City are the localities most severely affected by air pollution nationwide, with
frequent occurrences of PM2.5 shrouding the entire sky, significantly reducing visibility
and negatively impacting public health. As of February 2020, Viet Nam had nearly 3.6
million automobiles and over 45 million motorbikes. These vehicles are the primary
cause of air pollution in the country. From 2010-2017, PM2.5 concentrations showed a
strong increasing trend. Since 2019, pollution peaks have become very common in major
cities across Vietnam. Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City in particular regularly report Air
Quality Index (AQI) values of 150-200, considered a very hazardous alert level. This
topic provided an overview of the close linkage between black carbon, SLCP and PM 2.5
that serves the "Investigation survey of carbon trace and black carbon monitoring system
in Viet Nam".

1
 CHAPTER 1 BLACK CARBON EMISSION IN CITIES

1.1 BLACK CARBON

1.1.1 Definition

Black carbon is a primary constituent of fine particulate matter, leading the two terms to
sometimes be used interchangeably incorrectly. In reality, black carbon solely denotes
carbon in various connected configurations, representing only one part of particulate
matter.

Figure 1.1 A molecular image of black carbon

2
Black carbon likewise forms a major component of soot. This relationship has caused
many to treat the concepts as identical, yet all soot contains black carbon while its
precise attributes are not as readily defined as soot.

So, while intrinsically linked, black carbon and soot are not fully equivalent due to subtle
differences in their precise definitions and properties. Strictly speaking, black carbon
should only refer to carbonaceous particulate matter rather than being used as a blanket
term for all fine particles of soot in general.

1.1.2 Source

Black carbon originates from both natural and human-caused processes. However,
the proliferation of industry over the last two centuries has led to a sharp rise in
atmospheric black carbon levels today. It is produced through the incomplete combustion
of fossil fuels such as oil, coal and gas as well as biofuels like wood, peat and crops.

Major black carbon emitters include diesel engines, cooking stoves, wood-burning
furnaces and forest fires. The primary source of black carbon emissions can vary in
different regions globally. For instance, transportation is overwhelmingly the largest
emitter in developed areas like North America and Europe, whereas residential burning
of coal and biomass accounts for a greater share of emissions in the developing world
including Asia and Africa.

3
 Figure 1.2 Black carbon sources

1.1.3 Impact

In the past, developed nations such as the United States and various European
countries were the largest emitters of black carbon. However, environmental protection
started gaining more political attention in the mid-1900s, leading to precautions and
protocols to limit its spread. For example, while America accounts for over one-fifth of
global CO2 emissions, it is responsible for just 6.1% of black carbon emissions.

Instead, much of the black carbon in the atmosphere currently originates from
developing regions worldwide, especially Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Indeed,
China and India together release up to a third of the planet's black carbon, with additional
hotspots like equatorial Africa, Southeast Asia/Indonesia, and large parts of Brazil and
Peru.

Black carbon is a short-lived climate pollutant that exists for a short period of time, from
a few days to a few weeks after being released into the atmosphere. During this short
time frame, black carbon can have significant direct and indirect impacts on the climate,
cryosphere (snow and ice), agriculture, and human health.

4
When suspended in the atmosphere, black carbon contributes to warming by converting

Impact Black carbon warms the climate 460-1500 times more

intensely than CO2 per unit mass

Lifespan The average lifespan of black carbon particles in the

atmosphere is 4-12 days

Quantity Approximately 6.6 million tons of black carbon were

emitted in 2015

Source Household cooking and heating accounts for 51% of global

black carbon emissions.

solar radiation into heat. It also impacts cloud formation and affects circulation patterns
and rainfall in the region.

When deposited on ice and snow, black carbon and co-emitted particles reduce the
surface albedo (ability to reflect sunlight) and warm the surface. As a result, the Arctic
and snow-covered regions like the Himalayas are especially vulnerable to melting.

1.2 TYPES OF BLACK CARBON EMISSION SCOPES

There are a total of 3 carbon emission scopes. In essence, scope 1 emissions refer to
direct emissions that a company owns or controls, whereas scopes 2 and 3 cover indirect
emissions resulting from company activities but occurring from sources not owned or
controlled by the company.

5
 Figure 1.3 Carbon emission scopes

 Scope 1 emissions include those from sources directly owned and controlled by
the organization, such as vehicles owned by the company.
 Scope 2 emissions are generated indirectly when the company purchases and uses
energy - For example, emissions from producing the electricity used in a
company's buildings.
 Scope 3 emissions cover all other indirect emissions that are a consequence of the
company's actions but not resulting from owned/controlled assets, including
emissions from supply chain activities like purchasing from suppliers as well as
product use and disposal by consumers/other entities down the value chain. Scope
3 encompasses all emission sources not covered under scopes 1 and 2.

