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The Gendered Interpretation of Child Marriage: A Niger Case

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Melissa Safi
CUNY City College

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 The Gendered Interpretation of Child Marriage:

A Niger Case Study

Melissa Safi

December 2022

Master’s Thesis
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of International
Affairs at the City College of New York

COLIN POWELL SCHOOL FOR CIVIC AND GLOBAL LEADERSHIP

Advisor: Bruce Cronin

Second Advisor: Jean Krasno

1
Abstract

This paper seeks to answer the question, what is the primary factor driving child marriage? I

explore the literature in several scholarly articles that explain why the harmful, traditional

practice of child marriage is an issue that predominantly affects girls globally. I also utilize the

feminist theory of international relations to support my analysis of child marriage as a gender

issue. Incorporating evidence from annual international reports, scholarly articles, and mixed

methods studies, this paper examines a case study of Niger, where child marriage affects more

than half the population of girls under the age of 18. In studying Niger, I use a a gendered

analysis to examine the drivers of child marriage such as cultural practices/ societal norms,

religious beliefs, educational gaps, and poverty to argue that child marriage must be studied

through a gendered perspective rather than an economic one to achieve viable international

policy implications. Concluding this paper, it is proven that Nigerien girls’ are married young

more so due to their gender.

Keywords: child bride, child marriage, Niger, gender

2
 Table of Contents

1. Introduction: Child Marriage and Niger …………………………………………………….4

2. Legal Analysis……………………………………………………………………………….9

3. Review of the Literature………….…………………………………………………………14

4. Gender/Social Norms and Religious Beliefs………………………………………………..21

5. Lack of Education…………………………………………………………………………..30

6. Familial Poverty and Bride Price……………………………………………………………35

7. Policy Recommendations……………………………………………………………………40

8. Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………46

9. Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………..47

3
 Chapter One

Introduction: Child Marriage and Niger

Child Marriage

Child marriage is a violation of human rights, especially the right’s of young girls. Child

marriage is usually defined as “any formal marriage or informal union where one or both people

are under 18 years old.” 1 According to Article 1, PT 1 of the Convention on Rights of Child, “a

child means every human being below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable

to the child, majority is attained earlier.” 2 Child marriage currently affects about 40 million girls

worldwide.3 This practice takes place in many regions around the world but the hotspots are

generally located in Sub Saharan/West Africa. About 12 million girls are being forced into child

marriage each year in Africa alone. 4 Nine out of the ten countries that have the highest rates are

Niger, the Central African Republic, Chad, Mali, Mozambique, Burkina Faso, South Sudan,

Guinea and Nigeria.5 One African country is particular has the highest rates of child marriage in

the world. According to UNICEF, Niger’s child marriage rates include 76% of girls married by

the age of 18 and 28% of girls being married before the age of 15 with about 3 in 4 girls getting

married before their 18th birthday.6 Child marriage in Niger is driven by several factors that

1
UNICEF. 2022. “Child marriage.” UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/protection/child-marriage.
2
United Nations. 1989. “Convention on the Rights of the Child.” Treaty Series 1577
(November): 3.
3
Girls Not Brides. n.d. “Niger.” Girls Not Brides. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/regions-and-countries/nig
er/.
4
Ibid.
5
130 million African girls and women today are married as children - World.” 2022. ReliefWeb.
https://reliefweb.int/report/world/130-million-african-girls-and-women-today-married-children.
6
Girls Not Brides, n.d.

4
accentuate the high rates of girls getting married. Nigerien child brides are married at extremely

young ages due to the lack of quality education, gender inequality, religious beliefs, social norms

and familial financial status. Due to these factors, Nigerien girls are married as children and are

therefore unable to accumulate the skills needed in their lifetime to develop in society. This paper

will argue that the primary factor driving child marriage is the gendered beliefs that view women

as second class citizens in society.

7

Niger has set hierarchical and patriarchal values embedded into their culture, especially

in rural areas.8 There is a strong gender imbalance in Niger that allows girls to be oppressed by

the societies in which they inhabit. Girls are usually on the path to graduation when they are

forcefully removed from the classroom to get married, which leads to a halt in their educational

7
Girls Not Brides, n.d.
8
Ibid.

5
journey and lower literacy levels.9 Girls have very little to no decision making power in their

marriages and personal lives.10 They cannot choose to make a living for themselves or their

families. When living in their family home, all decisions are dictated by the male head of the

family, when living with their spouses, their husband makes the decisions. Child brides are very

young compared to their spouses and many become widows at very young ages and cannot

sustain themselves in society. 11 Nigerien girls who become widows do not have any protection

under the country’s law or even in their own communities. Child marriage may also result in

gender based violence where girls are more likely to experience marital rape, etc. If they run

away from violent spouses, they face being exposed to street violence and extreme poverty. Girls

who are victims of rape are unable to access contraceptive resources because of social taboos and

lack of financial resources, which increases their risk of contracting sexually transmitted

diseases.12 Every year, about 17 million girl children give birth in unsafe and poor conditions that

put them at risk of fatal childbearing. 13 Girls under 15 years of age are more likely to die during

childbirth due to their underdeveloped bodies.14

The bulk of the research explaining the drivers of child marriage is studied through an

economic lens. However, these arguments do not encompass the entirety of the subject and fail to

recognize the importance of including a gendered analysis when studying the drivers of child

marriage. This paper seeks to gain insight in the specific interplay between gender and child

9
Otoo-Oyortey, Naana. 2003. “Early Marriage and Poverty: Exploring Links and Key Policy
Issues.” Gender and Development 11 (2) p. 42-51.
10
Otoo-Oyortey, Naana. 2003. p.43
11
Ahmady, Kameel. 2021. “The Feminization of Poverty: Causes and Implications of early child
marriage in Iran.” Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry (TOJQI) 12 (9) p. 7825-7837.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kameel-Ahmady-2
12
Ahmady, Kameel 2021 p.7828
13
Girls Not Brides, n.d.
14
Ibid.

6
marriage in Niger by addressing the following questions: Why are girls predominately affected

by child marriage more than boys? How can we use a gendered analysis to explain the drivers of

child marriage? How do norms, attitudes and perceptions of the role of girls and women as

drivers themselves, influence these drivers? This paper argues that the drivers of child marriage

should be researched through a gendered perspective to fully comprehend the issue of the

practice itself in Niger. The evidence laid out in this thesis demonstrates that child marriage in

Niger must be researched and understood through a gendered perspective due to it affecting girl

children predominately more than boys.

To understand the drivers of child marriage in Niger, one must use a gendered approach,

one that recognizes and responds to the specific risks and vulnerabilities of women and girls, to

analyze the following: social and cultural norms, religious interpretations, lack of education, and

familial poverty. How and why is it imperative to look at these drivers through a gendered

perspective? In this thesis, qualitative data is used to measure these underlying concepts used to

explain child marriage in Niger. Therefore, one must take a deeper look into the general culture

and social norms of Nigerien society to understand how gender remains the biggest factor in

determining if a girl will be a child bride. I argue that child marriage is a primitive tradition that

has been allowed to manifest in Niger through patriarchal standards of gender discrimination.

This paper will use a case study method of Niger in particular along with a general

overview of the practice of child marriage in Africa. It will use qualitative data from reliable

scholarly sources. I will be utilizing intergovernmental organization reports such as the United

Nations and the World Bank. Some United Nations’ entities that I will be using often are yearly

reports from UN Women, UNFPA and UNICEF, I will evaluate the ways in which a gendered

analysis can explain the drivers of child marriage. I plan to make my arguments by synthesizing

7
information from a variety of books, journal articles, and reports. All this information will

provide the backbone of my arguments.

