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Chem 16.1 Lab Manual
Chem 16.1 Lab Manual
Chem 16.1 Lab Manual
GENERAL CHEMISTRY I
LABORATORY MANUAL
2017 EDITION
INSTITUTE OF CHEMISTRY
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City 1101
General Chemistry Group
1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The 2017 edition of the General Chemistry I Laboratory Manual was developed and finalized through the
collective efforts of the General Chemistry academic group of the Institute of Chemistry, University of the
Philippines, Diliman (IC-UPD). The revised experiments in this laboratory manual reflect the group’s increasing
awareness and commitment to improve the management, storage, and disposal of chemical wastes generated by
our teaching laboratories without drastically diminishing the academic content and quality of experiments. In fact,
this awareness furthers the aims of general chemistry as a major endeavor in the life sciences.
Thus, IC-UPD as a DENR-registered chemical waste generator complies with the current Philippine laws on
Hazardous Waste Management. Aside from proper waste management, waste minimization is also being done by
doing the experiments in microscale amounts.
The IC-UPD acknowledges the efforts of the following instructors and lecturers who contributed in editing and
revising this General Chemistry I Laboratory Manual - Mr. Jose Intano Jr., Ms. Venus Pondevida, Mr. Ralph John
Ugalino, Mr. Kyle Adrianne Benito, Ms. Lizette Mella, Ms. Michelle Ang, Mr. Jacob Noel Inguito, and Ms. Ma.
Ericka Corazon Itang, Mr. Timothy John Talusan, Mr. Moises Jerome Garrero, Ms. Mae Criste Fajiculay, Mr.
Kenee Kaiser Custodio, Dr. Babeh Dimayacyac-Esleta, and Dr. Allan Yago.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
GENERAL POLICIES
Duties of Monitors
Each student will be assigned experiment date(s) when (s)he will be the “Monitor of the Day”. The following are
the duties of the monitors:
1. Arrange the reagents for the day’s experiment properly in a designated area.
2. Distribute all floating equipment.
3. Ensure that at the end of the lab period,
a. all electrical equipment are turned off and unplugged (light, fan, fumehood).
b. all reagent bottles are capped.
c. all iron stands are returned to their proper places.
d. all tabletops are clean and dry, and sinks are free of insoluble waste.
e. all lockers are secured.
Laboratory Notebook
1. All information written in this notebook is to be rendered in ink (i.e., pencils are not allowed). Corrections
may be made by enclosing erroneous information in parenthesis and drawing a straight line across it, then
writing the correct information adjacent to the cancelled one. Do not use correction fluid, eraser, or white
tape.
2. Each leaf is to be page numbered on the upper right hand corner of each right hand page. Left hand pages are
neither to be numbered nor written upon.
3. The first three pages of the notebook will serve as the table of contents chronicling the experiment performed
each day. Follow the format given. Fill up the experiment number, title, and date performed each time you
perform an experiment. There should be blank spaces between main entries.
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pre-lab Report
1. The experimental procedure for the first experiment is written on the fourth page according to the format
specified below.
2. Each succeeding experimental procedure must be written on a new page.
3. This is accomplished individually and presented to the instructor for checking before the start of the
designated experiment.
Date Performed: 1
Experiment No. 1
Purification of Crude Benzoic Acid by Recrystallization and Sublimation
I. Objectives:
To carry out safely and efficiently the laboratory experiments for this General Chemistry course, you need to
prepare a work plan before the actual experiment. This work plan will require you to familiarize the objectives,
as well as the instructions and procedures of the experiment to be carried out. You must also know what safety
precautions to take when doing an experiment. Should you have any questions regarding experiment procedures,
consult your laboratory instructor.
To ensure your personal safety in the laboratory, wear the prescribed personnel protective equipment.
1. Laboratory safety goggles must be worn at all times anywhere in the laboratory whenever experiments are
being performed. DO NOT WEAR CONTACT LENSES! Corrosive fumes and chemicals could get
underneath your contact lenses and into your eyes. Wearing contact lenses would prevent effective breathing
and flushing of the eyes in case of an accident.
2. Closed shoes should always be worn in the laboratory as protection against possible chemical spills and
broken glass.
3. The prescribed laboratory gowns must be worn at all times when experiments are being performed.
4. Protective face mask is recommended when handling chemicals in the form of powder or in the presence of
chemical fumes.
As an additional safety measure, long hair and loose clothing should be properly secured to avoid interference in
your work.
To help prevent laboratory accidents, you should observe the following safety rules:
1. WEAR THE PRESCRIBED PPE. No student is allowed to enter the laboratory and carry out experiments
without donning the complete PPE (safety goggles, laboratory gown, closed shoes, face mask, as needed).
Also, avoid wearing jewelry in the laboratory.
2. KEEP FOOD, DRINKS, AND GUM OUT OF THE LABORATORY. Most chemicals in the laboratory
are poisonous. Eating, drinking, and chewing gum in the laboratory are strictly prohibited.
3. NO SMOKING IN THE LABORATORY. Smoking is strictly prohibited, as some of the laboratory
chemicals are flammable. Flammable chemicals like organic solvents must only be used under the fume hood.
4. NEVER WORK ALONE. Perform experiments only during the scheduled laboratory period and only under
the supervision of your laboratory instructor.
Cleanliness in the laboratory is a must. Arrange all the materials needed for the experiment on your tabletop so
you can perform the experiment smoothly. During experimentation, the following should be observed:
Safety as well as environmental considerations dictates that students should be conscious of proper waste disposal.
Always throw laboratory wastes in their respective waste containers.
1. INORGANIC WASTES. Dispose acids and bases into acid waste container and base waste container,
respectively, to prevent clogging of sinks or premature corrosion of pipes. Excess and waste potassium
permanganate (KMnO4) should also be thrown into inorganic waste containers since this is a powerful
oxidant that may corrode sink pipes.
2. ORGANIC WASTES. Dispose organic wastes into halogenated organic waste containers or non-halogenated
organic waste container.
3. SOLID WASTES. All solids used in experiment procedures (filtration, chromatography, etc.) should be
disposed into contaminated solid waste containers. Other solid wastes should be disposed into the trash bin
available inside the laboratory.
4. BROKEN GLASSWARE. All broken glassware including capillary tubes used in experimental procedures
such as melting point determination, chromatography, etc. should be disposed in broken glassware container.
Fire safety
Most chemicals used in the General Chemistry laboratory are non-flammable. However, there are solvents such
as ethanol, methanol, and acetone that are flammable. Hence, chemical fire can also occur. There is also a small
risk of electrical fire. If a fire should occur, the first thing to do is to remain calm. Call the attention of your
instructor and leave the laboratory. All laboratory rooms are equipped with a fire extinguisher. Other safety
precautions in case of a fire are given below.
1. Fires in small containers can be extinguished by inverting a small beaker or any other similar equipment over
the burning container. Alternatively, cover the burning container with soaking wet towels. Never use dry
towels.
2. Remove any flammable material such as reagent bottles with flammable chemical from the area of the fire.
3. In case of a person inhaling smoke or toxic fumes, transfer him/her to a well-ventilated area.
4. In case your clothing should catch on fire, use the safety shower.
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES
One of the aims of a general chemistry course is to teach and train students the proper laboratory working habits
and techniques. These common laboratory techniques are best learned from actual demonstration and constant
reminders. Laboratory work can become more systematic and efficient by following the procedures and safety
guidelines that can lead to successful experimentation. Unnecessary waste of time, effort, and reagents can be
avoided if experimental work is conducted using the following guidelines of laboratory procedures and
techniques.