6
1.3 CURRENT STATE OF POLLUTION

1.3.1 Black carbon emission in Ho Chi Minh

According to information from the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Ho

Chi Minh City is currently one of the localities with the largest greenhouse gas emissions
in Vietnam with 38.5 million tons of CO2, accounting for about 16% of national
emissions, of which emissions from transportation activities account for up to 45%.

Figure 1.4 Black carbon emission in Ho Chi Minh City

Statistics from the Department of Transport of Ho Chi Minh City shows that as of June
2020, the city was managing nearly 8.5 million vehicles on roads, of which motorcycles
accounted for nearly 7.8 million vehicles or over 95% of the total. It is forecasted that in
2020, the number of motorcycles will continue to increase to 9 million, most of which
use carbon-based fuels containing carbon monoxide that emit toxic gasses, seriously
impacting human health.

The results of air quality monitoring by the Department of Natural Resources and
Environment of Ho Chi Minh City also showed that by the end of 2020, transportation
vehicles in the city, especially motorcycles, will emit nearly 17 million tons of toxic
gasses including HC (hydrocarbon), CO (carbon monoxide) and NOx (nitrogen oxide).

According to the Department of Natural Resources and Environment, with this

development scenario, if there are no mitigation actions taken, by 2030 transportation

7
emissions in Ho Chi Minh City will increase about 2.6 times compared to current levels,
equivalent to over 44 million tons.

1.3.2 Black carbon emission in Ha Noi

According to data, the population of Hanoi in 2019 was approximately 8.05 million.
Main modes of transport in the city include motorbikes, cars, buses and taxis. As of early
that year, there were reported to be over 5.7 million motorbikes, 740,000 personal
vehicles and 1,500 public buses.

Prior research has indicated that motorized transportation is a primary source of black
carbon emissions locally. Studies also suggest that those utilizing roadways may be at
elevated risk of exposure to black carbon pollutants.

Figure 1.5 Black carbon footprint in Ha Noi

For example, one 2011 study published in the journal Atmospheric Environment
estimated that while traffic accounts for just 6% of daily time on average, it can account
for up to 21% of total individual black carbon exposure levels. Concentrations of black
carbon inside vehicles have also been found to typically surpass levels present within
personal residences by two to five times.

8
 Figure 1.6 High black carbon exposure for motorcyclists comparing to bus passengers

The results presented show that in all measured conditions, motorcyclists were exposed
to black carbon concentrations approximately 3 times higher than bus passengers. On
average, motorcyclists were exposed to 29.4 μg/m3 of black carbon along their routes,
compared to 10.1 μg/m3 for bus passengers. Measurements of taxi passengers found
average exposures of 11.7 μg/m3 with air conditioning and closed windows, increasing
to 18.1 μg/m3 when windows were open.

For comparison, the World Health Organization considers black carbon concentrations
below 20 μg/m3 to be safe for human health. Average concentrations in homes and
residential areas around Hanoi were 3.7 and 6.3 μg/m3 respectively.

The study authors noted black carbon levels depended on traffic density along routes.
Generally, exposure risk was lower during off-peak times or weekends, and highest
during weekday rush hours.

9
Motorcyclists during weekday rush hours faced the greatest exposure risk, potentially
inhaling average concentrations as high as 39 μg/m3.

Figure 1.7 Different exposure rate between traffic participants

To better understand the risk of black carbon (BC) exposure during commutes using
different transportation methods in Hanoi, average inhalation doses per hour for
commuters of each mode were calculated (Fig. 1.7). Drivers typically receive higher
doses than passengers in the same vehicle due to varying inhalation rates. The
calculations suggest motorcyclists are highly exposed to BC during travel, followed by
drivers and passengers with open windows in private vehicles. Commuters on buses and
in vehicles with closed windows experienced less exposure, with doses closer to
pedestrians walking roadside. The doses help compare relative risks of BC exposure
between various modes of transportation in the city.

CHAPTER 2 THE MANY HARMFUL EFFECTS OF

BLACK CARBON

Due to its exceptional light-absorbing properties, black carbon has a substantial warming
effect on the atmosphere, exacerbating the heating of the air and surfaces in areas where
it accumulates. This can result in significant alterations to weather patterns and

10
ecosystem cycles in these regions. Despite its relatively short atmospheric lifespan of
only days to weeks, black carbon has far-reaching direct and indirect consequences on
climate, snow and ice coverage, agricultural productivity, and human health. These
impacts highlight the urgent need to address the sources and effects of black carbon
pollution to mitigate its detrimental effects on the environment and public well-being.