Chapter two will be a legal analysis of international and domestic laws and conventions

that have strived to address and criminalize the practice of child marriage. Doing this provides an

overview of the definitions and international standards that regulate child marriage. Chapter

three will explore the literature on child marriage through a feminist perspective. Chapter four

consists of two parts which will argue that child marriage in Niger is driven by societal and

cultural norms as well as religious beliefs. These factors affect girls more solely due to their

gender and the patriarchal nature of Nigerien communities. Chapter five will argue that the lack

of education perpetuates child marriage in Niger because of scarce educational resources and

limited learning opportunities for girls. Finally, chapter six will argue that familial poverty

increases the chances of child marriage for girls who come from financially burdened families.

8
 Chapter Two

Legal Analysis of International and Nigerien Customary Laws

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the UN General

Assembly in 1948 and is considered the basis of all laws protecting the rights of humans. Many

articles of UDHR emphasize the protection of children under international law. 15 Article 25(2)

states that “motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,

whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.”16 This article

obligates Member States to provide all means of social protection and assistance to all children.

The practice of child marriage in Niger is in direct violation of the UDHR. The harmful tradition

does not protect girl children respectively. Article 26 of the UDHR emphasizes the importance of

the right of education for all humans. It states that “everyone has the right to education.

Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.” 17 Furthermore,

“education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the

strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”18 Child marriage hinders a

Nigerien girl’s right to receive a proper and full education that can help her develop the skills she

needs to excel in society. Girls in Niger are pulled out from school by their parents as children in

order to get married, negating Article 26 of the UDHR. Lastly, Article 16 (2) amplifies the

15
Universal Declaration of Human Rights,” Documents, United Nations, 1948
http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/.
16
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 Article 25
17
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 Article 26
18
Ibid.

9
provisions of marriage stating, “marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent

of the intending spouses.”19 Child marriage does not give the child bride the right to consent to a

marriage that is not equal in nature, therefore, violating Article 16 (2) of the UDHR.

Convention On The Rights of Child

The Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), was mandated by Niger in 1990.20

However, the country does not do enough to protect girls in regards to child marriage. The CRC

contains several provisions that address the issue of child marriage but this paper will focus on

just a few although the entire convention is relevant to the subject. The CRC, “recognizes that

children are entitled to human rights in their own right.”21 The CRC is important because it

clearly defines what a child is under international law stating, “a child means every human being

below the age of eighteen years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained

earlier.” 22 Furthermore, Article 12 of the CRC states, “parties shall assure to the child who is

capable of forming his or her own views the right to express those views freely in all matters

affecting the child, the views of the child being given due weight in accordance with the age and

maturity of the child.”23 The practice of child marriage in Niger does not take into account a girl

child’s opinion on the matter, her parents are the ones making the decision of who she marries

and when it will take place. Child marriage in Niger violates Article 12 of the CRC because child

brides lack agency in their decisions regarding their marital status.

19
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 Article 16
20
OHCHR. n.d. “Niger.” ohchr. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://www.ohchr.org/en/countries/niger.
21
United Nations. 1989. “Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).”
https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-rights-child,
preamble
22
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989, Article 1
23
Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) 1989, Article 12

10
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

(CEDAW) was ratified by Niger in 1999.24 This agenda for equality is specified in its entirety

and is important because all the rights of women are addressed. Legal, civil, social and even

reproductive rights are highlighted. The CEDAW condemns all discrimination against women in

all its forms in Article 2 (F) stating that states must, “modify or abolish existing laws,

regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women.” 25 This

provision is important because child marriage in Niger is often a customary and traditional

practice, that discriminates against girl children. Furthermore, Article 16 (2) of the CEDAW

states that “the betrothal and the marriage of a child shall have no legal effect, and all necessary

action, including legislation, shall be taken to specify a minimum age for marriage and to make

the registration of marriages in an official registry compulsory.” 26 The minimum age for

marriage for girls is 18 years old, but with parental consent it is 15 years young. Although

Nigerien law specifies these legal ages, most child marriages in Niger are performed under

customary or religious ceremonies that go unregistered.27

24
UN General Assembly, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women, 18 December 1979, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1249, p. 13,
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/cedaw.htm
25
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979, Article 2
(F)
26
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 1979, Article
16 (2)
27
Child marriage in Niger.” 2019. Save the Children UK. https://www.savethechildren.org.uk

11
UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of

Marriages

The UN Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and

Registration of Marriages was ratified by Niger in 1964.28 The Convention deals with several

issues that are relevant towards the issue of child marriage. According to Article 1, “no marriage

shall be legally entered into without the full and free consent of both parties, such consent to be

expressed by them in person after due publicity and in the presence of the authority competent to

solemnize the marriage and of witnesses, as prescribed by law.” 29 This Article addresses that all

marriages must be legitimate, legal and consensual. Niger’s child marriages are usually never

any of these things. Child marriage is inherently illegal under international law. Girl children do

not have agency to be able to have their decisions and opinions considered. Therefore, girls

cannot provide their full and free consent because they are at the hands of their parents’

decisions.

Niger Islamic/Customary Law

Niger is presumably a secular state that does not hold ties to a certain religion or faith.

However, being that the population is 99.3% of Muslim faith, the Nigerien civil code was

amended to state that Islamic law can be applied in certain areas as long as they are in

28
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of
Marriages.” 1962. ohchr.
https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/convention-consent-marriage-mi
nimum-age-marriage-and.
29
Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of
Marriages, 1962, Article 1

12
accordance with ratified international conventions.30 A draft family code collapsed in 2006 due

to rejections by religious authorities in Niger; therefore, there is an absence of legislation

governing marriage and divorce.31 Islamic customary law is followed in Niger more than the

civil code because the family code that has been on standby is not socially accepted because

many religious figures view it as the promotion of Western values over Islamic ones. According

to religious authorities, the proposed Nigerien family code defies the teachings of the Quran,

which they claim has already given the rights and duties of men and women respectively. 32

“Particularly in the domains of land tenure, inheritance, divorce, child custody – the realm of

family and personal law–Nigerian life is regulated by custom understood overwhelmingly as

Islamic, despite the erasure of Islamic law within the constitution or formal legislation of Niger.”
33
Religious figures in Niger put great emphasis on the sanctity and honor of marriage and the

subservient position of women in these family dynamics. They also put great emphasis on the

religious aspect of marriage, in that it ensures a godly reward in heaven for each partner. 34 Under

Islamic law in Niger, the man initiates divorce and the man is the head of the household who

makes the decisions. 35

30
Islamic world, countries with a cultural Islamic population.” n.d. Nations Online Project.
Accessed December 4, 2022. https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/muslim-countries.htm.
31
OECD. n.d. “Niger.”
https://www.genderindex.org/wp-content/uploads/files/datasheets/NE.pdf. p. 1
32
OECD. n.d. “Niger.” p.1
33
Cooper, Barbara M.. (2019) British and French Colonialism in Africa, Asia and the Middle
East. DOI: https://journals.openedition.org/droitcultures/1982#quotation p. 3
34
UN Women Multi-Country Analytical Study of Legislation, Policies, Interventions and
Cultural Practices on Child Marriage in Africa 2018,
https://africa.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Field%20Office%20Africa/Attachments/Publicatio
ns/2018 p. 95
35
Ibid.

13
 Chapter Three

Review of the Literature

Economic Explanations of Child Marriage

There are many different perspectives in studying the drivers of child marriage. One of

them is the economic perspective, that focuses on child marriage hindering the accumulation of

human capital. The term human capital has been used by economic developmentalists to

monetize intangible investments in society. The term has been used by scholars to explain the

various ways of investing in human ability and skill to increase economic gains. This term first

appeared in Chapter 4 of Adam Smith’s historical publication, The Wealth of Nations.