REMINDER: Always wear prescribed personnel protective equipment (PPE) whenever working in the
laboratory.
A. Filtration
1. Prepare an ordinary filter paper by cutting a square piece of filter paper (adjusted to the size of the
funnel). Fold into half then into quarters. Cut or trim the filter paper for it to have a circular shape. Make
sure that the filter paper is well fitted in the funnel.
2. Open the folded, trimmed filter paper to form a cone, one layer thickness on one side, and three layers
thickness on the other.
3. Cut a small portion from the latter part of the fold. This is to allow continuous flow of air and filtrate.
4. Fit the filter paper into the funnel and moisten its side with water using a glass rod. The edge of the filter
paper must be at least ½ cm lower than the lip of the funnel. At no time must the filter paper extend
above the lip of the funnel.
5. When filtering, guide the liquid from the source beaker with a glass rod, letting the liquid flow by the
thicker side of the filter paper. The tip of the stem of the funnel must touch the sides of the receiving
vessel to avoid spattering and loss of liquid.
B. Precipitation
Precipitation may be used for either separation or identification of mixtures and substances.
1. For separation purposes, precipitation must be complete and the particles of the precipitate sufficiently
large for easy and efficient separation.
a. Add the reagent drop by drop, stirring the mixture thoroughly after each drop. Stop adding the
reagent when formation of the precipitate is no longer observed in the clear supernate.
b. If no precipitate is formed at once, scratch the inside wall of the container using a stirring rod for
about a minute then let the solution stand for a few minutes.
c. To make separation complete, add only a slight excess of the reagent since a large excess may
increase the solubility of the precipitate, or interfere with other tests.
d. Supersaturation, which may cause precipitation to be slow and incomplete, may be avoided by
stirring.
2. For identification purposes, complete precipitation is not necessary.
a. The solution to be tested and the reagent should be absolutely clear.
b. Add the reagent cautiously, and mix well with the solution.
c. Observe the color of the precipitate after it has settled.
Decant the supernate through the same filter paper. Wash the precipitate again using the same amount of wash
solution, mix thoroughly, and filter. Try to transfer as much precipitate as possible into the filter paper.
Take note that this is a regular filtration process, wherein there is separation of the supernate from the
precipitate and then the precipitate is collected into the filter paper (See figure C-1).
2. However, if the directions indicate that the supernate is to be decanted form the precipitate, this means
that the supernate is to be separated from the precipitate, with the precipitate remaining in the original
vessel. Thus, the supernate is transferred into a new vessel and separated from the precipitate. Wash the
precipitate as many times as possible, taking care not to transfer the precipitate into the filter paper (See
figure C-2).
Decant the supernate. Stir the solid to wash. Decant the wash liquid.
D. Titration
1. Preparation of the burettes
The acid burette has a glass stopcock while the base burette has a rubber tubing with a pinchcock. A burette with
a Teflon stopcock may be used for acid or base solutions.
a. Wash the burettes with detergent solution, rinse with tap water, and then rinse with distilled water.
b. Rinse the burette with the solution to be used. (See figure D-1)
c. Fill the burettes with the corresponding solutions.
2. Titration techniques
Deliver the solution drop by drop while continuously swirling (wrist movement) the solution. (See figure D-2)
2. The quantity of solids is measured with a top-loading balance. Use a watch glass in weighing solids and
not a piece of paper. When measurement does not have to be exact, a spatula may be used. A heaping
spatula-full contains 0.10 to 0.15 g of solid. A “pinch” is about the size of a mongo bean.
3. In filling a series of test tubes with the same volume of test solutions, there is no need to measure the
exact volume of each solution. Fill one test tube with the required volume the fill the other test tubes of
the same diameter to the same level.
There are several types of glassware that can be used for measuring liquids depending on how accurate the
measured volume should be. (See Figure F)
1. Beaker/Erlenmeyer flasks with graduations – measure out volumes accurately up to ± 10 mL.
2. Graduated cylinder – accurate to about ± 0.5 mL.
3. Burettes – accurate to about ± 0.01 mL.
4. Measuring pipettes – one of the most accurate glassware used to measure the desired liquid volume;
accurate to about ± 0.01 mL.
5. Transfer or delivery pipettes – used to transfer an accurately known volume of solution form one
container to another; accurate to ± 0.01 mL.
H. Addition of reagents
Keep the reagents pure and preserved against contamination. Any trace of impurity in a reagent may cause a number
of errors in the analysis of your results.
1. In getting reagents from reagent bottles with droppers (Pasteur pipettes), do not allow the tip of the
dropper to come in contact with anything outside the reagent bottle, such as the tabletop. Always hold
the dropper just above the mouth of the test tube or any other vessel and allow the reagent to fall into the
vessel. Do not let the dropper touch or rest against the inside of the vessel (See figure H-1).
2. Never dip your OWN dropper into the reagent bottle, and do not return any reagent to the bottle.
3. If the bottles are equipped with droppers, pour the amount needed into a separate test tube. Never pour
the reagent directly from the bottle to your reaction mixture. This is to avoid contamination of the reagent
with the volatile constituents from the reaction mixture.
4. In getting solid reagents, transfer out the solid from the reagent bottle to a clean dry watch glass and not
on a piece of paper. Add the reagent from the watch glass to your reaction mixture by means of a clean
dry spatula.
I. Mixing
When indicated, mix the reagent mixture thoroughly before drawing any conclusions. To avoid contaminating the
solution, do not cover the test tube with a stopper or finger while shaking.
1. If the solution is less than half of the test tube, it can be mixed by holding the test tube upright between
the palms of your hands and rolling it sufficiently for complete mixing.
2. If the test tube is more than half-full, pour the contents into a small beaker and stir. Stirring is usually
done with a glass rod, using a combination of up and down circulatory motions. Take care not to touch
the sides of the beaker, as you stir the solution.
J. Smelling vapors
Chemical substances should not be inhaled or smelled, unless otherwise instructed. If a substance/solution is to be
smelled, place the container of the substance/solution a few inches away from your face. Using your other
hand, waft the fumes towards you.
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
Organic compounds – carbon containing compounds (except carbonates, carbides, oxides of carbon, and
cyanides)
Inorganic compounds – all other compounds
A. Naming cations
1. Cations with one oxidation state – name of element + ion
Example: Na+ is named as sodium ion
B. Naming anions
1. Anions without oxygen use the suffix –ide
Example: Cl- is named as chloride
NOTE: The prefix mono is never used in the first element of a molecular compound and rarely used in the second
element of a molecular compound. For example, CO is names as carbon monoxide.
E. Naming acids
1. Binary acids are compounds in aqueous solution and make use of the prefix hydro- and the suffix –ic
acid.
Example: HCl(aq) is named as hydrochloric acid
2. Oxyacids are named by giving the name if the element + suffix (depending on the name of the oxoanion)
+ acid
▪ -ite of anion is replaced by –ous acid
▪ -ate of anion is replaced by –ic acid
Examples: H2SO3 is named as sulfurous acid
H2SO4 is named as sulfuric acid
▪ This also holds true for acids with elements of more than two oxoanions.