PM2.5 aerosol emissions including black carbon (BC) component are associated with a
range of deleterious human health effects, including adverse respiratory and
cardiovascular effects leading to morbidity and premature mortality.

2.1 ON ENVIRONMENT

Black carbon plays a significant role in global climate change due to its exceptional
ability to absorb light and generate heat in its vicinity. However, the impact of black
carbon varies widely across different regions and time periods leading to uneven effects
on a global scale.

2.1.1 Climate

While suspended in the atmosphere, black carbon contributes to warming by

transforming incoming solar radiation into heat, analogous to how asphalt surfaces create
heat islands in urban areas. Furthermore, black carbon influences the formation of clouds
and exerts influence on regional weather patterns and precipitation. Upon deposition onto
ice and snow, black carbon particles diminish the surface albedo, which refers to the
surface's ability to reflect sunlight, and consequently raise the temperature of the surface.
This phenomenon is believed to have contributed to a 0.04°C increase in global
temperatures since 1750. The Arctic and glaciated areas such as the Himalayas are
particularly susceptible to melting as a result of this process. The intricate interplay of
black carbon with solar radiation, cloud formation, and surface heating underscores its
multifaceted impact on the Earth's climate system. It is crucial to address the sources of
black carbon emissions and implement measures to mitigate its effects, particularly in
vulnerable regions, in order to curb its contribution to global warming and preserve the
stability of our planet's ecosystems.

11
When we consider the impact of black carbon on the environment, it's important to
examine its real-world implications and the ways in which it affects our daily lives. The
presence of black carbon in the atmosphere has tangible consequences for air quality,
public health, and regional climate patterns.

In urban areas, the accumulation of black carbon from vehicle emissions and industrial
activities contributes to poor air quality, leading to respiratory issues and other health
concerns for residents. This is a reality that many individuals and communities face on a
daily basis, especially in densely populated cities where pollution levels are often high.

Figure 2.8 Densely cities in Mumbai (India)

The deposition of black carbon on snow and ice surfaces also has real-world
implications, particularly in polar and mountainous regions. The accelerated melting of
glaciers and sea ice due to black carbon contributes to rising sea levels, posing
significant challenges for coastal communities and ecosystems around the world.

12
 Figure 2.9 Melting of Glaciers

Understanding the real-life impact of black carbon underscores the urgency of addressing
this environmental issue. By implementing policies to reduce emissions and promoting
cleaner technologies, we can work towards mitigating the effects of black carbon and
improving the quality of life for communities globally.In polar regions, such as the
Arctic, black carbon is transported from various sources, including industrial activities,
vehicular emissions, and biomass burning, and is deposited on the snow and ice surfaces.
The dark particles of black carbon absorb more solar radiation compared to the bright,
highly reflective snow and ice, causing the surface to heat up more rapidly. This leads to
a positive feedback loop, where the increased absorption of solar radiation further
accelerates the melting of the snow and ice, exposing darker land or ocean surfaces,
which in turn absorb even more radiation, leading to even faster melting.
The accelerated melting of glaciers and sea ice in the Arctic and other high-latitude
regions has far-reaching consequences. As these vast frozen reservoirs of water melt,
they contribute to a rise in global sea levels, threatening coastal communities around the
world. Low-lying islands, deltas, and coastal cities are particularly vulnerable to the
impacts of sea level rise, which can lead to increased coastal flooding, erosion, and
saltwater intrusion into freshwater sources. Beyond the immediate threat to coastal areas,
the melting of glaciers and sea ice also has significant implications for ecosystems and
biodiversity. Many Arctic and alpine species, such as polar bears, seals, and migratory
13
birds, rely on the presence of sea ice and glaciers for their survival. As these habitats
disappear, these species face increased challenges in finding food, breeding, and adapting
to the changing environment. The melting of glaciers can have significant impacts on the
availability and quality of freshwater resources. Glaciers serve as natural reservoirs,
storing water and releasing it gradually during the warmer months, providing a steady
supply of water for communities, agriculture, and industries. As glaciers recede, this
reliable water source may become less predictable, leading to water scarcity and tensions
over water resources. To address the challenges posed by the deposition of black carbon
on snow and ice surfaces, a multifaceted approach is required. This includes reducing
emissions from various sources, such as improving fuel efficiency in transportation,
transitioning to renewable energy, and implementing stricter regulations on industrial
activities and biomass burning. Additionally, investing in research to better understand
the dynamics of black carbon deposition and its impacts on cryospheric systems can
inform more targeted and effective mitigation strategies. Ultimately, the accelerated
melting of glaciers and sea ice due to black carbon deposition is a global issue that
requires coordinated efforts from policymakers, industries, and communities to mitigate
its far-reaching consequences for coastal regions, ecosystems, and water resources
worldwide.