Throughout the chapter, he discusses and defines human capital. He emphasizes that education is

a great investment in human capital because it increases a person’s capability and skill in the

workforce, therefore, increasing their economic status in society. 36 Similar to Smith, economist

Michael Todaro provides a more modern definition of human capital in Chapter 8 of his book

called Economic Development. He begins this chapter by defining human capital as, “productive

investments embodied in human persons including skills, abilities, ideals, health and locations

often resulting from expenditures, one education, on-the-job training programs and medical

care.” 37 According to Todaro, greater health capital may improve the return to investments in

education which leads to higher productivity and income rates. Throughout the chapter he

provides significant evidence that proves an increase in return of investment from improved

educational resources. Todaro seeks to explain gender discrimination in society from an

36
Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations. Oxford, England: Bibliomania.com Ltd, 2002. Web..
https://lccn.loc.gov/2002564559.
37
Todaro, Michael P., Smith, Stephen C.. Economic Development. Ed. 12th Harlow: Pearson,
2015. Text. p.50

14
economic viewpoint. He states that the cost of failing to educate girls is about $92 billion a year,

an estimate that proves that hindering girls from receiving an education is not just inequitable but

also very costly. 38 Both Smith and Todaro emphasize the importance of education as a factor in

accumulating human capital. A report that builds on these two authors’ ideas is The Economic

Impacts of Child Marriage by the International Center for Research on Women (ICRW) and the

World Bank. This report compiles both qualitative and quantitative data to explain the low global

participation rates of girls due to child marriage. The report suggests that, “interventions to

promote education, including cash transfers, school vouchers, free school uniforms, reductions in

school fees, teacher training, and life skills curricula, are among the most likely to help.” 39

Therefore, increasing global investments in educational institutions lead to decreased rates of

child marriage. The report states that there are potentially higher gains in expected earnings and

productivity that could lead to lower fertility rates in children and higher education attainment.

The report concludes itself by stating that there are huge economic costs to child marriage as

well as greater benefits if it were eliminated.

The Feminist Theory

The feminist theory of international relations is used as the main theoretical framework in

explaining how and why the drivers of child marriage are issues that affect girls on a larger scale

than boys. The theory is useful because it brings in a gendered perspective to studying the issue.

The feminist theory of international relations brings different perspectives to why women have
38
Todaro, Michael P., 2015
39
International Center for Research on Women (ICRW). 2017. “ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF
CHILD MARRIAGE: (CONFERENCE EDITION) GLOBAL SYNTHESIS REPORT.”
https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/EICM-Global-Conference-Edition-June-27-FI
NAL.pdf. p.50

15
been excluded from the international decision making process, which has led to a lack of laws

protecting womens’ rights. Many feminist scholars have written about these issues, taking two

different approaches. One approach holds men accountable for the marginalization of women in

the international realm. Fernandez and Valdes (2016), explain feminist analysts views on the

international policy framework. They state that many feminist scholars have stated that all

policies in International Relations were fabricated by male elites. This had led to a male

dominated system that has excluded women, “because there is a maleness on the International

Relations Theory, it [Feminist Theory] has been neglected.” 40 They argue that since women have

been excluded for years from these activities, these laws only reflect what men view as necessary

to be implemented and enforced in society. “Relations are male-defined, and are constructed

around malefemale dichotomies, which define female as “other” and assign gender-specific roles

that exclude women from the public sphere.`` 41Another point similar to this, is made by

J.A.Tickner (1993), in which she argues that international relation policies were made by men

and do not include issues the majority of women tackle on a daily basis. “The role of women

with respect to national security has been ambiguous: defined as those whom the state and its

men are protecting, women have had little control over the conditions of their protection.” 42

Tickner (1993) argues that if women were in control of the formation of laws then there would

be less of a threat towards them in society, such as having laws to protect girls from being

married and exploited at very young ages.

40
Fernández, Mauricio Lascuarín. 2016, “THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY
UNDER A FEMINIST APPROACH.” Political Philosophy.
https://www.redalyc.org/journal/927/92743369003/html/. p.10
41
Fernández, Mauricio Lascuarín, 2016, p. 12
42
Tickner, J.A. 1993. “Gender in International Relations : Feminist Perspectives on Achieving
Global Security.” Political Science Quarterly. 10.2307/2080425. p.15

16
Religious Beliefs/Cultural/Societal Norms

Cultural and societal norms weigh in a great deal throughout the decision making

processes in patriarchal society. Nye and Welch (2017), define the patriarchy as, “the systematic

privileging of stereotypically “masuline” traits and virtues, such as strength, autonomy,

competitiveness, and martial skill.” 43 Therefore, they state, the patriarchy allows women’s rights

to be engulfed by male domination. Feminists believe that it is important to explain the gender

based oppression women experience under society’s norms and cultural behavior. In an academic

journal written by the feminist scholars Hilary Charlesworth, Christine Chinkin and Shelley

Wright, they state that societies, “are patriarchal structures not only because they exclude women

from elite positions and decision-making roles, but also because they are based on the

concentration of power in, and controlled by, an elite and the domestic legitimation of a

monopoly over the use of force to maintain that control.” 44 A similar point on the subject is

explored by feminist scholar, Sherry B. Ortner in her article, The Virgin and the State where she

states that even marital agreements in patriarchal societies are made between the father of the

bride and the groom. “Control of the marriage system, always in the hands of men, transforms

diffuse authority or charisma into the beginnings of real power and control”. 45 The power then

flows from the father when he is marrying his daughter, to the husband who is making the child

his wife.

43
Nye, Joseph. S, Welch, David A. Understanding Global Conflict and Cooperation : an
introduction to theory and history, 10th Ed. 10th. Ed Boston: Pearson, 2017. Text. p. 13
44
Charlesworth, Hilary. 1991. “Feminist Approaches to International Law.” The American
Journal of International Law , 85 (4): 613-645. p.622
45
Ortner, Sherry B. 1978. “The Virgin and the State.” Feminist Studies 4 (3): 19-35. p.24

17
Poverty

The feminist theory on poverty takes a more dynamic structure in understanding how

poverty can be categorized by social factors such as gender disparities.46 The theory addresses

questions such as: why are women more affected by poverty than men? How does gendered

poverty drive child marriage? Child marriage perpetuates the cycle of the feminization of

poverty, and familial poverty can hinder a girl’s progress in life. The term feminization of

poverty is addressed by (Sen 1998) where she answers the question that is frequently posed by

feminist scholars: are women poorer than men? In these discussions, the concept of feminization

of poverty is made up of many ideas that encompass either one or more of the following: “a.

women compared to men have a higher incidence of poverty. b. women’s poverty is more severe

than men’s. c. Over time, the incidence of poverty among women is increasing compared to

men.” 47 According to a definitional analysis conducted by Ruggeri, Saith and Stewart (2003),

found that there are various approaches to defining poverty. Their definition determined that the

concept of poverty was multifaceted; it manifests itself into complex dimensions that include

gender, societal, and cultural factors.48 Their conclusion entails the idea that gender is a definite

factor that influences poverty and increases a woman's vulnerability to it. Many feminist scholars

have identified the factors that affect a woman’s financial status. One main concept is intra

household inequality, which was observed by Valentine M. Moghadam (1998). Her journal

article explains this concept as discrimination against women in households in regards to the lack

of female decision making (specifically in marriage), and being forced into domestic labor

46
Otoo-Oyortey, Naana. 2003.
47
Sen, Amartya. 1999. “WP 5 GENDER AND POVERTY*.” United Nations Development
Programme https://www.iknowpolitics.org/sites/default/files/gender20and20poverty.pdf. p.3
48
Ruggeri, Caterina, Ruhi Saith, and Frances Stewart. "Does it matter that we don’t agree on the
definition of poverty? A comparison of four approaches." Oxford Development Studies 31, no. 3
(2003): 243-274.

18
duties. She states that women are barred from seeking an education and/or work, and are forced

to face a cycle of poverty.49 Women’s poverty differs from that of men’s because there are

already disparities in social capital between the two. Social capital refers to the livelihood skills,

education, and lack of good health. A similar point is made by Steven Pressman (2003) where he

explains that women are subject to sex segregation in rural and impoverished households. They

are given the responsibility of a caregiver with long hours of domestic labor. 50In his article he

states that, even if women were to seek work and an education, the men of the household as well

as her own mental and physical exhaustion would not permit her to do so.

