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 Introduction
to ­Emergency
­Management
Seventh Edition

George D. Haddow

Jane A. Bullock

Damon P. Coppola

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The authors have chosen to dedicate this book to two individuals who
throughout their careers exhibited extraordinary dedication to hazard
mitigation. These individuals are George Bernstein and Richard Krimm.
Mr. Bernstein was with the New York State Insurance Commission
when in 1969, President Nixon tapped him to come to Washington to
serve as Administrator of the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA—
which at that time was a part of the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD)). HUD administered the National Flood Insur-
ance Program (NFIP) through the FIA. Mr. Bernstein was instrumen-
tal in establishing the requirement that communities adopt ordinances
limiting development in the floodplain in exchange for access to low
cost flood insurance. The program had been limited in its effectiveness
until Mr. Bernstein worked with Congress to require the purchase of
flood insurance on any property with a federally secured mortgage.
Through this action, the NFIP became the single most important force
in implementation of community risk reduction. Later, while in pri-
vate practice as head of the Washington D.C, Bernstein Law Firm,
Mr. Bernstein returned to public service as the volunteer Chairman of
the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) Ad-
visory Committee during a time when program was underfunded and
floundering. Through his leadership, the Advisory Committee devel-
oped a strategy and budget blueprint for the future of earthquake haz-
ards reduction in the United States. The aftermath of the Loma Prieta
earthquake proved the efficacy of the Committee’s work and delivered
financial and political support to NEHRP.
Richard Krimm was one of the extremely talented individuals that
Mr. Bernstein recruited to federal service during his time at FIA. Mr.
Krimm’s career at FIA, including when FIA was incorporated into the
new Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), exemplified his
commitment to risk reduction. His leadership of these programs dur-
ing multiple administrations and hundreds of national disasters was re-
markable. Among Mr. Krimm’s many talents was his ability to recruit
and hire exceptional individuals to the federal workforce. This was evi-
denced by the strength and effectiveness of the regional offices he es-
tablished to execute FIA and FEMA programs at the state and local
levels. His efforts to expand the emergency management connection to
other constituencies were evidenced through the support pledged and
offered by organizations that include the Association of State Floodplain
Managers, the Natural Hazards Research and Applications Center, the
National Emergency Managers Association, a variety of insurance in-
dustry organizations, and many others. Mr. Krimm was always open to
new ideas and nurtured innovation among the staff. While running the
disaster response and recovery program, he constantly sought ways to
incorporate mitigation in postdisaster recovery. The success of many of
FEMA’s risk mitigation programs can be attributed to his vision, leader-
ship, and dedication to public service.
As we continue to address the increasing influence of climate change
on community risk and seek new means and mechanisms to reduce its
impacts, the vision, leadership, and wisdom of George Bernstein and
Richard Krimm serve as an inspiration to the emergency management
community.
Foreword