2.1.2 Agriculture

The presence of black carbon in the air can have significant impacts on agricultural
activities. Firstly, black carbon can reduce crop productivity through direct effects on the
photosynthesis process. Black carbon can absorb and reflect a portion of the incoming
solar radiation, reducing the amount of radiation reaching the crops. This leads to a
decrease in the energy available for photosynthesis, thereby limiting the growth and
productivity of the crops. Moreover, black carbon also contributes to the increase in air
temperature, particularly in rural and agricultural areas. Higher temperatures can lead to
soil degradation, reducing soil fertility and crop yields. Meanwhile, climate changes such
as rising temperatures and droughts can also increase the risk of wildfires, further
increasing black carbon emissions and creating a negative feedback loop. Furthermore,
black carbon can also affect the quality of agricultural soil. When deposited on the

14
ground, black carbon can reduce soil fertility by impacting the beneficial soil
microorganisms, thereby affecting the nutrient availability for crops.
To mitigate the impact of black carbon on agriculture, solutions such as the adoption of
clean technologies in industrial activities, improving fuel efficiency in engines, limiting
forest burning, and better managing other black carbon emission sources are needed.
Additionally, the implementation of sustainable farming practices, such as agroforestry,
can also help to reduce the impacts of black carbon on agriculture.

Figure 2.10 Temperature impact crop yields

2.2 ON HEALTH

Studies indicate that fine particles pose a serious public health problem. Due to their
small size, fine particles (PM2.5) can penetrate deep into the lungs. Even the largest fine
particle is about 30 times smaller than the diameter of the average human hair. The size
of particles is directly linked to their potential for causing health problems. Small
particles less than 10 micrometers in diameter pose the greatest problems, because they
can get deep into lungs, and some may even get into the bloodstream.

15
 Picture: Particulate Matter (PM) Basics
Exposures to fine particles (PM2.5), including black carbon, can cause premature death
and harmful effects on the cardiovascular system (the heart, blood, and blood vessels).
One of the direct impacts of PM2.5 is the ability to cause skin allergic reactions. When
the fine dust particles suspended in the air come into contact with the skin, they can
accumulate and affect the skin cells. This can lead to symptoms such as itching, burning,
rashes, and skin irritation. For people with sensitive skin or skin conditions like eczema,
exposure to fine dust can exacerbate the symptoms, causing discomfort and unease.
Furthermore, PM2.5 can also cause respiratory problems. Due to their small size, these
dust particles can penetrate deep into the lungs and cause inflammation. This leads to
symptoms such as nasal congestion, runny nose, sore throat, and other ear, nose, and
throat issues. Individuals with respiratory diseases like asthma or chronic bronchitis are
even more severely affected when exposed to fine dust. Even more concerningly, fine
dust particles can also contain harmful bacteria, viruses, and chemical pollutants. When
these agents are inhaled into the body, they can cause respiratory infections, affect the
immune system, and lead to serious complications. This is particularly dangerous for
people with weakened immune systems or vulnerable populations such as children and
the elderly. To mitigate the negative impacts of PM2.5 on health, comprehensive
solutions are needed, such as raising community awareness, strengthening air quality
monitoring and control, and implementing technical measures to reduce emission
sources. Wearing masks properly when going out in polluted environments is also an
effective individual protection measure. It will take the collective effort of the

16
community and authorities to address the fine dust pollution issue and safeguard the
health of human beings.

Picture: Health effects of PM2.5

Fine dust PM2.5 enters the body through breathing. Then, they follow the airway, adhere
to and accumulate on the surface of the lungs. When this amount of dust accumulates
over time, it can have a significant impact on human lungs. In addition, fine dust PM2.5
destroys and accelerates the process of Apoptosis - one of the most important
pathological basics of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, when inhaling a large amount
of fine dust PM2.5, it can increase the risk of death in people with heart disease. Studies
on the human brain have shown that when we are exposed to fine dust PM2.5, they can
gradually move into the brain, from there they can penetrate and increase the rate of
neurodegenerative diseases in us. Specifically, fine dust PM2.5 containing metals has

17
been studied by scientists as a cause of cancer and even more terrifying - genetic
mutations in humans.