Lack of Education

Feminists believe that educational institutions are agents of secondary socialization that

reinforces the patriarchy. Different concepts are explored by these theorists, but all have similar

undertones to their work. One concept is discussed by Sandra Acker (1987), where she states that

educational institutions discriminate against women as they fail women in regards to their

potential educational attainment. 51 She discusses the forms of discrimination that affect women

in schools, one of them being how male dominated subjects are given more attention in the

classroom. The author is keen in identifying how subjects are sex stereotyped; mathematics,

science, and technology are encouraged for males to participate in more than their female

49
Moghadam, Valentine M. "Women, work, and economic reform in the Middle East and North
Africa." In Women, Work, and Economic Reform in the Middle East and North Africa. Lynne
Rienner Publishers, 1998.
50
Pressman, Steven. "Feminist explanations for the feminization of poverty." Journal of
Economic Issues 37, no. 2 (2003): 353+. Gale Academic OneFile (accessed December 4, 2022).
https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A103416616/AONE?u=googlescholar&sid=bookmark-AONE&xi
d=4fb08704.
51
Acker, Sandra. "Feminist theory and the study of gender and education." International review
of education 33, no. 4 (1987): 419-435.

19
counterparts, who are encouraged to take on social studies, geography, and language instead. A

similar point is made by Florence Howe (1976) where she explains that subjects such as home ec

and etiquette are given to students as optional requirements or extra curricular courses, because

these subjects are highly feminized. The author explains that since these classes are perceived as

feminine subjects, they are deemed less important than the usual STEM curriculum.52 Feminist

scholars Heaton and Lawson (1996) explore similar grounds arguing that educational institutions

follow a hidden curriculum that increases the gender discrimination in schools. They explore the

ways in which textbooks and family cultural values that are exposed to students are male

dominated that support male dominated households. They state that this hidden agenda of

patriarchal oppression by schools encourages sex stereotypes. 53

Taking all this into consideration, gender stereotypes are encouraged in school settings,

and reinforce a woman’s place in society according to the patriarchy. Feminists believe that

societal norms play a huge part in women’s educational journeys. Audrey Thompson (2003)

explores the ways in which women are forced to take time off from school to do housework, take

care of children, or even get married. These issues stemming from society’s perspective on

women’s roles in the household affect their chances of receiving a formal and fulfilling

education. Thompson explains how gender expectations in the world are reflected in the

classroom, with less focus on girl’s achievements and accomplishments in school systems. 54

52
Howe, F. Journal of Education, 159(3) Feminism and the Education of Women. (1976).
11–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/002205747615900304
53
Heaton, T., Lawson, T. Explaining gender differences in educational achievement. In:
Education and Training. Skills-Based Sociology. Palgrave, London. (1996).
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-13883-8_5
54
Jane Roland Martin “What Should We Do with a Feminist Educational Theory When We Have
One?” A Response to Audrey Thompson, (2003) 33:1, 67-77, DOI: 10.1111/1467-873X.00250

20
 Chapter Four

Religious Interpretations and Cultural & Societal Norms

Part 1-Societal & Cultural Norms

Niger is based on a patriarchal society adhering to gender norms that magnify gender

inequalities which inhibit girls’ opportunities in their local communities. Gender norms in Niger

contribute to a lack of opportunity for girls and perpetuate the submission of women in society.55

Accepted retro aggressive cultural practices and societal norms in Niger are used to preserve a

patriarchal organization of power. There are several beliefs that influence gender norms in Niger:

girls’ role in society as wives and mothers, importance of female sexual purity and parental

authority. 56 Girls are disproportionately affected by harmful cultural and religious beliefs and

practices. Customary traditions and laws consider women inferior to men and have no rights in

society.

Socio cultural factors create commonly held beliefs about the role and status of each

gender.57 From a young age, Nigerien girls are taught to submit themselves to men which affects

social interactions between members of society. Many Nigeriens believe that, “the man is the

stronger sex” which produces greater social, economic and financial inequalities throughout

society. 58 These inequalities permit the existence of well defined roles, for men and women, of

their duties in the household and community in which they inhabit. Women are socialized to

55
ALIGN PLATFORM. 2019. “Social and gender norms and child marriage: A reflection on
issues, evidence and areas of inquiry in the field.” Align Platform.
https://www.alignplatform.org/sites/default/files/2019-04/align_child_marriage_thinkpiece.pdf.
56
Ibid.
57
Gnabeli, Yao, and Ludovic Lado. Etat, Religions et Genre en Afrique Occidentale et Centrale.
Langaa RPCIG, 2019.
58
Ibid.

21
marry young and bear children while men are expected to provide for their family financially.

Educated women in Niger are commonly referred to as “lost women'', because they are not living

according to traditional means. 59 For a woman to behave differently, she is ostracized, not only

by men, but by other women in her community because she is perceived as a traitor.

The practice of child marriage in Niger is deeply rooted in African social and cultural

norms.60 The African perspective on the importance of marriage and family are what encourage

Nigerien communities to practice child marriage. African parents share the same beliefs as other
61
community members’ normative beliefs. African communities are not based on values of

individualism, all norms and beliefs shared by society derive from the societal norms of the

clannish communities they comprise. “The African is vertically rooted in his family, in the vital

ancestor, if not in God; horizontally, he is linked to his group, to society, to the cosmos. The fruit

of a family-individual, society-individual dynamic, all linked to the universe, the African can

only develop and bloom through social and family life”. 62 African communities thrive on marital

and familial values that are shared by many societies in the culture. African values of respecting

elders and parental figures is not just a social norm embedded in the culture, but also a law.

According to Article 29 (1) of the African Charter for Human and Peoples Rights it states that

every individual shall have the duty to “respect his parents at all times and to maintain them in

59
Ibid.
60
Ibid.
61
Bicchieri, Cristina, Ting Jiang, and Jan W. Lindemans. "A social norms perspective on child
marriage: The general framework." (2014).
62
ETOUNGA-MANGUELLE, DANIEL. 2000. “Does Africa need a cultural adjustment
program?” https://archive.org/stream/pdfy-iZKKC2b1CW7Dr-yI/2000-etounga_djvu.txt. P.5

22
case of need.” 63 This perspective leads to the glorification of Nigerien parents’ consent and

opinions.

Girl’s Role in Society as Wives and Mothers

Niger is composed of a normative environment where labor and responsibilities are

separated by gender.64 Social roles for men and women are strictly enforced in Nigerien societies,

making it difficult for girls to oppose societal norms. Conformity and obedience are two

characteristics that are valued by Nigerien communities as it shows that a girl will be a good wife

to her husband and respect the decisions made by her elders.65 Nigerien beliefs hold that a girl is

a successful wife and mother if she is able to get married at a young age and bear many children.

These duties are what brings honor to a girl’s family and community. Nigerien society stresses

the vital goal of marriage as motherhood and bearing as many children to create a family that

upholds the values of tradition. Girls that observe and take part in these traditions are cited as

social examples in Nigerien societies. 66

Parental Authority

Parental authority is a fundamental social norm that controls the direction of certain

decisions in Nigerien households.67 When it comes to marital affairs, parents often make

63
African Commission for Peoples and Human's Rights. n.d. “African Charter for Human and
Peoples Rights.” African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights Legal Instruments.
Accessed December 4, 2022. https://www.achpr.org/legalinstruments/detail?id=49. Article 29 (1)
64
Psaki, Stephanie R., Andrea J. Melnikas, Eashita Haque, Grace Saul, Christina Misunas,
Sangram K. Patel, Thoai Ngo, and Sajeda Amin. "What are the drivers of child marriage? A
conceptual framework to guide policies and programs." Journal of Adolescent Health 69, no. 6
(2021): S13-S22.
65
Ibid.
66
Ibid.
67
Ibid.