It has been my privilege to be a part of the emergency management community over the
course of my career and to encourage students to become a part of addressing issues that
are very important to our citizens and our communities. These issues involve how we
work together to mitigate, prepare for, respond to, and recover from disasters. I have dedi-
cated my professional and personal career working with communities on these issues.
I had the privilege to serve as FEMA Director from 1993-2001 under President
Clinton, who recognized that it was important that citizens could count on the govern-
ment to be there in the aftermath of a disaster to provide help when it was most needed.
During that time, with the support of a dedicated staff, we rebuilt FEMA into one of
the most trusted agencies in the federal government. We learned a lot and were tested
by an unprecedented number of disasters from record-breaking floods and tornadoes,
hurricanes that concurrently impacted multiple states, a major urban earthquake, and
the terrorist bombing in Oklahoma City. With each event, we studied the lessons to
be learned and incorporated them into our professional practices. This included the
predisaster reduction of community hazard risk. Project Impact, a community-based
mitigation program we initiated in partnership with the private sector, was the embodi-
ment of these efforts which sought to prevent disasters before they happen.
Since leaving FEMA, I have worked with diverse communities in the public and
private sectors and with governments of other countries to promote emergency man-
agement, hazard mitigation and the improvement of long-term recovery from disas-
ters. I have worked to improve building codes at the International Code Council and
helped to guide recovery from Hurricane Katrina and numerous other domestic disas-
ters (including the California wildfires and hurricanes in Houston, Puerto Rico, and the
Virgin Islands). While rewarding, it has also proved to be a troubling and hectic time. It
has become clear to me that our nation faces several critical hazard-related challenges
that will require expansion in the expertise and involvement of the emergency manage-
ment community. The most significant of these is climate change and the impacts it is
having on the severity, frequency, and multiplicity of disasters. Climate change is the
challenge of this century. Emergency management plays a large and growing role in
addressing and mitigating the impacts of climate change for the future.
This textbook, written by seasoned emergency management practitioners, pro-
vides a primer on the history, evolution, and disciplines of emergency management.
It offers practical advice on what has worked and what has not, supported by case
studies and critical thinking. It also recounts many stories about how emergency
management has impacted the lives of the people we serve.
Emergency managers have a difficult job, but it is some of the most fulfilling works
an individual can pursue. Emergency management makes a difference in people’s lives,
not just in times of disaster but also in the mitigation and preparedness efforts undertaken
before disasters strike. Emergency managers, by their actions, contribute to the safety
and the economic and social stability of our neighborhoods and communities every day.
James Lee Witt
xiii
Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank the following individuals for their continued help and
insight: Jack Harrald, Greg Shaw, Joseph Barbera, Irmak Renda-­ Tanali, Ollie
Davidson, Sarp Yeletaysi, Garrett Ingoglia, Ryan Miller, Rene van Dorp, Erin
McConnell, Wayne Blanchard, Sanjaya Bhatia, Liz Maly, Gerald Potutan, Gulzar
Keyim, Tim Wilcox, Pam Chester, Amber Hodge, Paul Gottehrer, Todd Green, Nate
McFadden, Brad Gair, Ehren Ngo, Fran McCarthy, Caroline Brassard, Betsy Millett,
Sara Scott, Pem McNerney, Travis Trueblood, Erin Hughey, Todd Bosse, Cassie
Stelow, Joseph Green, Chani Goering, Jane Rovins, Eric Chapman, Ines Pearce,
Steven Carter, David Gilmore, Jack Suwanlert, Barbara Johnson, Wendy Walsh,
Tawnne O’Connor, Matt Foster, Tyson Vaughn, Bob McCreight, Adam Jachimowicz,
Sara Wade-­Apicella, Ana Thorlund, and Audra Kiesling.
We also thank the many professors, students, and practitioners who gave us valu-
able feedback on different aspects of the book and provided suggestions to make the
text more relevant and useful.

xv
Introduction

There is no country, no community, and no person immune to the impacts of disasters.

Disasters, however, can be and have been prepared for, responded to, and recovered
from, and have had their consequences mitigated to an increasing degree. Emergency
management is the profession and academic discipline that assumes, and is tasked
with performing, these important functions. This book, Introduction to Emergency
Management, is designed to provide the reader with a comprehensive foundation of
the history, structure, organization, systems, and concerns that shape the manage-
ment of disasters and other emergencies. Contained within are details and descrip-
tions of contemporary emergency management practices and strategies, as well as
descriptions of the key players involved in emergency management both within the
United States and around the world. Our intent is to provide the reader with a work-
ing knowledge of how the functions of comprehensive emergency management oper-
ate and the influence they can have on everyday life.
This seventh edition represents a documentation of the current status of the
discipline as it gravitates toward a state of equilibrium. The 2001 terrorist attacks
set in motion a series of events that forever changed not only the way government
jurisdictions at all levels (federal, state, and local) address the terrorism hazard, but
also the way members of the public, nongovernmental organizations, and businesses
prepare for disaster events, both independent of and in concert with these agencies.
Many felt that some of these actions were knee-jerk in nature and failed to preserve
the positive lessons learned during previous eras (especially during the service of
Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA] Administrator James Lee Witt
[1992–2000], when FEMA was rated among the most effective federal agencies). In
2005, the troubled response to Hurricane Katrina confirmed such concerns. In doing
so, it also had the effect of recalibrating the nation toward a more comprehensive
approach to all-hazards risk assessment by reminding practitioners that emergency
management must be guided by scientific and statistical risk analysis (irrespective of
differences that may exist with the public, policy, and media agendas).
Since the writing of the last edition of this textbook, several major disaster events
have occurred, and FEMA has continued in its drive to shape the emergency man-
agement doctrine. In addition to several new tools, frameworks, and guides, each of
which complements the response-oriented National Response Framework, FEMA
has begun to change its focus toward coordination of the greater “whole community”
of response and recovery resources. The agency continues to reassert itself as the
federal focal point for federal, state, and local emergency management—a role that
suffered following the creation of the Department of Homeland Security and the sub-
sequent implementation of DHS Secretary Chertoff's Six-Point Agenda. Increasing
use of military resources through Defense Support of Civil Authorities provisions
marks a possible challenge to this role. But FEMA nonetheless maintains its status
as the agency responsible for the bulk of the nation's emergency management policy,