Picture: Genetic mutations in humans caused by inhaling PM2.5 dust containing metals

Picture: Conceptual Diagram of the Epidemiologic Evidence for the Association of BC

with the Continuum of Cardiovascular Effect
18
Health effects associated with BC are consistent with those associated with PM2.5.

 Includes respiratory and cardiovascular effects and premature death also includes
indoor smoke exposures (e.g.,cookstoves in developing countries). Emissions and
ambient concentrations of BC and other direct PM2.5 are often highest in urban
areas, where large numbers of people live.

 The 2010 Global Burden of Disease (GBD) analysis found that outdoor air
pollution in the form of PM2.5 is a much more significant public health risk than
previously known - contributing annually to over 3 million premature deaths
worldwide and over 74 million years of healthy life lost. It now ranks among the
top global health risk burdens. The GBD places outdoor air pollution among the
top10 risks worldwide.

Main causes PM 2.5

 Transportation: Individual vehicles also generate a certain amount of exhaust

emissions, with sand and dust being stirred up during movement, eroding the road
surface and releasing fine dust into the air, thereby increasing air pollution.

 Domestic activities: The use of charcoal stoves, wood stoves, and oil for cooking
also generates a certain amount of exhaust emissions, increasing the fine dust in
the air.

 Industrial production: Factories, production facilities, and industrial zones often

release a large amount of exhaust into the environment and air, thus increasing the
amount of fine dust in the air.

 Waste: Domestic and industrial waste generates bacteria and fine dust, thereby
affecting the flow of clean air that you breathe every day.

 Construction: The process of building apartments, high-rises, bridges, and roads is

also a cause of fine dust in the environment, significantly impacting air quality.

 Agriculture: The transportation and burning of straw generate toxic exhaust,

affecting the flow of clean air in the environment.

19
  Wildfires: Large-scale wildfires around the world are mostly caused by sudden
climate change. Sudden climate change causes the dispersion of a large amount of
dust into the environment, leading to severe air pollution.

2.2.1 Ho Chi Minh

As the largest and most developed city in the country, Ho Chi Minh City is currently
suffering from air pollution, with air quality index levels exceeding the red warning level
in many areas, especially towards the end of the year. Over the past period, Ho Chi Minh
City and the relevant units have implemented many solutions to provide early warnings
and reduce air pollution in the city, but the desired results have not been achieved yet.
According to the monitoring results of the Ho Chi Minh City Department of Natural
Resources and Environment at the end of December 2023, suspended particulate matter
(TSP) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) exceeded the standards.These figures
are monitored daily, with 19.4% of TSP data exceeding the Vietnamese standards. At the
same time, 4.5% of the PM10 and PM2.5 concentration data did not meet the standards.
According to the monitoring results of the Ho Chi Minh City Department of Natural
Resources and Environment at the end of December 2023, suspended particulate matter
and fine particulate matter exceeded the standards. These figures are monitored daily,
with 19.4% of TSP data exceeding the Vietnamese standards. At the same time, 4.5% of
the PM10 and PM2.5 concentration data did not meet the standards.

Picture: Suspended particulate matter (TSP) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10)
in Ho Chi Minh City

20
According to IQAIR, the AQI index in Ho Chi Minh City indicates that the city's fine
particulate matter (PM2.5) levels are currently 4.2 times higher than the allowable
standard set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Statistics show that Ho Chi Minh
City has nearly 1,400 people dying each year due to air pollutants.
The main reason is the densely populated nature of Ho Chi Minh City. The rapid increase
in the number of residents has led to a rise in household waste, causing environmental
pollution. At the same time, the use of fossil fuels for cooking and daily activities also
generates a large amount of emissions, including CO2, SO2, and volatile organic
compounds, contributing to air pollution. This is an issue that needs to be addressed to
protect the environment and community health.One of the factors affecting air quality in
Ho Chi Minh City is the problem of congested traffic. The increasing number of
motorcycles and cars has generated a large volume of emissions, contributing to the
deterioration of air quality. Particularly, the lack of a well-developed public
transportation system has led to people's heavy dependence on private vehicles. This not
only causes traffic congestion but also increases emissions, leading to air pollution.
Finding effective solutions to control and reduce air pollution from transportation is an
urgent task.

Picture: Traffic congestion affect HCM air quality

Particularly, the lack of a well-developed public transportation system has led to people's
heavy dependence on private vehicles. This not only causes traffic congestion but also
21
increases emissions, leading to air pollution. Finding effective solutions to control and
reduce air pollution from transportation is an urgent task.