Examples: HClO is named as hypochlorous acid
HClO2 is named as chlorous acid
HClO3 is named as chloric acid
HClO4 is named as perchloric acid
Monoatomic Anions
Charge Formula Name
H- Hydride
F- Fluoride
-1 Cl- Chloride
Br- Bromide
I- Iodide
O2- Oxide
S2- Sulfide
-2
Se2- Selenide
Te2- Telluride
N3- Nitride
-3 P3- Phosphide
As3- Arsenide
-4 C4- Carbide
Polyatomic Anions
Charge Formula Name
CH3COO- Acetate
N3- Azide
OH- Hydroxide
CNO- Cyanate
CN- Cyanide
HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate or Bicarbonate
H2PO3- Dihydrogen phosphite
H2PO4- Dihydrogen phosphate
HS- Hydrogen sulfide
HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite or Bisulfite
HSO4- Hydrogen sulfate or Bisulfate
NO2- Nitrite
NO3- Nitrate
-1 MnO4- Permanganate
SCN- Thiocyanate
ClO- Hypochlorite
ClO2- Chlorite
ClO3- Chlorate
ClO4- Perchlorate
BrO- Hypobromite
BrO2- Bromite
BrO3- Bromate
BrO4- Perbromate
IO- Hypoiodite
IO2- Iodite
IO3- Iodate
IO4- Periodate
CO32- Carbonate
CrO42- Chromate
Cr2O72- Dichromate
HPO32- Hydrogen phosphite or biphosphite
HPO42- Hydrogen phosphate or biphosphate
-2
MnO42- Manganate
C2O42- Oxalate
O22- Peroxide
SO32- Sulfite
SO42- Sulfate
AsO33- Arsenite
AsO43- Arsenate
-3
PO33- Phosphite
PO43- Phosphate
Significant figures are defined as all of the digits that are “certain” together with the first unknown digit. It
indicates the probable uncertainty in an experimental measurement. It is also important in calculations; hence,
care must be taken to determine the appropriate number of significant figures in the final answer.
Exact numbers, on the other hand, are measurements that are made without the use of any measuring instrument.
It also includes defined numbers. Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures and do not affect
accuracy of the calculation or precision of the expression.
The following are the rules used to determine the number of significant figures:
1. Non-zero digits are always significant.
2. Zero is significant when it is between two non-zero digits.
3. Only the final zero or trailing zero in the decimal portion of a number is significant. Zeros between the
decimal point and the non-zero digits serve only as placeholders. They do not involve measurement decisions;
thus they are NOT significant.
Other examples:
3.0800 has 5 significant figures
0.00418 has 3 significant figures
7.09 x 10-5 has 3 significant figures
91,600 has 3 significant figures
0.3005 has 4 significant figures
In calculations, the following are the rules used to determine the number of significant figures in the final answer:
3. Multiple Operations
The number of significant figures in the final answer is determined by determining the number of significant figures
after each operation.
Example: (2.34 - 1.2) x 0.105 = 0.12
↓
1.1
4. Logarithm Problems
a. For the log of a number, the number of digits to the right of the decimal point in the answer equals the
number of significant digits in the original number.
Examples: log 453.2 = 2.6563
log 3.8 x 1027 = 27.58
b. For the antilog of a number, the number of significant digits in the answer equals the number of digits
to the right of the decimal in the original number.
Examples: antilog 1.709 = 51.2
antilog 38.5 = 3 x 1038
1. Determine what the last reported digit should be, according to the significant figure rules presented above.
2. Consider the digit to the right of the last reported digit.
3. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is less than 5, then leave the last reported digit unchanged
and discard all digits to the right.
Example: Round off 1.342 to 3 significant figures → 1.34
4. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is greater than 5 then increase the last reported digit by one
and discard all digits to its right.
Example: Round off 1.346 to 3 significant figures → 1.35
5. If the digit to the right of the last reported digit is exactly 5 then add one to the reported digit if the reported
digit is an odd number, and leave it unchanged if it is even. However, if it is not exactly 5, then add one to
the reported digit.
Examples: Round off 1.355 to 3 significant figures → 1.36
Round off 1.345 to 3 significant figures → 1.34
Round off 1.34501 to 3 significant figures → 1.35
Other examples:
The following numbers are rounded off to 3 significant figures:
3.521 → 3.52
3.528 → 3.53
3.25501 → 3.26
3.25499 → 3.25
3.245 → 3.24
3.255 → 3.26
1. Write ionic formula for strongly ionized substances (strong electrolytes) in solution.
Examples: NaOH (aq) is written as Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
HCl (aq) is written as H+(aq) (or H3O+(aq)) + Cl-(aq)
Na2SO4 (aq) is written as 2 Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) and NOT as Na22+ + SO42-
2. Write molecular formula for elements, solids, gases, and non-electrolytes.
Examples: I2 (g), Zn (s), CO2 (g), HCl (g), CHCl3 (l) or (g), CCl4 (l) or (g)
3. Write molecular formula for weak electrolytes in solutions.
Examples: H2O(l), NH3(aq), CH3COOH(aq), HCN(aq), HgCl2(aq), H2SO4 (concentrated), Pb(CH3COO)2(aq)
4. Write molecular formula for slightly soluble substances or precipitates.
Examples: MgCO3(s), AgCl(s), BaSO4(s)
5. Omit spectator ions in the net ionic equation.
Example: sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) 🡪 H2O (l) + NaCl (aq)
Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 🡪 H2O(l) + Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Na+(aq) and Cl-(aq) are spectator ions and hence omitted.
Net ionic equation: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) ) 🡪 H2O(l)
SO42-
SLIGHTLY INSOLUBLE: Ag+,
Ca2+, Hg22+
Recrystallization is one of the most important methods used to purify solids. It involves dissolving an impure
sample in a hot solvent and filtering this solution while hot (also called hot filtration). The resulting filtrate is
then cooled to form larger and purer crystals, thus the technique’s name. This purification method heavily
depends on a solvent’s ability to differentiate the compound of interest (solute) from other sample components
(impurities) based on their differing solubilities. Thus, choosing an appropriate solvent is crucial in
recrystallization. An ideal solvent should have the following properties:
1. It should readily dissolve the solute at high temperatures but only sparingly at room temperature.
2. It should dissolve the impurities even at room temperature, such that only the solute recrystallizes upon
cooling.
3. It should be sufficiently volatile to hasten the drying of the purified crystals.
A difficulty often encountered in recrystallization is the failure of the solute to recrystallize. This frequently
happens when the concentration of the solute is too high (supersaturated solution) or when an impurity prevents
recrystallization. In such cases, techniques such as adding a small crystal of the pure substance (also called
seeding) or scratching the inner walls of the container with a glass rod may be used. If the above methods fail to
bring about recrystallization, the solution is probably unsaturated. It is, therefore, heated further to remove the
excess solvent.
In practice, the recrystallization procedure should be repeated until a constant melting point of relatively
narrow range is obtained. The melting point is a physical property that can be used to identify a substance and to
assess its purity. A narrow temperature range of 0.5 to 1.5 C ̊ is observed when a solid compound is pure. On the
other hand, when the solid compound is contaminated, the melting point decreases, and the melting point range
widens.