23
important judgments on behalf of their young daughters, since Nigerien girls are viewed as

family property that do not hold individualistic and human rights. Therefore, young girls do not

have a voice in choosing to be married at an older age or remain single. Nigerien parents view

marrying their daughters off at an early age as fulfilling their duties as noble parents.68 For

example, the father of a young bride becomes higher in social status and is looked up to by other

parents if he marries his daughter as a child as he is seen to have avoided shame and upheld his

honor in the community. Nigerien fathers look out for their male peers in the community by

marrying their daughters to them because Nigerien men earn more respect and responsibility in

their social circles if they are married.69 They are able to conduct prayers, represent their family

in certain social functions and negotiate terms on behalf of their family. Fathers not only assist

other men in the community by marrying their daughters to them, but benefit from the marriage

as husbands tend to help a bride’s family with physical labor.70 Nigerien fathers benefit from

“anzourey bougou”, in which the newly wed husband assists a young bride’s father with farming,

construction work and other labor intensive tasks.71

Nigerien parents’ inability to observe and participate in the practice of child marriage can

yield social exclusion. 72 Child marriage is weaved into binding community traditions as

Nigerien girls are usually married along with their school peers during specific times in the year,

usually after the harvest season ends. Girls in the same grade and/or classrooms are married

almost simultaneously; any girl who is left behind and single becomes a disgrace to her

68
Plan International in West Africa & Central Africa (PLAN WARO). 2012. “Family honour and
shattered dreams:.” Girls Not Brides.
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/documents/1742/Plan_Family-honour-and-shattered-dreams_Web
-1.pdf.
69
Ibid.
70
Ibid.
71
Ibid.
72
Ibid.

24
community.73 Nigerien parents fear their community’s reactions to their unmarried daughter(s). 74

Remaining single may indicate issues with the behavior of the girl, her familial values, and the

authority of her parent’s decisions. Child marriage will prevent girls from having sexual relations

outside of marriage and will save parents from public humiliation.75 If their daughter reaches an

age above the average age of marriage, as still single, Nigerien parents experience ridicule,

gossip and ostracism from their communities. 76

Female Sexual Purity

Patriarchal social norms in Niger are used to control a girl’s sexuality by placing

magnified values on girls’ virginity and marital status. Girls who have remained virgins before

marriage are honored by their parents, their in-laws, and their community. 77 Nigerien girls are

expected to remain chaste to preserve and protect their family’s honors in society.78 Child

marriage is seen as the solution to any moral degradation that can be caused by having premarital

sex and bearing children out of wedlock.79 Girls are required to be prepared for the marital state

at a young age. Child brides are sought after because the younger a girl is, the more likely she

has remained a virgin. These girls are chosen as ideal marital partners because of their virginity

status.

73
Plan International in West Africa & Central Africa (PLAN WARO), 2012.
74
Bicchieri, Cristina, Ting Jiang, and Jan W. Lindemans, 2014.
75
Brown, Gordon. 2015. “The Effects of Traditional and Religious Practices of Child Marriage
on Africa's Socio-Economic Development.” African Union. https://au.int/sites/default/files/
76
Ibid.
77
Rivera, Evette. "The Implementation of the Rights of the Child; Transcending the Traditional
Practice of Child Marriage in Niger, Yemen, and Thailand." (2011).
78
UN Women Multi-Country Analytical Study, 2018.
79
Psaki, Stephanie R., Andrea J. Melnikas, Eashita Haque, et, al, 2021.

25
 Forced intercourse and rape have become normalized in marriages involving child brides.

Girls are expected to bear children at such a young age where her mind and body aren’t ready.

Gender based violence in the home. Perpetrators of violence against girls are usually never held

accountable because it is viewed by society as the girl’s fault for not obeying her spouse and

defying marital norms. 80

Part 2-Religious Interpretations

Gender inequalities are also embedded in the traditional interpretations of religious

teachings. Religion in Niger has provided a normative framework for permitting child marriage

where interpretations have created spaces of justification for marrying underage girls.81 It is

important to note that not one religion allows child marriage, as it is not specifically taught in

any religious text. However, Niger has witnessed high rates of child marriage in rural areas

where the Hausa ethnic group reside, whose primary religion is Islam. 82 The highest rates of

child marriage in Niger are concentrated in the Hausa dominant villages of Maradi, Zinder,

Diffa, and Tahoua as seen in Table 8.

80
UN Women Multi-Country Analytical Study, 2018.
81
Ibid.
82
Ibid.

26
 83

These areas have the highest rates of child marriage in Niger where interpretations of

Islamic teachings are the roots of these harmful traditional practices. There are three main

Islamic justifications that religious leaders use for child marriage, the Prophet Muhammad

marrying his wife Aisha at six years old, the invocations that marrying off daughters will assure
84
parents’ blessings in the afterlife, and the lack of a fixed age for marriage in the Quran. Islam

does not encourage child marriage; it is the broad interpretations of the Quran and its teachings

that allow child marriage to occur.

Islam is a crucial aspect of identity structure in Niger. 85 However, religious leaders have

exploited religion as a tool of patriarchy to push women out of public visibility. Nigerien women

83
UN Women Multi-Country Analytical Study, 2018.
84
Ibid.
85
Alidou, Ousseina D.. 2005. Engaging Modernity : Muslim Women and the Politics of Agency
in Postcolonial Niger. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Accessed December 5, 2022.
ProQuest Ebook Central.

27
have been expected to rely on men for Islamic knowledge and interpretation of the Quran

because many women in Niger are illiterate.86 “The literacy rate for women between the ages of

15 and 25 is less than 25 percent”.87 Patriarchal interpretations of Islam have paved the way for

increased gender inequalities in Muslim communities in Niger which has led to increased rates of

child marriage. For example, Sura 4 Verse 11 of the Quran states, “Allah thus commands you

concerning your children: the share of the male is like that of two females.” 88 The interpretation

of this verse has allowed patriarchal systems of inheritance to thrive in Niger because it has

allowed communities to claim in their customary laws that the share of an inheritance of a male

should be double that of the female. Islamic law considers marriage a civil duty with different

rules for men and women.89 Men must provide for the family financially while women are

expected to satisfy husband’s sexual needs and be obedient. Religious figures in Niger claim that

Islam prepares a girl for marriage at a young age by placing her in society as the caretaker in her

home, not in the classroom.90 They also claim that women are subordinate to men because men

were created before women according to the Quran, Sura 15 Verse 26 Allah created man first,

“[We] created man from sounding clay, from mud molded into shape..." 91

Interpretations of the Quran have also created the traditional practice of wahaya in Niger.

“Wahaya is a Nigerien tradition where a girl who is considered of slave status is bought by a man

in her village. These girls are referred to as wives, but are treated like slaves by their husband

86
Alidou, Ousseina D, 2005.
87
Borgen Project. 2020. “Gender Equality in Niger.” The Borgen Project.
https://borgenproject.org/tag/gender-equality-in-niger/.
88
Quran 4:11
89
Alidou, Ousseina D, 2005.
90
Ibid.
91
Quran 15:26

28
and his family.” 92 Parents believe that selling their daughters very young to highly idealized

figures as charity will help them avoid hell after death. An Anti-Slavery International report

found that from the 165 wahaya girls they interviewed in Niger, 83% had been sold before they

were 15 years old. 93 Girls who are wahaya are always the fifth wife in the marriage, and are not

seen as legitimate wives but rather slaves due to the interpretation of Sura 4 Verse 3 of the Quran

that states, “if you fear that you might not treat the orphans justly, then marry the women that

seem good to you: two, or three, or four. If you fear that you will not be able to treat them justly,

then marry (only) one, or marry from among those whom your right hands possess. This will

make it more likely that you will avoid injustice.” 94This verse has been used to justify the

legitimacy of wahaya in Niger.