xvii
xviii Introduction

direction, and federal-level operations—even though many feel it is stifled under the
umbrella of the Department of Homeland Security which is so heavily focused on
the singular goal of reducing threats to national security. Compared with its years as
an independent, Cabinet-level agency, FEMA remains subject not only to indirect
access to the president and a diminished decision-making authority, but also the need
to conform to a strategic focus held by an agency whose fundamental mission is
markedly different from its own.
In 2005, we saw a national system of emergency management—once regarded as
one of the most effective and emulated systems in the world—proven incompetent
in responding to an event that had been long predicted, planned for, and studied:
Hurricane Katrina. Almost 15 years later, FEMA has made considerable progress in
salvaging that reputation even in the face of a contentious Hurricane Maria recovery
in Puerto Rico. This edition will examine how FEMA has evolved as a result of the
legislation enacted in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, obstacles identified in the
aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, and various changes in leadership and policy within
and outside the agency.
While the book emphasizes the US domestic system of emergency management,
many of the experiences discussed, lessons learned, and emerging trends are repli-
cable to emergency management systems around the world. Emergency management
in the United States has experienced every form of disaster: natural, human-made,
and intentional. The lessons learned from these experiences, the changes made in
response to these events, and how the system continues to evolve because of climate
change and other emerging threats provide a solid landscape to examine what emer-
gency management is or could be.
However, this book is not exclusively focused on FEMA. State and local emer-
gency management organizations are the subjects of many of the included case stud-
ies, and their collaborative affiliations with FEMA are discussed at length throughout
the text. One full chapter, in fact, is dedicated to how emergencies are managed at the
international level when the capacity of whole countries or regions falls short of what
is required to manage the disaster at hand. With greater frequency, events such as the
2004 Asian earthquake and tsunami, Cyclone Nargis in Burma in 2008, the Sichuan
and Haiti earthquakes, the Great East Japan Earthquake, and other more recent events
have highlighted the need for a more robust international emergency management
system. Through their own domestic efforts, and the efforts of the United Nations
system vis-à-vis the 2016 Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, govern-
ments across the globe are focusing more attention on the issue.
A brief summary of the contents and special features of this edition follows:
  
• Chapter 1, “The Historical Context of Emergency Management,” includes a
brief discussion of the historical, organizational, and legislative evolution of
emergency management in the United States by tracing the major changes trig-
gered by disasters or other human or political events, including the creation of
the Department of Homeland Security. This chapter includes an analysis of the
 Introduction xix