Alternatively, sublimation can be used for the purification of impure solids. It is a reversible physical process
where solid substances are directly converted to the vapor phase when heated without the intermediate appearance
of a liquid state. For sublimation to occur, the solid must have an exceptionally high vapor pressure at a
temperature below its melting point to avoid passing through the liquid state. Though not all solids can be purified
by sublimation and despite its low percent recovery, the method yields crystals of very high purity and does not
require a solvent.
In this experiment, crude benzoic acid samples will be purified using recrystallization and sublimation. For
recrystallization, water will be used as the solvent. Furthermore, the melting point will be determined to evaluate
the purity of the benzoic acid obtained from the two techniques.
PROCEDURE
A. Recrystallization
Weigh 0.25 g of crude benzoic acid in a 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Add 20 ml distilled water, and boil for 1-
2 minutes while stirring (Note: Do not let the sample dry up!). Remove the Erlenmeyer flask from the hotplate,
and add a pinch (same as the size of a mongo bean) of charcoal. Stir the
mixture then gently heat to boiling.
Filter the hot solution through a fluted filter paper into another 250
mL Erlenmeyer flask containing about 3 mL of hot water. The receiving
flask should be set on a hot plate to sustain the heat (Figure 1.1). Allow the
resulting hot filtrate to cool slowly to room temperature without
disturbance before setting it in an ice bath.
Collect the recrystallized benzoic acid by cold filtration. Wash the
crystals with a minimal amount of cold water to remove adhering mother
liquor. Spread the filter paper on a watch glass, and allow to air dry.
Transfer the crystals to a previously weighed vial. Report its weight and
% recovery. Figure 1. Filtration set-up.
B. Sublimation
Weigh about 0.10 g crude benzoic acid into a 50-mL beaker. Cover the
mouth of the beaker with a filter paper, and secure the cover using a rubber
band. Place the beaker in a water bath such that about 1/3 of the beaker is
immersed and that the filter paper remains dry. Heat the water bath to 100°C
(Figure 1.2)
Continue heating for at least an hour until needle-like crystals deposit on
the filter paper and on the sides of the beaker. Carefully remove the filter
paper, and scrape the sublimate into a previously weighed vial. Report the
weight and the % recovery of pure benzoic acid.
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are simultaneous reactions involving changes in oxidation number due
to loss or gain of electrons. Oxidation corresponds to an increase in the oxidation number and loss of electrons.
Reduction, on the other hand, corresponds to a decrease in the oxidation number and gain of electrons.
The oxidation state of an atom or ion is defined as the number of electrons gained or lost in a chemical
reaction. For example, in the reaction:
1
𝑁𝑎(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑠)
2
The sodium atom lost an electron to form the sodium cation (Na +) and the chlorine atom gained an electron
to form the chloride ion (Cl-). Hence, in the ionic compound, NaCl, the oxidation number of Na is +1 and the
oxidation number of Cl is -1.
Now, consider the following reaction:
𝐻2 (𝑔) + 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 2𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑔)
The covalent molecule, HCl, is formed. Although neither element has completely “gained” or “lost” an
electron, it has oxidation numbers based on differences in their electronegativities. The electrons in the bond are
completely assigned to the more electronegative atom. Since chlorine is more electronegative than hydrogen, the
electron pair in the bond is assigned to chlorine, and is assumed to “gain” an electron, while H “lose” an electron;
the oxidation numbers of H and Cl in the compound are +1 and -1, respectively.
The assignment of oxidation number (O. N.) to atoms in covalently bonded molecules or ions requires
knowledge on the structure and electronegativities of atoms, and is based on a certain set of rules, as follows:
1. The oxidation number of an atom in a free element is zero.
2. In compounds, the following elements will usually show the given common oxidation numbers:
A. Group 1 and H except in hydrides (O.N. is -1) +1
B. Group 2 +2
C. B and Al +3
D. F -1
E. Cl, Br, and I (not bonded to O) -1
F. O except in peroxides (O. N. is -1) and superoxides (O. N. is -1/2) -2
3. Balance O and H as follows:
In acidic medium:
▪ To the oxygen deficient side, add 1 mole of H2O; add 2 moles of H+ to the other side (for every mole
of H2O added on the oxygen deficient side)
▪ To the hydrogen deficient side, add 1 mol of H +
In basic medium:
▪ To the oxygen deficient side, add 2 moles of OH-; add 1 mole of H2O to the other side (for every 2
moles of OH- added on the oxygen deficient side)
▪ To the hydrogen deficient side, add 1 mole of H 2O; add 1 mole of OH- to the other side (for every
one mole of H2O added on the hydrogen deficient side)
4. Balance the net charges of each half reaction by adding electrons to the side deficient in negative charge.
5. Multiply each half reaction by a multiple that will make both half reactions have the same number of
electrons, when necessary.
6. Add the half reactions and simplify.
7. Check if the reaction is balanced (the number of each kind of atoms, as well as the charge, should be the
same on both sides of the reaction).
For example, consider the oxidation of the iodide ion (I -) by acidified permanganate solution.
− − 2+
𝐼(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐼2(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑀𝑛(𝑎𝑞)
Steps 1 to 4:
−
Oxidation half reaction 2𝐼(𝑎𝑞) → 𝐼2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑒 −
− + 2+
Reduction half reaction 𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 8𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 4𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
− −
Step 5: 10𝐼(𝑎𝑞) → 5𝐼2(𝑎𝑞) + 10𝑒
− + 2+
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 16𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 10𝑒 − → 2𝑀𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 8𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
− − + 2+
Step 6: 10𝐼(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) + 16𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 5𝐼2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑀𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 8𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)
Step 7: Check
Right Left
Atoms 10 I, 16 H, 2 Mn, 8 O 10 I, 16 H, 2 Mn, 8 O
Charge +4 +4
2+
⸫ The balanced redox equation is 10𝐼(𝑎𝑞)
− −
+ 2𝑀𝑛𝑂4(𝑎𝑞) +
+ 16𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 5𝐼2(𝑎𝑞) + 2𝑀𝑛(𝑎𝑞) + 8𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙) .
PROCEDURE
A. Activity of Metals
Place 5 drops each of 0.1 M Cu(NO3)2, 0.1 M FeSO4, and 0.1 M H2SO4 in separate wells on a spot plate.
Drop a small piece of mossy zinc. Record any change in each solution and metal.
Place 5 drops each of 0.1 M ZnSO4, 0.1 M FeSO4, and 0.1 M H2SO4 in separate wells on a spot plate. Drop
a 1 cm long Cu wire. Record any change in each solution and metal.
Place 5 drops each of 0.1 M ZnSO4, 0.1 M CuSO4, and 0.1 M H2SO4 in separate wells on a spot plate. Drop
a small, clean iron nail. Record any change in each solution and metal.
B. Activity of Non-Metals
Place 1 mL each of 0.1 M KCl and 0.1 M KI in separate test tubes. Add 1 mL of toluene. Shake and observe.
Add 1 mL of Br2 water dropwise, shaking the test tube well after each addition. Note the color of the two layers.
Place 1 mL each of 0.1 M KCl and 0.1 M KBr in separate test tubes. Add 1 mL of toluene. Shake and observe.
Add 1 mL of saturated I2 dropwise, shaking the test tube well after each addition. Note the color of the two layers.
C. Reaction between SO32- and MnO4- in different media
To 1 mL of 0.1 M Na2SO3, add 2 drops of 0.1 M KMnO4. Describe the result. Do not add excess
permanganate. Excess permanganate has been added if the pink color persists. Record your observations.