92
Humanium. 2012. “Children and religion.” Humanium.
https://www.humanium.org/en/children-and-religions/.
93
Abdelkader, Galy K., and Moussa Zangaou. 2012. “WAHAYA.” Anti-Slavery International.
https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Wahaya-report.pdf.
94
Quran 4:3

29
 Chapter Five

Lack of Education

The lack of an enriching educational experience for Nigerien girls is among one of the

main reasons for such high rates of child marriage in the country. 95 Niger's educational system

can be described as an ill assorted institution that emanates from a network of infrastructural

deterioration, unsafe learning environments, and unqualified educators. External factors such as

spillover effects from neighboring countries and domestic conflict can prevent girls from

traveling far distances to school. 96 These determinants act as barriers for Nigerien girls in

attending classes, and excelling in their educational journeys. These factors cause Nigerien

parents to choose to marry their young daughters as it is seen to be the rising alternative to

vulnerabilities caused by the poor educational system.

Primary schools are compulsory and free for all Nigerien children until the age of 15.97 In

spite of these factors, Niger has one of the lowest educational enrollment rates for girls in Africa.

About 42% of girls in Niger are enrolled in basic education, compared to 58% of boys98. In 2018,

about 78% of girls were enrolled in primary and secondary education, but only 35% of those

girls completed their studies and graduated.99 An estimated 50% of girls attend primary school

95
Save the Children. 2019. “Gender Norms, Child Marriage and Girls’ Education in West and
Central Africa: Assessing the role of education in the prevention and response to child marriage |
Save the Children’s.” Save the Children's Resource Centre.
https://resourcecentre.savethechildren.net/pdf/child_marriage_2019_en.pdf/.
96
Ibid.
97
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers. n.d. “Niger.”
AACRAO. Accessed December 5, 2022. https://www.aacrao.org/edge/country/niger.
98
“Niger's need to improve the education of girls.” 2021. Chatham House.
https://www.chathamhouse.org/2021/07/improving-education-girls-in-niger.
99
World Bank DATA. n.d. “School enrollment, primary (% net) - Niger | Data.” World Bank
Data. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR?locations=NE.

30
ages 6-11 years old, 10% of girls attend secondary school ages 12-16 years old, and 2% of girls

attend highschool ages 17 and up.100 Girls with secondary schooling are up to six times less

likely to marry as children when compared to girls who have little to no education.101 The

average time girls spend in school is 4 years before they drop out, usually for their own

weddings.102 These numbers reflect the vast discrepancies between girls and boys educational

attainment which is imperative in understanding the gender discrimination in Nigerien schools

that leads to increased rates of child marriage for girls which is shown on the following table:
103

Deep rooted discriminatory gender norms contribute to low numbers of education

enrollment and attainment for Nigerien girls. 104 Nigerien parents remain aloof from investing in

their daughters’ futures, as their beliefs derive from gender norms that view girls as marital

partners and homemakers. Gendered divisions of labor affect girls’ educational attainment as

they are usually required to assist their mothers with the domestic work in their households

which draws their attention away from their schoolwork.105 Doing so, undermines Nigerien girls’

ability to excel academically to their fullest potential. Marriage is an integral part of a girl’s

100
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers, 2020
101
Ibid.
102
Ibid.
103
Save the Children, 2019.
104
ALIGN PLATFORM, 2019.
105
Sen, Amartya. 1999

31
education in Niger.106 Once a girl is married in Niger, her husband becomes responsible for her

moral and religious education. Parents do not see the education provided by schools in Niger as

rewarding as religious education classes or their spouse’s education at home. Therefore, parents

do not feel obligated to invest in their daughters’ education because it is perceived as

unbeneficial.

Gender and social norms are also manifested through the Nigerien school system.107

Adult role models such as teachers and school staff are influenced by gender norms in society

and reflect those views in their classrooms. For example, these environments reinforce gender

stereotypes when boys are asked more questions than girls in the classroom.108 Other variations

may include male teachers assigning different types of chores for girls and boys; Nigerien girls

are usually asked to clean the classroom while boys are required to chop wood. 109 The lack of

female teachers creates a barrier for girls to feel safe and empowered in their own learning

environments. In 2019, there were only 36,099 female teachers in primary schools in Niger. 110

Female teachers in Niger create safe spaces for girls because they stand as role models and may

help to empower and inspire young girls to seek continued education. Nigerien schools lack the

resources to create equality in the classroom. Teachers lack training in most areas of the

education curriculum, especially in gender sensitive education concepts. 111 In 2017, only

one-third of Nigerien teachers had received a sufficient level of teaching competency. 112

106
Save the Children, 2019.
107
ALIGN PLATFORM, 2019.
108
Ibid.
109
Ibid.
110
Ret Germany. 2022. “Addressing the Multidimensional Barriers to Girls' Education in Niger
RET Germany.
https://retgermany.de/2022/10/13/addressing-the-multidimensional-barriers-to-girls-education-in
-niger/.
111
Ibid.
112
Ret Germany, 2022

32
Furthermore, Nigerien schools do not have sexuality education courses in their curriculum which

hurts girls’ ability to make conscious decisions in their sex lives. 113 These courses can be

beneficial for young girls by enabling them to shift their own mindsets about child marriage.

Nigerien parents fear for the safety of their girl children when they are sent to school.114

Nigerien parents prevent their daughters from receiving a proper education due to potential

internal and external dangers surrounding girl students. Growing insecurity in Niger has led to

increased attacks on schools in the region where girls are targeted specifically by non state armed

groups.115 The Nigerien regions of Tillabery, Tahoua, Diffa and Maradi have the highest rates of

school closures due to these conflicts. (It is important to note that these three regions also have

the highest rates of child marriage in Niger; Maradi district, where 89% of girls between the ages

of 20-24 are married before the age of 18 has only 30% of the region's children enrolled in

school).116 Terrorist driven attacks and conflict spillover effects in neighboring countries such as

Nigeria, Chad and Mali target teachers and school children.117 These organizations do not support

Western school curriculums over Islamic educational systems and terrorize, kill and rape girl

children in order to instill fear and deter them from attending class. In 2021, 23,000 Nigerien

girls were affected by school closures. 118 Nigerien girls are also exposed to dangers on their way

to school when they travel very far distances because of little to no transportation access and the

lack of nearby schools. Girls who live far from school are inclined to exchange sex for transport

113
Ibid.
114
ALIGN PLATFORM, 2019.
115
Regional Education in Emergencies Working Group. 2021. “EDUCATION UNDER ATTACK
IN WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA.” Global Coalition to Protect Education from Attack.
https://protectingeducation.org/wp
116
Prevost, Nathalie. May 2014. "Schools in the Niger Try a New Approach to Bring More Girls
into Classrooms." UNICEF
117
UNICEF. 2021. “Over 300 schools forced to close in Niger due to insecurity, affecting more
than 22,000 children.” UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/niger/press-releases
118
Ibid.

33
to avoid punishment for tardiness in school. Internal factors such as the risk of sexual

harrassment from peers and school staff remain widespread as well.119 Proper infrastructure

threatens the safety of girls in school too. Nigerien schools are made up of nondurable material

like wood and straw making them susceptible to fires, storms, etc.120 Fires are known to break

out in Niger which makes them unsafe spaces, deterring parents from sending their girl children

to school. 121 Many Nigerien schools are also overcrowded as educational institutions are

extremely scarce in many regions. Niger only contains 3,175 primary schools and about 49% of

the population are girls under the age of 15.122

119
UNICEF, 2021
120
Ibid.
121
BBC. 2021. “Niger classroom fire kills at least 25 schoolchildren.” BBC.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-59210421.
122
World Bank Data. 2020 “School enrollment, primary (% net) - Niger | Data.” World Bank
Data. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR?locations=NE.