Picture: Factories, Industrial plants in HCM

Air pollution in Ho Chi Minh City is becoming increasingly severe, with a large part of
the cause coming from the emissions of factories and industrial plants. Uncontrolled
production activities have created a large amount of CO2, SO2, and volatile organic
compounds being released into the environment.

2.2.2 Ha Noi

Data from monitoring stations shows that PM2.5 fine particulate matter in Hanoi has
been higher in the following year compared to the previous year, and harmful substances
for the respiratory system have shown signs of localized pollution. The Center for
Environmental Monitoring and Modeling Research (Vietnam National University, Hanoi
University of Science) reported that Hanoi is polluted with PM2.5 (diameter less than 2.5
microns) and PM10 (less than 10 microns) fine particulate matter. NO2 and O3 - irritants
that are harmful to the respiratory system, have shown signs of localized pollution.The
evidence is that the PM2.5 data shows the rate of days with good air quality in 2021 was
more than 9.6%, the number of poor and bad days was 27.6%; in 2022 it was more than
5% and 47% respectively. The average annual concentration of PM2.5 fine particulate
matter in the city's air during the 2018-2020 period exceeded the national technical
regulation (25 μg/m3) by nearly twice. The number of days in 2019 with poor and bad

22
air quality indices accounted for more than 30%, with some days reaching very poor air
quality levels.

Picture: Suspended particulate matter (TSP) and fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10)
in Ha Noi
Regarding the sources of pollution, environmental experts cite 5 main sources: road
transportation (including road dust), industry, domestic activities, biomass burning, and
agriculture. In addition, pollution also comes from sources outside Hanoi. Among these,
road transportation is the largest source of PM2.5 emissions, accounting for 50-70%,
followed by industrial production sources. Sources from agricultural production and
domestic activities cause less pollution. The state of the environment report states that
the city faces the problem of air pollution, mainly due to PM2.5 dust, affecting
community health and causing economic losses. On average, Hanoi has more than 1,000
additional hospitalizations per year due to cardiovascular disease and nearly 3,000
hospitalizations due to respiratory disease, equivalent to 1.2% and 2.4% of the total
hospitalizations, respectively.

23
 Picture: 5 emission sources causing air pollution in Hanoi city. (Source: Hanoi
Department of Natural Resources and Environment)
According to statistics, Hanoi's population is nearly 9 million, with the urban population
accounting for more than 40%. The entire city has 17 industrial parks, about 1,300 craft
villages, more than 7 million motorcycles and more than 600,000 cars.

2.2.3 Solution (policy, spread awareness, education)

2.2.3.1 Promote Cleaner Transportation to Reduce and Prevent Emissions

 Encourage the use of electric vehicles and clean means of transportation

Electric vehicles do not produce harmful emissions like vehicles powered by internal
combustion engines, helping to reduce CO2 and other pollutants. In addition, using clean
energy such as electricity from renewable sources also helps reduce black carbon from
fossil fuel use. For example, Xanh SM taxi are becoming the trend for encouraging
people to use electric vehicles and there are many electrical stations established with aim
at serving electric vehicles.

24
  Encourage the use of public transportation.

When many people use public vehicles, emissions from transportation will be
significantly reduced. This can help reduce the amount of black carbon and other toxic
substances emitted from personal vehicles, contributing to improving air quality and the
overall living environment. Therefore, there are more buses day by day.

 Implement intelligent traffic management.

Implementing smart traffic management can reduce black carbon by optimizing traffic
flows, reducing congestion and transport time, which reduce vehicle emissions and
improve air quality. Particularly, using smart traffic light systems to adjust vehicle flow,
applying information technology to provide information about traffic conditions and
routes to avoid congestion, as well as promoting use of public and air transportation to
reduce emissions from personal vehicles.

2.2.3.2 Enact Air Quality Policies and Establish a Monitoring System

 Encourage the use of clean and renewable energy.

Solar energy is created from using sunlight to generate electricity. Using solar energy
helps reduce dependence on fossil energy sources such as coal and oil, thereby reducing
the amount of black carbon released into the air. This can include using a water heater or
solar powered lights.

Wind energy is generated from using wind blades to generate electricity. For example,
on farms or in rural areas, wind-powered water pumping can be used to provide water for
irrigation or to provide drinking water for the home. These pumps use wind to move
impellers and generate mechanical energy to pump water from an underground water
source to the surface.

Hydroelectric energy is generated from using flowing water to operate turbines and
generate electricity. Hydroelectric energy can be used to provide electricity to
households.