Acidify 1 mL of 0.1 M Na2SO3 with 3 M H2SO4; then add a few more drops of acid in excess. Add 2 drops
of 0.1 M KMnO4. Observe the color change. Do not add excess permanganate.
Repeat previous procedure but add 6 M NaOH instead of 3 M H 2SO4 until the solution is basic.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Dispose solutions containing KMnO4 into the “Inorganic Waste” container.
2. Solutions of Br2 and I2 with toluene must be separated with a separatory funnel before disposing into
“Inorganic Waste” and “Halogenated Organic Waste” containers, respectively.
3. Dispose used copper, zinc, and iron nails into the “Inorganic Waste” container.
4. Dispose H2SO4 solutions into the “Acid Waste” container.
A chemical change involves the change in chemical composition of a substance resulting from a chemical
reaction. It is usually characterized by observable physical evidence including absorption or emission of heat,
formation of precipitate, evolution of gas, or a change in color of the solution or precipitate. Chemical changes
can be classified into four types depending on which kind of chemical reaction is involved in the process:
1. Synthesis or Combination A+B→C
2. Decomposition AB → A + B
3. Single displacement or replacement AB + C → CB + A or AC + B
4. Double displacement or replacement AB + CD → AD + CB
In this experiment, a series of chemical changes involving copper will be observed. Based from the
observations, different compounds of copper can be identified, and chemical changes can be written into their
balanced chemical equations and classified into their type of chemical reaction. In addition, the mass of the final
product will also prove or disprove if the Law of Conservation of Mass applies for this experiment.
PROCEDURE
A. Precipitation of copper(II) hydroxide
Pipette 5.00 mL 0.100 M Cu(NO3)2 into a 100-mL beaker containing 25 mL distilled water. Add
approximately 1.00 mL 6.00 M NaOH dropwise while constantly stirring the solution.
Allow the precipitate to settle, and then test if the solution is alkaline by placing a piece of red litmus paper
on a dry watch glass and moistening it with the solution using a stirring rod. If it is not yet alkaline, add 10 drops
NaOH to the solution. Record any change in color of the precipitate and supernate.
5. Oxidation of copper
If the product from the previous process is not yet black, place the filter paper with solid on an evaporating
dish and heat it on a hot plate. Observe what happens to the solid and record your result.
Weigh the solid and filter paper on a top-loading balance and record the mass obtained. After weighing,
transfer the product into a labeled vial and submit to your instructor.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Dispose used litmus paper and filter papers into the “Contaminated Solid Waste” container.
2. Dispose all combined filtrate and washings into the “Inorganic Waste” Container.
3. Dispose excess zinc dust into the “Inorganic Waste” Container.
4. Dispose all acidic supernates into the “Acid Waste” Container
Titrimetric analysis is a technique in which a solution of known concentration (titrant) is made to react with
a known quantity of the substance being analyzed (analyte). The titrant is added in small increments to the analyte
solution using a burette until an indicator, which is added to the solution at the start of titration, gives a sharp
color change. This change in color indicates the endpoint of the titration. The endpoint is a close approximation
of the equivalence point, which is the point when all of the analyte has completely reacted with the titrant. An
example of an indicator is phenolphthalein, which changes in color depending on whether the solution is acidic
(colorless) or basic (pink). The titration setup is shown in the figure below.
The exact concentration of the titrant is determined through a process called standardization. During
standardization, a primary standard is weighed with high accuracy, dissolved and titrated with the solution until
endpoint is reached. A primary standard is a stable solid of high purity and high molecular weight, whose reaction
with the substance to be standardized is known. An example of a primary standard is potassium hydrogen
phthalate (KHP) which is used for the standardization of NaOH.
For a titrimetric analysis to be feasible, (1) the reaction between the standard and analyte must be known, (2)
the reaction between the reactants must be reasonably fast, (3) the reaction must proceed quantitatively to
completion and, (4) there must be some method or substance available to detect the endpoint.
In this experiment, the amount of acidic component of a soda and vinegar sample will be determined using
titrimetric analysis involving acid-base neutralization reactions.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Collect the NaOH rinsings into a beaker, dilute with plenty of water and flush directly down the sink with
copious running water.
2. Dilute all titrated solutions with plenty of water and flush directly down the sink with copious running water.
Analytical chemistry is divided into two main facets: quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis.
Quantitative analysis deals with the determination of the amount of a substance found in a given sample, while
qualitative analysis involves finding out the identity of a substance or substances composing a particular sample.
The identification of these substances can only be accomplished if the experimenter has prior knowledge of their
properties, both physical and chemical.
This experiment aims to perform tests that help determine the presence or absence of ions in aqueous
solutions, and it will be done in two phases. First, the properties and reactivity of each of the five cations (Cu 2+,
Fe3+, Ca2+, Zn2+, and NH4+) and seven anions (CO32-, PO43-, SO42-, Cl-,Br-, I-, and NO3-) in various qualitative tests
found in the Procedure section will be observed. Formation and dissolution of precipitates, stratification or
layering of mixtures, evolution of gases and color changes will be observed. These results will then be used to
correctly identify unknown ions present in a solution.
PROCEDURE
I. QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF KNOWN IONS
Prepare five clean and dry test tubes for the qualitative test for anions (Part A) and seven test tubes for the
qualitative test for anions (Part C).
A-1. Add a drop of 1.0 M NaOH into each of the test solutions. If a precipitate forms, continue adding NaOH
dropwise until precipitation is complete. If not, stop adding NaOH. Complete precipitation is reached if
addition of more NaOH does not produce any more precipitates. Note the color and type of precipitate
formed. Continue adding excess base to the precipitates (about five to ten drops more).
A-2. Repeat A-1 using 1.0 M NH3 (instead of 1.0 M NaOH).
B. Confirmatory Tests
These tests are performed to verify the identity of the ions obtained in the elimination tests. There are visible
results already obtained in A which may be used to confirm an ion’s identity. Only one confirmatory test needs
to be done for each cation.
B-1. Copper(II) ion, Cu2+: The deep blue complex obtained by mixing Cu2+ solution in A-2 with excess NH3
is enough confirmation of the presence of the Cu 2+.
B-2. Iron(III) ion, Fe3+: Add two drops of 0.1 M KSCN to five drops of the fresh Fe3+ test solution. A blood
red FeSCN2+ complex will be formed. Another test for Fe3+ is the formation of a dark blue precipitate,
KFeIIIFeII(CN)6, when two drops of 0.1 M K4Fe(CN)6 is added to five drops of the fresh test solution.
B-3. Calcium(II) ion, Ca2+: To five drops of the Ca2+ test solution, add two drops of 0.1 M (NH4)2C2O4. A
white precipitate will be obtained.
B-4. Zinc(II) ion, Zn2+: To five (5) drops of the Zn2+ test solution, add two drops of 0.1 M K3Fe(CN)6. A
yellow precipitate, KZnFe(CN)6, will be obtained. A white precipitate, K2Zn3[Fe(CN)6]2, will be formed
upon addition of 0.1 M K4Fe(CN)6.
B-5. Ammonium ion, NH4+: Moisten two small pieces of litmus paper (one red, one blue) with distilled water
and allow these to stick to the underside of a watch glass. Place 10 drops of the NH 4+ test solution in an
evaporating dish. To the NH4+ test solution, add five drops of 1.0 M NaOH. Immediately cover the
evaporating dish with the watch glass, with the side on which the litmus papers are attached facing the
solution. Observe as the red litmus paper turns blue. Do not allow the solution to touch the litmus paper.