34
 Chapter Six

Poverty and Bride Price

Gender inequalities that derive from the patriarchal nature of African societies allows for

the vicious cycle of the feminization of poverty to prevail in Niger which hinders female social

and economic development.123 Poverty in Niger is not gender neutral as it affects more women in

society than men. Niger has about 41.8% of the population living in extreme poverty with about

an estimated 75% of girls and women living below the poverty line.124 The high rate of poverty

amongst females in Niger can best explain the discrimination against women in all aspects of

life. Child marriage is driven by familial poverty and is settled upon to relieve financial burdens

parents may be suffering through. Nigerien families resort to harmful traditions such as bride

price before marriage which gives way to increased rates of sexual abuse during marriage. 125

Nigerien girls who are married as children for their family’s financial gain experience spousal

sexual abuse and gender based violence.126 For example, one Nigerien girl stated that, “after [her]

wedding, he wanted to have sexual relations with me, but I refused…he became increasingly

violent, he beat me and choked me.”127 There have been reports of cases when a high bride price

was paid where men say, “I am beating my cows”, when hitting their wives. 128 Child brides are

expected to be sexually available to their husbands at all times. Nigerien girls who are abused

123
Sen, Amartya. 1999
124
Girard, Ollivier. 2022. “Poverty in Niger: 5 Things you need to know.” Concern Worldwide.
https://www.concernusa.org/story/poverty-in-niger/.
125
Sen, Amartya. 1999
126
Ibid.
127
United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). 2014. “In Niger, empowering girls to take a stand
against child marriage.” United Nations Population Fund.
https://www.unfpa.org/news/niger-empowering-girls-take-stand-against-child-marriage. p.3
128
OBOKO, Uche Gloria; IFEANYICHUKWU, Aloysius Ebuka. Genderized Implications of
Bride Pricing Culture in Igbo Land. 2021 Lingual: Journal of Language and Culture, [S.l.], v. 12,
n. 2, p. 28, nov. 2021. ISSN 2716-3091, p. 1

35
become more vulnerable to increased rates of substance abuse and mental illnesses; development

is hindered when a girl is exposed to these factors. Furthermore, mental health issues do not

allow child brides to pursue continued education which leads to low numbers of girls in the labor

force. 129

The poorer the family, the higher the rates of child marriage will be. Girls who come

from poverty stricken households are more vulnerable to being married as children. 130Niger’s

poverty rates are very high, as many as 10 million people are living on less than $1 USD a day.
131
Poor parents marry their daughters off believing it will relieve them from one less child to

provide for. Gender inequalities in terms of social status and well-being make Nigerien parents

believe that girls are to be married off to older men who may provide for them financially,

instead of investing in their education and development. Nigerien parents believe that investing

in their daughter’s future does not yield the same results as their sons.132 Girls are removed from

school and marry as soon as possible to relieve their own financial burdens. Poverty of the

household and the family allows parents to seek out child marriage. Girls who come from poorer

households are not given the same opportunities, therefore they lack in development areas such

as education, livelihood skills and personal growth. 133

Child marriage is seen as a financial incentive, because girls are seen as properties and

objects by their families, that can be used for wealth gain and poverty relief instead of

129
OBOKO, Uche Gloria; IFEANYICHUKWU, Aloysius Ebuka, 2021
130
ICRW. 2006 “Child Marriage and Poverty.” ICRW. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://www.icrw.org/files/images/Child-Marriage-Fact-Sheet-Poverty.pdf.
131
Girard, Ollivier, 2022.
132
ICRW, 2006.
133
Ibid.

36
investments to grow and advance society.134 The tradition of bride price in Africa has become a

way of making money for families who are in need. Bride price makes the marriage formal,

without the bride price the marriage is not deemed official or legitimate. African marriages

traditionally have bride prices and justify this practice by stating that the wealth received by the

bride’s family is for the troubles taken to raise a daughter because girls are presumed costly to

feed, clothe and educate. 135 “Bride price may be defined as gift or payment in various forms

such as natural produce, labor or monetary form given to a parent or guardian of a female person

for a marriage which is intended or has taken place…bride price also known as bride wealth is an

amount of money or property paid to the parents of a woman for the right to marry their

daughter. Or the payment is an exchange for the bride's family loss of her labor and fertility

within her kin group.”136 Bride price payments can be a variety of things such as labor, cash

money, cattle, and material contracts. Niger bride price is 54 Nigerien CFA (83 USD), but

families usually exceed that amount by a lot.137 Bride prices are seen to save the family during

difficult financial times. “Parents encourage their daughters to be married at a younger age to

obtain the bride price payment especially if the parents are credit constrained and need funds

immediately which may even be at the cost of their daughter’s future welfare.” 138 Parents believe

that marrying their girl children means it is one less mouth to feed; they would rather marry their

daughter’s off than the boys because boys are perceived as resourceful investments.

134
Asen, Rosemary. "A Feminist Analysis of the Themes of Bride Price Practice in Sutherland’s
Marriage of Anasewa and Sofola’s Wedlock of The Gods." International Journal of Art and Art
History 5, no. 1 (2017): 32-44.
135
Ibid.
136
Asen, Rosemary, 2017 p. 34
137
Ibid.
138
OBOKO, Uche Gloria; IFEANYICHUKWU, Aloysius Ebuka, 2021 p. 3

37
 There are several factors that determine how much a bride price will be. These factors are

determined by the value of the bride. Nigerien families ask questions such as: is the girl a virgin?

Is she a good housewife? How much education does she have? Higher bride price is demanded

amongst poorer households because poverty is what drives parents to marry their daughters at an

early age.139 Capacity to bear children is a big requirement for how much a groom will pay in

bride price. The bride is sometimes given away solely to save her family from poverty. 140 Bride

price re-emphasizes Nigerien patriarchal values by allowing factors such as education, fertility,

and housewife duties as determinants of how much the girl will be sold for. Nigerien daughters

are seen as a way of making money when they are married as children. The younger the bride,

the higher the bride price is. 141 Families who are poor put extreme pressure on their daughters to

be sought after and be given marriage proposals.

The tradition of bride price is patriarchal by nature, throughout the entire process a

Nigerien girl does not have the autonomy to make decisions regarding her marriage. For

example, price haggling is a pre wedding process that is conducted without the consent of the

bride.142 Only Nigerien men discuss the bride price and price haggling, no women are allowed to

provide their opinions. The haggling involved in negotiating for bride price certainly presents the

woman as an article being bargained for. This at times lasts for a long period as the groom and

his family negotiate for what they can afford.143

Bride prices lead to higher rates of domestic violence as many spouses will not recognize

or treat their wives as humans but properties instead. “Many of the negative cultural practices

139
OBOKO, Uche Gloria; IFEANYICHUKWU, Aloysius Ebuka, 2021
140
Ibid.
141
Ibid.
142
Ibid.
143
Ibid.

38
under survey appear to be founded on the idea of inferior status of women as symbolized by the

traditional marriage in that the woman is seen as an article for sale after marriage she is treated as

an article purchased. Practices such as wife-inheritance, marital rape, the denial of inheritance

and custody right, and lack of economic independence are founded on the idea of women being

the property of the man.”144 Bride prices must be refunded if a wife decides to leave her husband,

and many families cannot afford to do this because they are so poor, so girls must choose to

either run away and end up poor on the streets or stay in an abusive household. Even if women

do walk away from the marriage, they cannot remarry unless it is refunded. 145 “Bride price has

become a business transaction, if it is refunded it feels like you are just refunding a product you

weren’t satisfied with.” 146 Commercialization of bride price makes women commodities for sale.

Bride price also causes low self esteem because they feel and are treated like property.147 Women

start to believe that they are for sale and do not have the rights, there is a major lack of

confidence leads to lack of realizing your worth and empowerment.