organizational, legislative, and policy changes made in emergency management

both pre- and post-Hurricane Katrina.
•  Chapter 2, “Natural and Technological Hazards and Risk Assessment,” identi-
fies and defines the hazards confronting emergency management.
•  Chapter 3, “The Disciplines of Emergency Management: Mitigation,” discusses
what the function of mitigation is and what the strategies and programs applied
by emergency management or other disciplines to reduce the impacts of disaster
events are.
•  Chapter 4, “Preparedness,” catalogs the broad range of programs and processes
that comprise the preparedness function of modern emergency management.
•  Chapter 5, “Crisis and Risk Communications,” breaks from the more traditional
approach to emergency management and focuses on why communications with
the public, with the media, and with partners are critical to emergency manage-
ment in the 21st century.
•  Chapter 6, “The Disciplines of Emergency Management: Response,” focuses on
the essential functions and processes of responding to a disaster event.
•  Chapter 7, “Recovery,” describes the broad range of government and voluntary
programs available to assist individuals and communities in rebuilding in the
aftermath of a disaster.
•  Chapter 8, “International Disaster Management,” provides an overview of cur-
rent activity in international emergency management through an examination of
selected international organizations.
•  Chapter 9, “Emergency Management and the Terrorist Threat,” describes how
terrorist events and the threat of future attacks have altered risk perception and
influenced the emergency management profession.
•  Chapter 10, “The Future of Emergency Management,” looks at modern trends
in emergency management and provides insights, speculations, and recommen-
dations from the authors about where emergency management is or should be
headed in the future.
  
Our goal in writing this book was to provide readers with an understanding of
emergency management, insight into how events have shaped the discipline, and
thoughts about the future direction of emergency management. Evolution of emer-
gency management in the United States, as is true elsewhere, is largely reaction-
ary. While events like September 11, 2001, hurricanes Katrina and Sandy, and other
major disasters highlight our strengths and expose our weaknesses, it is possible to
be forward-thinking and otherwise predictive in planning for emergency manage-
ment capacity needs, and our hope is to prepare the growing cadre of emergency
management professionals with the knowledge required to analyze such needs with
accuracy. Evolving threats, including the prospect of global climate change, and our
changing social, economic, and political environment, demand new and innovative
approaches and leadership. We hope this text will motivate each reader to accept the
challenge.
Online Resources

Thank you for selecting Butterworth Heinemann’s Introduction to Emergency

Management, seventh edition. To complement the learning experience, we have pro-
vided online tools to accompany this edition.
Qualified adopters and instructors can access valuable material for free by
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xxi
 CHAPTER

The Historical Context of

Emergency Management

What You Will Learn

1
• The early roots of emergency management
• H
 ow FEMA came to exist and how it evolved during the 1980s, 1990s, and the
early 21st century
• T
 he sudden changes to modern emergency management that resulted from the
9/11 terrorist attacks and Hurricane Katrina
• C
 hanges made by post-­Hurricane Katrina legislation, a new administration, and
legislation passed in the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy
• FEMA post-­2016

Introduction
Emergency management has its roots in ancient history. Early hieroglyphics depict
cave dwellers trying to deal with disasters. The Bible speaks of the many disasters that
befell civilizations. In fact, the story of Noah warning his neighbors about an impend-
ing flood, and his subsequent building of an ark to preserve the planet’s biodiversity,
could be interpreted as a very early lesson in risk control. As long as there have been
disasters, individuals and communities have tried to find ways to fix them. However,
organized attempts at disaster recovery did not occur until much later in modern history.
This chapter discusses the historical, organizational, and legislative history of
modern emergency management in the United States. Some of the significant events
and people that have shaped the emergency management discipline over the years
are reviewed. Understanding the history and evolution of emergency management is
important because at different times, the concepts of emergency management have
been applied differently. The definition of emergency management can be extremely
broad and all-­encompassing. Unlike other, more structured disciplines, it has expanded
and contracted in response to events, congressional desires, and leadership styles.
Since the turn of the current century, formative events and selections in leader-
ship, more than anything else, have spurred dramatic changes to emergency manage-
ment in the United States. The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 led to massive
organizational changes and programmatic shifts in emergency management. Many
believe that these changes undermined the effective national system of emergency
management that had evolved during the 1990s and led to the profound failure of all
levels of emergency management in response to Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

Introduction to Emergency Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-­0-­12-­817139-­4.00001-­4

Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2 CHAPTER 1 The historical context of emergency management