C-1. Add two drops of 0.1 M Ba(NO3)2 into each test solution. If a precipitate is formed, continue the addition
of Ba(NO3)2 dropwise until precipitation is complete. Decant as much supernatant as possible after the
precipitate has settled. Set the precipitates aside for the confirmatory tests in Part D.
Note: Perform C-2 and C-3 using only the anion test solutions that did not form precipitates with Ba(NO3)2.
Handle toluene with utmost care!
C-2. Add two drops of 1.0 M HNO3 into each test tube containing the fresh anion test solution. To this
mixture, add three drops of 0.1 M Fe(NO3)3 and five drops of toluene. Shake well and allow the
immiscible layers to stratify. Record the color of each layer. Add a few more drops of toluene if the color
of the top layer is difficult to see.
C-3. To the fresh anion test solution, add one drop of 0.01 M acidified KMnO 4 and five drops of toluene.
Shake well and allow the mixture to stratify. Record the color of each layer. If the KMnO4 solution is
not yet acidified, first add two drops of 1.0 M HNO 3 before adding one drop of 0.01 M KMnO4 into the
test solution.
D. Confirmatory Tests
Like in the confirmatory tests for cations, these tests are performed to verify the identity of the anions
determined through the elimination tests. There are also visible results already obtained in C which may be used
to confirm an ion’s identity. Only one confirmatory test needs to be done for each anion.
D-1. Carbonate ion, CO32-: Add 1.0 M CH3COOH dropwise until the precipitate from C-1 is completely
immersed. Observe as the precipitates dissolve with effervescence or bubbling. The formation of bubbles
indicates the reaction of CO32- in solution with CH3COOH and its subsequent conversion to CO2 gas.
D-2. Phosphate ion, PO43-: Add 1.0 M CH3COOH dropwise until the precipitate from C-1 is completely
immersed. Observe as the precipitates dissolve without effervescence or bubbling. Another confirmatory
test for PO43- is through the addition of one drop of 0.1 M MgCl2 to five drops of the PO43- test solution.
The reaction produces a white precipitate, Mg 3(PO4)2.
D-3. Sulfate ion, SO42-: Add five drops of 1.0 M CH3COOH to the precipitate from C-1. Notice that the sulfate
precipitate of barium remains undissolved after the addition of acetic acid.
D-4. Iodide ion, I-: A pink or pinkish-red color of the toluene layer in C-2 confirms the presence of I- in the
test solution. I2 in toluene is pink.
D-5. Thiocyanate ion, SCN-: The deep red aqueous solution obtained in test C-2 is the complex FeSCN2+.
D-6. Bromide ion, Br-: A yellow or orange toluene layer obtained in C-3 verifies the presence of Br- in the
test solution. This color indicates dissolved Br2 in the toluene layer.
D-7. Nitrate ion, NO3-: Acidify five drops of the test solution by adding six drops of 6.0 M H 2SO4. Add eight
drops of the freshly prepared FeSO4 solution. Tilt the test tube to 60o and allow two drops of 18.0 M
H2SO4 to slowly slide down the side of the test tube and into the solution. DO NOT SHAKE THE
CONTENTS OF THE TEST TUBE. Very slowly, bring the test tube into an upright position. Note the
formation of the brown ring at the interface of the concentrated acid and the solution. It may take a few
minutes for the brown ring to become visible. The addition of the H 2SO4 solutions must be done under
the fume hood. (The presence of iodide, bromide, or thiocyanate ions interferes in this test.)
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Dispose all solutions of inorganic salts by diluting them with plenty of water and flushing them directly down
the sink with copious running water. Dilute acidified and basic solutions with water when needed, before
flushing them down the sink.
2. Dispose excess concentrated acids into the acid waste container.
3. Dispose solutions containing KMnO4 into the inorganic waste container, or to the KMnO4 waste container,
if available.
4. Dispose all undissolved solids into the solid waste container. Place and wrap these precipitates in a filter
paper or tissue before throwing them into the solid waste jar.
5. Pour all mixtures with layering into a separatory funnel. Separate the toluene layer from the aqueous layer.
Dispose the toluene layer into the halogenated organic waste jar. Dispose the aqueous layer into the inorganic
waste jar.
The calorimeter is a device used to measure heat changes that accompany a physical or a chemical process.
It usually consists of a container that is surrounded by an insulating vessel. A thermometer is inserted into the
container to monitor the changes in temperature inside the calorimeter.
The heat that is released or absorbed by a process is used to heat or cool any substance that is in contact with
the reaction, such as the solvent, the thermometer, the air, and the calorimeter. Being an adiabatic system, the
Law of Conservation of Energy applies to a calorimeter:
heat lost/gained by the process = heat gained/lost by the calorimeter
or
qreaction = -qcalorimeter
That is, when a process is carried out inside a calorimeter, the heat lost or gained by the process (q reaction) is
equal to but opposite in sign to the heat gained or lost by the calorimeter (qcalorimeter). The magnitude of q is the
same on both sides of the equation because of the Law of Conservation of Energy. However, the sign is opposite
because the heat lost by the process is gained by the calorimeter, and vice versa.
The heat measured from a process conducted under constant pressure is referred to as enthalpy, ΔH. The
enthalpy of a reaction with n mole(s) of limiting reagent (LR) is equal to
𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 =
𝑛𝐿𝑅
A process or reaction may be classified as either exothermic or endothermic, depending on the sign of qreaction
or ΔH. Exothermic processes release heat and thus have negative values for q reaction and ΔH. Endothermic
processes, on the other hand, absorb heat and thus have positive values for qreaction and ΔH.
In this experiment, an improvised constant pressure calorimeter is constructed using a test tube surrounded
by Styrofoam. The calorimeter and everything external to the process has a certain heat capacity, denoted as Ccal.
Using the known enthalpy for the following reaction:
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) 🡪 H2O (l) ΔHrxn = -55.85 kJ/mol
and the observed changes in temperature (ΔT), the heat capacity of the calorimeter, C cal, may be determined.
𝑞𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 −𝑞𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 −∆𝐻𝑟𝑥𝑛 × 𝑛𝐿𝑅
𝐶𝑐𝑎𝑙 = = =
∆𝑇 ∆𝑇 ∆𝑇
This Ccal may then be used for the subsequent calorimetric determination of ΔH for the neutralization reaction
of a different acid-base system.
WASTE DISPOSAL
Dilute all solutions with tap water and flush directly down the sink with copious running water.
In the experiment, the separation of food dyes in M&M’s samples using 1% NaCl as solvent will be
investigated. The retention factors will be calculated and will be used to qualitatively describe the components of
the samples.
PROCEDURE:
Place each candy (green, red, blue, orange, and brown
M&M’s) on a spot plate and put a drop of distilled water
on each and let the samples sit for about 30-60 seconds.
While waiting for the M&M’s extract to concentrate,
prepare the chromatographic chamber in a 250-mL
beaker. Add the mobile phase (1% NaCl) to the beaker to
a depth of about 0.5 cm. Place a strip of filter paper (7 x 8
cm) inside the beaker. Cover the beaker with a watch glass
and wait until the developing solvent (mobile phase)
saturates the filter paper (Figure 7.1).