25
However, biomass energy from plants, straw and other plant waste can be processed and
burned, creating black carbon. Besides, processes such as pyrolysis or pyrolysis
technology can be used to convert biomass into carbon black. In addition, black carbon
can also be produced from Biogas energy when organic matter decomposes in an
oxygen-deficient environment, when biogas combustion is incomplete, it still produces
black carbon. Although this process does not produce carbon black directly, carbon black
can be produced as a byproduct. Although both biomass and biogas energies are
renewable energy.

 Set air quality standards.

The government needs to set specific and clear air quality standards to limit pollution
levels in the form of legal regulations and enforce compliance by industries and
individuals.

 Carry out regular inspection and monitoring.

Setting up a network of sensors and automatic monitoring systems to continuously

monitor air quality at different points in the city. At the same time, applying information
technology to automate the process of data collection and information analysis will help
provide accurate and timely information, which help to shape measures to effectively
reduce black carbon.

2.2.3.3 Raise awareness of residents about the effects of Black Carbon

 Incorporate education into the curriculum.

The Ministry of Education needs to include information and harmful effects as well as
solutions in science, nature, and geography subjects to improve students' understanding
of black carbon. Besides, teachers can organize a presentation about carbon so that
students have the opportunity to learn and research more about black carbon.

 Organize practical activities

26
Organize youth volunteer activities with tree planting and waste cleanup activities.
Besides, organize exchange programs and share experiences on how to reduce carbon in
work and daily life.

 Use diverse media for propaganda.

We can use social networks (Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, YouTube) to share messages,
images, and videos about ways to reduce black carbon in daily life. Additionally,
creating short, clear, engaging video clips to share on video platforms like Tiktok is
extremely effective in propaganda. Finally, organizing communication campaigns in the
press, radio, and television to reach many different audiences is extremely important for
propaganda.

 Organize training sessions and community seminars.

Coordinate with local authorities and social organizations with the participation of
speakers or experts to discuss issues related to black carbon as well as exchange and
discuss creative and effective solutions. fruit. Besides, it is necessary to mobilize the
participation of businesses and scientists to increase attraction to participants.

CHAPTER 3 CONCLUSION AND PROPOSAL

3.1 Conclusion
The significant number of automobiles and motorbikes in Vietnam contributes
significantly to air pollution, making the transportation sector a primary source of
emissions. Black carbon, a major component of fine particulate matter, plays a
significant role in air pollution, climate change, and adverse health effects. Exposure to
black carbon has been linked to respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular diseases, and
increased mortality rates. To combat air pollution and reduce black carbon emissions, it
is crucial to implement measures that target key sectors such as cement production, coal-
fired power plants, and road transportation. Developing effective accounting methods

27
and monitoring systems for black carbon emissions can contribute to the overall effort of
mitigating climate change and improving air quality in Vietnam.
Furthermore, addressing urbanization's impact on air quality and promoting sustainable
urban development practices is essential. Implementing stricter emission standards,
encouraging the use of clean energy sources, and promoting public awareness about the
harmful effects of air pollution are vital steps towards creating a healthier and more
sustainable environment for all citizens.
In conclusion, the pressing issue of air pollution in Vietnam, exacerbated by black
carbon emissions, requires immediate attention. By implementing comprehensive
strategies that target pollution sources, enhance monitoring systems, and promote
sustainable urban development, Vietnam can mitigate the adverse effects of air pollution,
protect public health, and contribute to global efforts in combating climate change.
3.2 Proposal
To address the issue of black carbon emissions and combat air pollution, several key
measures can be implemented. The following proposals aim to promote cleaner
transportation and enact air quality policies while establishing an effective monitoring
system:

Promote Cleaner Transportation to Reduce and Prevent Emissions:

Encourage the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs): Provide incentives and subsidies to
increase the affordability and accessibility of EVs. Establish charging infrastructure
networks throughout major cities to support widespread EV adoption
Improve public transportation systems: Enhance the efficiency and reliability of buses,
trams, and trains. Expand public transportation networks and promote their usage
through affordable fares and improved services.. Develop non-motorized transportation
options: Enhance infrastructure for walking and cycling, including dedicated lanes, bike-
sharing programs, and pedestrian-friendly spaces. Promote the use of non-motorized
transportation for short-distance travel.
Enact Air Quality Policies and Establish a Monitoring System:

28
Set stricter emission standards: Implement and enforce emission standards for vehicles,
industrial activities, and power plants to limit black carbon emissions. Regularly update
these standards to align with international best practices.
Implement vehicle inspection and maintenance programs: Establish mandatory vehicle
inspection programs to ensure proper maintenance and control of emissions from
vehicles. Penalize non-compliant vehicles to incentivize regular maintenance and repairs.
Encourage the use of cleaner fuels: Promote the transition to cleaner fuels, such as low-
sulfur diesel and biofuels, to reduce black carbon emissions. Provide subsidies or tax
incentives to encourage the adoption of cleaner fuel options.
Strengthen enforcement and penalties: Strictly enforce air quality regulations and impose
penalties for non-compliance. Increase public awareness about the importance of
adhering to air quality policies and the consequences of violating them.
Establish a comprehensive air quality monitoring system: Invest in advanced monitoring
technology to continuously measure air quality parameters, including black carbon
levels. Make the collected data publicly accessible to raise awareness and facilitate
evidence-based decision-making.

Enhance International Cooperation and Partnerships:

Collaborate with international organizations: Seek partnerships and technical assistance
from international organizations, such as the United Nations Environment Program
(UNEP) and World Health Organization (WHO), to access expertise, share best
practices, and develop tailored solutions.
Foster regional cooperation: Engage in regional collaborations with neighboring
countries to address transboundary air pollution issues. Jointly develop strategies and
initiatives to reduce black carbon emissions and improve air quality in the region.
Share knowledge and experiences: Establish platforms for knowledge exchange and
experience sharing among cities and countries facing similar air pollution challenges.
Learn from successful case studies and adapt effective measures to local contexts.
By implementing these proposals, Vietnam can make significant progress in reducing
black carbon emissions, improving air quality, and protecting public health. The
combined efforts of promoting cleaner transportation, enacting air quality policies,

29
establishing a robust monitoring system, and engaging in international cooperation will
contribute to a sustainable and healthier future for all citizens.

30
REFERENCES
1. Environment techonline (2022), What Is Black Carbon? - Sources, Impacts &
Solutions, retrieved from
https://www.envirotech-online.com/news/air-monitoring/6/breaking-news/what-is-black-
carbon-sources-impacts-solutions/58509
2. Drill Hill (2022), Air Quality Measurements Series: Black Carbon, retrieved from
https://www.clarity.io/blog/air-quality-measurements-series-black-carbon
3. Imhen (2022), Mối liên hệ chặt chẽ giữa Carbon đen với SLCP, PM 2.5, retrieved
from https://imh.ac.vn/moi-lien-he-chat-che-giua-cacbon-den-voi-slcp-pm2-5/
4. Nationalgrid (2022), What are scope 1,2 and 3 carbon emission, retrieved from
https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/energy-explained/what-are-scope-1-2-3-carbon-
emissions
5. Nationalgrid (2022),What is carbon sequestration, retrieved from
https://www.nationalgrid.com/stories/energy-explained/what-carbon-sequestration
6. Giadinhnet (2020), Nghiên cứu: Người đi xe máy ở Hà Nội đang bị phơi nhiễm
carbon đen gấp 3 lần người đi xe bus, retrieved from
https://baoquangnam.vn/nghien-cuu-nguoi-di-xe-may-o-ha-noi-dang-bi-phoi-nhiem-
carbon-den-gap-3-lan-nguoi-di-xe-bus-3073727.html
7. Lesk, C., Anderson, W., Rigden, A. et al. Compound heat and moisture extreme
impacts on global crop yields under climate change. Nat Rev Earth Environ 3,
872–889 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00368-8
8. Paige Colley (2022), Improving predictions of sea level rise for the next century,
retrieved from https://news.mit.edu/2022/mit-climate-grand-challenges-ice-sheets-sea-
level-prediction-0330
9. Thao My (2022), Bụi mịn PM2.5 là gì? Những tác hại mà chúng mang lại, retrived from
https://nhathuoclongchau.com.vn/bai-viet/bui-min-pm-25-la-gi-nhung-tac-hai-ma-chung-
mang-lai-61310.html
10. IQAir (2020), Carbon đen, retrieved from https://www.iqair.com/vi/newsroom/black-
carbon
11. Yusuf Jameel, Paul C. West, and Daniel Jasper (2023), Reducing black carbon: A triple
win for climate, health, and well-being, retrieved from

1
 https://drawdown.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/Jameel-etal-2023-Reducing-black-
carbon_A-triple-win-for-climate-health-and-well-being_Project-Drawdown_0.pdf
12. Climate and Clean air (2020), BLACK CARBON, retrieved from
https://www.ccacoalition.org/short-lived-climate-pollutants/black-carbon
13. Environmental Science: Atmosphere (2022), Effectiveness of wearing face masks
against traffic particles on the streets of Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam, retrieved
from https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2022/ea/d2ea00071g

2
3
4