144
Asen, Rosemary, 2017 p. 40
145
Ibid.
146
Ibid.
147
Ibid.

39
 Chapter Seven

Policy Recommendations

There are many possible areas of intervention for tackling and ending the practice of

child marriage in Niger. The key to resolving this widespread issue requires a mix of targeted

legal efforts, proactive leadership, and international intervention. These solutions may include

multi faceted approaches that challenge institutionalized gender inequality and patriarchal

standards that are at the root of child marriage in Niger. Eliminating child marriage in Niger is a

task that takes a great deal of trial and error in order reach a consensus on which methods are

useful in achieving the best results. The main areas in which policy makers, the Nigerien

government, donors and international development organizations must focus on in tackling child

marriage are: strengthening legislation, encouraging open dialogue with religious leaders,

educating girls and government officials, and providing financial support for families. The main

issue is that there is a lack of a comprehensive, gendered response to child marriage. Girls are

affected more than anyone when it comes to school closures, poverty, and social norms. The

government of Niger must adopt programs and policies that target girls’ rights through a

gendered approach, child protection responses need to take a gendered approach by recognizing

the special attention girls need when it comes to these situations. Making sure girls are at the

forefront of development assistance and programs is important as well and by taking a holistic

and understanding approach, addressing the widespread cultural and social acceptance of child

marriage can create change.

40
Strengthen legislation

All loopholes to legislation that allows for child marriage must be eliminated which

includes all Nigerien customary and religious laws. 148 Enforcing the law in Niger is hard since

customary law dominates while national law is not recognized by religious figures and societies.

Therefore, there must be the presence of a comprehensive and approved legal framework that

correlates Nigerien domestic law with all international standards. Niger must uphold their side of

the deal when adhering to international doctrines since they signed the Convention on the

Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Convention on the Rights of the
149
and African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. Therefore, Niger must harmonize

their domestic legislation with the existing international legislation. An example is to have

Nigerien lawmakers raise the legal age of marriage with parental consent to the age of 18 to

coincide with the legal minimum age of marriage as stated in the United Nations Convention on

the Rights of Child. There should also be significant strengthening of the civil registration for

marriages since the bulk of weddings in Niger are being married under the radar and therefore go

unregistered.

Encourage healthy dialogue with religious leaders and community members

In Niger, traditional/religious leaders are perceived by communities as the gatekeepers of

society and therefore are essential in driving change when it comes to eliminating the practice of

148
Girls Not Brides. n.d. “Establish and implement laws and policies.” Girls Not Brides.
Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/theory-change/establish-and-implement-laws-a
nd-policies/.
149
Deane, Tameshnie. 2021. Marrying Young: Limiting the Impact of a Crisis on the High
Prevalence of Child Marriages in Niger. Laws 10: 61. https://doi.org/10.3390/ laws10030061

41
child marriage.150 Vocal resistance by religious leaders is important in countering child marriage

because it allows for healthy dialogue between advocates and leaders. To increase credibility for

these efforts, agencies should use and include female leaders to advocate against child marriage.

Advocacy campaigns can engage with religious leaders at holy sites to create a familiar and

comfortable environment in order to facilitate discussions on the interpretation of certain

religious texts that are used to justify child marriage. Advocates against child marriage should

steer away from theological debates with religious leaders that may become theoretical and

instead focus on the facts of child marriage, such as the dangers it imposes on young girls and

the consequences it has on them later in life. Advocates can encourage religious leaders to

promote interpretations of religious text that can ensure girls’ well being in society. Training

programs for religious leaders can also be helpful in order to have them reflect on their own

values of masculinity and the patriarchy. It is important to remember that forcefully imposing

foreign societal norms into a community will not drive change but will foster detestation for

organizations wanting to make a difference. Mobilizing religious and community leaders to

respond effectively to mass gender inequality can create gender specific responses needed to

achieve change and create a difference151.

Enhance girls’ access to high quality education

Educating girls contributes to their increased empowerment. Access to proper schooling

and learning initiatives can prevent girls from getting married. Therefore, Nigerien schools can

150
Girls Not Brides. 2019. “WORKING WITH RELIGIOUS LEADERS TO ADDRESS CHILD
MARRIAGE.” Girls Not Brides.
https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/documents/901/Working-with-religious-leaders-Girls-Not-Brides-
2019.pdf.
151
Ibid.

42
empower girls through teaching them social skills and school curriculum.152 Examples of the

skills Nigerien girls are in need of strengthening are:

● Effectively communicating with members of their communities

● Negotiating techniques

● Financial decision making and independence 153

These skills can lead to greater decision making power for girls and can lead to an increased

sense of agency. Advocacy campaigns and international organizations can host informative

campaigns and workshops, about how important education is for girls, for parents and families

who are usually the decision makers in girls’ daily lives. All programs should include increased

male participation, since men are usually the primary decision makers in Nigerien households, to

increase awareness on the harmful consequences of child marriage and dissuade them from

choosing marriage for their young daughters. 154 These techniques can help to promote girls’

access to high quality education by encouraging parents to keep their daughters in school.

Teaching families with daughters and the broader community that delaying marriage can benefit

society and girls’ well being can be extremely helpful in preventing child marriage.

Educational institutions can help a great deal in preventing child marriage by increased

investments in quality resources for girls such as:

● Investing in infrastructure to make schools safe and accessible for all students.

● Improving learning environments by making school curricula relevant to girls by

152
ICRW. n.d. “Solutions to End Child Marriage.” ICRW. Accessed December 5, 2022.
https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/19967_ICRW-Solutions001-pdf.pdf.
153
Ibid.
154
Ibid.

43
 including courses on sexual and reproductive health.

● Training programs for all faculty to ensure girls are treated fairly in the classroom.

● Providing material and financial incentives such as discounted tuition rates, free

school uniforms, scholarships, and transportation to impoverished families.

● Ensuring the availability of gender sensitive services in schools where girls can

seek assistance and guidance if needed.155

Keeping young girls in school and avoiding school closures is important to keeping girls in

school. If girls are unable to get to school because of dangerous external factors, Nigerien

schools should explore remote learning opportunities, if not online then the radio can be used.156

Educate officials

The Nigerien government, in conjunction with international organizations, must hold

yearly training programs for law enforcement, judiciary and government officials where they are

trained to identify girls at risk or actual victims of child marriage. Involving older women who

were child brides themselves in these processes can allow these workshops to gain greater insight

into what victims of child marriage experience, and tell all signs in identifying girls in need of

assistance.157 Raising awareness amongst community leaders and government officials allows for

them to become more aware of the dire situation girls are put in when married at a young age.

Provide economic support to impoverished families

Enhancing economic security for poverty stricken families is important in preventing and

eliminating child marriage. International development organizations and humanitarian aid should
155
Deane, Tameshnie. 2021
156
Ibid.
157
ICRW. n.d.

44
focus on providing food services, income grants, incentives for struggling Nigerien families.158

Increasing access/accessibility to humanitarian services can lead to open communication and

awareness between these organizations and girls and their families. Creating a telephone hotline

for girls to call if they can’t access these organizations in real life may be helpful for girls who

live in remote or rural areas.159

158
ICRW. n.d.
159
Ibid.

45
 Chapter Eight

Conclusion

This thesis argued that the primary factor driving child marriage in Niger is the vast

gender inequalities and discrimination. It is demonstrated that the traditional practice of child

marriage is an issue that predominantly affects girls in Niger simply because of their gender. In

particular, this thesis examines the drivers of child marriage in Niger by analyzing the following:

social and cultural norms, religious interpretations, lack of education, and familial poverty. These

drivers of child marriage all share the same underlying component, gender. The fact that

Nigerien girls are girls makes them more vulnerable to these drivers. This thesis challenged the

conventional way of studying child marriage which is through an economic lens by

demonstrating that the gendered perspective is multidimensional which allows it to successfully

grasp the reasons the practice disproportionately affects girls. By studying Niger, I explored how

each driver has gendered components that hurt girls by disabling their progress in leading

fulfilling lifestyles and advancing in society.

Yet, in Niger, many women and girls are still fighting for their basic human rights and

freedoms regarding marriage. Dismantling oppressive traditions and practices, such as child

marriage, that do not guarantee the protection of girls is especially daunting in a country where

customary law reigns supreme. However, for Niger to witness change, girls must be protecting

against child marriage through gendered responses and policy changes. The recommendations

laid out in this thesis take a gendered approach as well, because the lack of utilizing these

methods to resolving child marriage has allowed the practice to perpetuate across Niger.

46
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