Cut a sheet of filter paper (14 x 8 cm). Draw a light
pencil line across the paper about 0.8 cm from the top and
bottom of the sheet. Using a capillary tube, apply a small
spot of the M&M’s extract on the pencil line near the
bottom of the paper (allow about 2.0 cm distance between Figure 6. Chromatographic set-up.
each spot) as shown in figure 7.2.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Dispose the developing solvent (mobile phase) directly down the sink with copious running water.
2. Dispose used capillary tubes in the “Broken Glassware” container.
A. Acid-Base Equilibria
In this experiment, pH is seen as a factor that can affect equilibrium. Anthocyanins encompass the range of
red, violet, and blue pigments in plants. This experiment demonstrates the change in color of anthocyanins as a
function of pH.
This ability of anthocyanins to change color at different pH levels is related to the concept of visual indicators
such as phenolphthalein, which changes color with varying pH. With phenolphthalein, the solution changes color
from colorless to pink as an acid solution is made more basic and back to colorless as a basic solution is made
more acidic.
B. Solubility Equilibria
Physical changes can also involve heat changes. As an example, the dissolution of a solute in a solvent will
typically involve measurable heat changes. This heat change is known as the heat of solution, ΔH soln.
The total heat of the solution, ΔHsoln will be the sum of all three energy changes and will either be
endothermic (ΔHsoln = +), exothermic (ΔHsoln = -) or athermic (ΔHsoln = 0). This value will be dependent on the
relative strengths of the interparticle forces of attraction between like and unlike particles.
For most solids dissolving in water, the sum of the first two terms is greater than the third and thus dissolving
is usually endothermic and solubility generally increases with increasing temperature. When ΔHsoln becomes
highly positive, it is often because the solute and solvent are dissimilar (i. e., they have “unlike” interparticle
forces of attraction). In this extreme case, the solute becomes immiscible or insoluble in the solvent. The general
rule therefore “like dissolves like” is a good basis for predicting the solubility of solutes in solvents.
Volume changes may also accompany heat changes. Stronger forces of attraction between unlike particles
result in an overall contraction in the volume of solution; otherwise an overall expansion in the volume of solution
is observed.
This experiment will explore the solubility of several solutes in different solvents. Heat and volume changes
that accompany the mixing process will also be observed, as well as the effect of temperature on solubility.
PROCEDURE
A. Acid-Base Equilibria
Cut into small pieces 15 g well-washed camote tops, red gumamela flowers, boat of Moses, or red
bougainvillea flowers. Add approximately 100 mL water and boil for 15 minutes to extract the pigment. Filter
the extract using a filter paper.
Note the color of the extract and then determine its pH. To 20 ml of the extract, add 3 drops of 1 M HCl.
Record any color changes and determine the pH. Repeat the last step but this time add 1 M NaOH instead of HCl.
B. Solubility Equilibria
B-1. Effect of the nature of solute and solvent
Pipet 0.50 mL each of distilled water, ethyl alcohol, and toluene in three separate test tubes. To each of the
solution, add a pinch of NaCl. Shake the test tube and let it stand. Observe and record results as soluble of
insoluble. Repeat the procedure using pulverized naphthalene instead of NaCl.
Pipet 0.50 mL each of distilled water, ethyl alcohol, and toluene in three separate test tubes. To each of the
solution, add a drop of glycerol. Shake the test tube and let it stand. Observe and record results as miscible or
immiscible.
Pipet 0.50 mL distilled water into two separate test tubes. To each test tube, add a small iodine crystal then
shake. To one solution, add a drop of 1.0 M KI and shake. Compare the colors of the solutions and record your
observation.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Dispose organic solvents, including glycerol and naphthalene into the “Non-halogenated Organic Waste”
container.
2. Dispose other solutions by flushing directly down the sink with copious running water. Dilute solutions
before flushing when needed.
The separation of components of a mixture is usually based on differences in the physical properties of its
components. Examples of separation methods include filtration (based on differences in physical state),
centrifugation (based on differences in density), chromatography (based on differences in solubility and ability to
be adsorbed), and distillation (based on differences in volatility or boiling point of the mixture components).
Distillation is usually used to separate two miscible compounds in a mixture so that one component can be
isolated from the mixture. The mixture is heated until the more volatile component evaporates, while the less
volatile component remains in the mixture. The vaporized component is then condensed separately in order to
isolate this component as a liquid.
Several distillation techniques have been devised, but the most basic type is called simple distillation, which
is typically used for two miscible liquids with boiling points that are below 150 °C and far from each other.
In this experiment, simple distillation is performed on a sample of rubbing alcohol in order to isolate the
alcohol from its mixture with water.
PROCEDURE
Prepare the simple distillation setup as shown in Figure 9. Your instructor will assist you in constructing it.
Obtain a round bottom flask that will serve as the distilling flask. Fill this flask with 20 mL of the rubbing
alcohol sample, and then add 2 to 3 pieces of boiling chips or boiling sticks. Boiling chips (small porcelain chips)
or boiling sticks (tiny glass capillaries) are added to prevent bumping. They should never be added to a hot liquid.
Iron clamps may be used to secure the round bottom flasks, and a rubber stopper with a hole should be
inserted to the top opening of the three-way adapter. Use a rubber tubing for each of the water outlet and inlet,
making sure that the water flows into the bottom of the condenser’s cooling jacket and out from the top. Insert
the thermometer into the rubber stopper hole such that its bulb is placed just below the side arm of the three-way
adapter.
Turn the water supply on and check the water flow through the condenser. Check that all ground glass joints
fit well.
Place the distilling flask into a hot water bath and slowly heat the flask until its contents are gently boiling.
Obtain the experimental boiling point of the alcohol. Maintain the temperature at about 82 to 84 °C (for isopropyl
alcohol) or about 78 to 80 °C (for ethyl alcohol). The vapors and condensate will pass through the side arm of the
three-way adapter and into the condenser, where most of the vapor will condense into liquid and will finally drip
from the adapter into the receiving flask.
Once the distillate starts to accumulate in the receiving flask, wait until about 1 mL of distillate is collected.
Discard this distillate, and then collect the remaining fraction that distills at the boiling point of the alcohol.
Measure the volume of the distillate (not including the first 1 mL), and then calculate for its percent recovery. In
calculating the percent recovery, take into account the original percentage of alcohol in the rubbing alcohol
sample. Allow the entire setup to cool before dismantling it.
WASTE DISPOSAL
Dispose of the rubbing alcohol distillate into the non-halogenated organic waste container
Gas is a state of matter where molecules are separated by large distances and in random movement. It fills
up its container, adopting both the shape and volume of the container.
The behaviors of gases are based on relationships among measurable parameters: pressure (P), temperature
(T), volume (V) and amount of gas (n). Gas laws illustrate the relationships among these parameters, which are
summarized in the table below.
The experiment illustrates the use of Ideal Gas Law in the analysis of magnesium ribbon. The number of
moles of the gas produced can be calculated from the experimental data of pressure, volume and temperature. The
volume reading of trapped air may exhibit any one of the three cases shown below.
Calculations of Ptrapped air depend on which one of these three cases is observed,
ℎ
Case A 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 − (1)
13.6
Case B 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 (2)
ℎ
Case C 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑏𝑎𝑟 + (3)
13.6
where Ptrapped air is the pressure of gas trapped in the eudiometer, P bar is the barometric pressure and h is the
height difference (mm) between the water levels inside and outside the eudiometer.
For all cases, the pressure of gas produced in dry conditions can be calculated as
𝑃𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 (4)
where Pdry air is the pressure of gas produced in dry conditions and P water vapor is the pressure of water vapor at
specified temperature.
PROCEDURE
Place 10.0 mL of 6.0 M HCl into a eudiometer partially filled with distilled water. Add water to fill the
eudiometer to the brim. Cover the mouth of the eudiometer with your finger and invert into a glass jar that is two-
thirds filled with water. Quickly insert the folded Mg ribbon, approximately 0.02-0.03 g, into the eudiometer,
taking care that it does not stick to the sides of the tube.
When the reaction has stopped, allow five minutes for the system to attain the same temperature as
surroundings before reading the volume of enclosed gas. Record the volume of enclosed gas, the height difference
between the water levels inside and outside the eudiometer, and the temperature of the water outside the
eudiometer. Take note of the case observed.
From the data obtained, calculate the number of moles of gas evolved and the mass of the Mg ribbon sample.
Assuming 100% purity of the ribbon, compare the calculated mass of Mg with pre-weighed Mg (% error).
WASTE DISPOSAL
Dilute HCl with plenty of water and flush directly down the sink with copious running water.
Colligative properties are properties of solutions which depend on the concentration of the non-volatile
solutes. These properties refer to physical property changes of solutions such as freezing point depression (FPD),
boiling point elevation (BPE), vapor pressure lowering (VPL) and osmotic pressure (Π).
FPD and BPE are expressed, respectively, as follows: ∆𝑇𝑓 = −𝑖𝐾𝑓 𝑚 and ∆𝑇𝑏 = 𝑖𝐾𝑏 𝑚, where ∆𝑇𝑓 and ∆𝑇𝑏
are the changes in freezing point and boiling point, respectively; 𝐾 and 𝐾𝑏 are the freezing point and boiling point
constants for particular solvents; and 𝑚 is the molality of the solution.
The van’t Hoff factor, i, is the ratio of the actual concentration of particles in the solution and the calculated
concentration based on the amount of solute. For non-electrolytes, the value i is 1. For strong electrolytes in dilute
concentrations, the value of i is equal to the number of ions present in a single electrolyte particle (e.g. NaCl has
i = 2). For weak electrolytes, value of i varies on the initial concentrations of the solute as well as the identity of
the solute.
The experimental van’t Hoff factor can be calculated by dividing the experimental ∆𝑇𝑓 or ∆𝑇𝑏 by the expected
∆𝑇𝑓 or ∆𝑇𝑏 when the value of i = 1 (non-electrolyte):
∆𝑇𝑓,𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑖=
∆𝑇𝑓,𝑛𝑜𝑛−𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑡𝑒
PROCEDURE
A. Freezing Point Depression
Prepare an ice-salt water bath by filling a 400 mL beaker with crushed ice, rock salt and a small amount of
tap water. Fill one-third of a 6-inch test tube with distilled water and insert a thermometer. Cool the test tube in
ice-salt water bath and record the temperature-time data at 30-second intervals. Stir the contents of the test tube
using the thermometer. Continue taking the temperature until the water has frozen. Record the freezing
temperature. NOTE: If the temperature drops below -2.0°C, supercooling has occurred. Add a small fragment of
ice into the test tube. The temperature should rise abruptly and then level off. Record the resulting temperature as
the freezing point.
Prepare a 0.65 molal NaCl solution by dissolving the appropriate mass of NaCl (FW=58.44 g/mol) in 10.0
mL distilled water (d= 1.00 g/mL).
Using the same method described above, determine the freezing point of the NaCl solution and obtain ΔT I
for the NaCl solution. Calculate the van’t Hoff factor for the NaCl solution (K f, water= 1.86°C/m).
Repeat the entire procedure using 1.10 molal NaCl solution.
Electrolyte solutions can conduct electricity because they contain charged species called ions. These ions
come from the dissociation of ionic salts into positively charged cations and negatively charged anions when they
are dissolved in water. The conductivity of a solution depends on the number and kind of ions between electrodes.
Some ions are better conductors than others. Also, the greater the number of ions, that is, the greater the electrolyte
concentrations, the larger the conductivity. Strong electrolytes are salts that are completely dissociated/ionized in
solution. Weak electrolytes are incompletely dissociated/ionized in solution. Nonelectrolytes do not ionize in
solution.
Acid and base solutions are particularly important classes of electrolyte solutions. They ionize in solution,
usually forming H+ and OH−. According to Arrhenius, acids are substances bearing H + while bases are those
substances bearing OH−. Brønsted-Lowry, on the other hand, described acids as proton donors whereas bases as
proton acceptors. In another way, Lewis defined acids as electron acceptors where bases as electron donors.
pH and pOH are measures of the acidity or basicity of a solution and is mathematically defined as being equal
to –log [H+] and –log [OH-], respectively. An acid is any substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration
([H+]) in aqueous solution while a base is one that increases the hydroxide ion concentration ([OH -]) in aqueous
solution. Hence, the following conditions can be observed:
[H+] > [OH-] acidic solution
[H+] < [OH-] basic solution
[H+] = [OH-] neutral solution
One of the general properties of acids and bases is their ability to displace weaker acids and weaker
bases, respectively, from their corresponding salts. For instance, if the following reaction proceeds to a greater
extent towards the formation of the product,
HA(aq) + B−(aq) ⇌ HB(aq) + A−(aq)
then, HA is a stronger acid than HB and B- is a stronger base than A-.
In this experiment, the conductivity of various solutions will be observed; the pH of various solutions
will be determined; and the reactivities and strengths of certain acids and bases will be compared.
PROCEDURE
A. Conductivity of test solutions
Each group will be assigned a solution to test in the conductivity setup.
Test solutions
1.00 M HCl 1.00 M NaCH3COO mix equal volumes of 2.00 M NH3 and 2.00 M HCl
1.00 M CH3COOH 1.00 M sucrose mix equal volumes of 2.00 M NH3 and 2.00 M CH3COOH
1.00 M NaOH 1.00 M NH3 glacial acetic acid
1.00 M NaCl
B. pH determination
Using a stirring rod, moisten a piece of pH paper placed on
a watch glass with the assigned test solution. A different piece
of pH paper is used for each solution.
Using the color wheel of pH values, determine and record
the pH values in your data sheet. Classify the solutions as strong Figure 10. Conductivity set-up.
acid, strong base, weak acid, weak base, or neutral, and calculate
[H+] of the solutions.
C. pH as a function of concentration
Using a 10-mL pipette, measure out 1 mL of 0.1 M HCl into a small beaker. Determine its pH and calculate
the [H+]. Also, calculate the pOH and the [OH-].
Using another 10-mL pipette, add 9 mL of distilled water to the acid in the same beaker. Stir the mixture.
Calculate the new concentration of the solution and determine its pH, [H +], pOH and [OH-].
Measure out 1 mL of the previously-prepared HCl solution into a new beaker and add 9 mL of distilled water
into it. Stir the mixture. Calculate the new concentration of the solution and determine its pH, [H+], pOH and [OH-
].
Repeat the entire procedure using 0.1 M NaOH instead.
WASTE DISPOSAL
1. Flush the solutions down the sink with copious amounts of running water.
2. Dispose used litmus and pH paper into the contaminated solid waste container.