A simple definition for emergency management is “a discipline that deals with

risk and risk avoidance.” Risk represents a broad range of issues and includes an
equally diverse set of players. The range of situations that could possibly involve
emergency management or the emergency management system is extensive. This
supports the premise that emergency management is integral to the security of every-
one’s daily lives and should be integrated into daily decisions and not just called on
during times of disaster.
Emergency management is an essential role of government. The Constitution
gives states the responsibility for public health and safety—hence the responsibility
for public risks—with the federal government in a secondary role. The federal role is
to help when the state, local, or individual entity is overwhelmed. This fundamental
philosophy continues to guide the government function of emergency management.
Based on this strong foundation, the validity of emergency management as a gov-
ernment function has never been in question. Entities and organizations fulfilling the
emergency management function existed at the state and local levels long before the
federal government became involved. But as events occurred, as political philoso-
phies changed, and as the nation developed, the federal role in emergency manage-
ment steadily increased.
In the aftermath of the failed response to Hurricane Katrina, extensive discussion
about emergency management, particularly the response and recovery functions,
has taken place. An ever-­increasing presence of nonprofit organizations delivering
support to their particular constituencies after Katrina has given rise to interest on
the part of the nonprofit community to take on increased responsibilities for disas-
ter response. While the Post-­Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act detailed
changes to how federal emergency management functioned, many of the changes
included in this legislation were overlooked or were slow to be adopted by the leader-
ship at the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS). With the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008,
both Congress and the emergency management community looked forward to posi-
tive changes and support for a struggling discipline. Positive changes were made in
the nomination of Craig Fugate, a very qualified state emergency management direc-
tor from Florida, who came in with a promise to improve FEMA’s response opera-
tions. Administrator Fugate refocused the agency on preparedness and response. To
some this has come at the cost of reducing the agency’s efforts to promote mitiga-
tion and to pass leadership of community recovery efforts to other federal agen-
cies. Administrator Fugate launched Whole Community as his personal program to
change the dialog from victims to survivors. Over the course of Fugate’s tenure, the
agency was tested with many major disasters, the most significant being the impacts
of Hurricane/Superstorm Sandy. This period of emergency management is high-
lighted by the emergence of social media as a critical tool in disaster communications
and response, and FEMA has taken full advantage of the new mediums. It has also
been marked by a relatively low key profile for FEMA and emergency management
as a part of DHS and as homeland security events and issues continued to dominate
the disaster and political landscape. In 2016, with the election of Donald Trump as
   The Cold War and the Rise of Civil Defense: The 1950s 3

president, FEMA continued with a low profile in DHS until a series of hurricanes
impacting Florida, Texas, and Puerto Rico brought a lackluster federal response to
the disasters. This chapter will discuss how the agency, FEMA, and emergency man-
agement evolved, the individuals and leadership that shaped it, and the events that
precipitated change.

Early History: 1800–1950

In 1803, a congressional Act was passed that provided financial assistance to a New
Hampshire town that had been devastated by fire. This was the first example of the
federal government becoming involved in a local disaster. It was not until Franklin
Roosevelt’s administration used government as a tool to stimulate the economy that
the federal government began to make significant investments in emergency manage-
ment functions.
During the 1930s, the Reconstruction Finance Corporation and the Bureau of
Public Roads were both given the authority to make disaster loans available for repair
and reconstruction of certain public facilities after disasters. The Tennessee Valley
Authority was created during this time to produce hydroelectric power and, as a sec-
ondary purpose, to reduce flooding in the region.
A significant piece of emergency management legislation was passed during
this time. The Flood Control Act of 1936 gave the US Army Corps of Engineers
increased authority to design and build flood-­control projects. This Act has had a
significant and long-­lasting impact on emergency management in this country. The
Act reflected the philosophy that humans could control nature, thereby eliminating
the risk of floods. Although this program would promote economic and population
growth patterns along the nation’s rivers, history has proven that this attempt at emer-
gency management was both shortsighted and costly.

The Cold War and the Rise of Civil Defense: The 1950s
The next notable timeframe for the evolution of emergency management was dur-
ing the 1950s. The era of the Cold War presented the principal disaster risk as the
potential for nuclear war and nuclear fallout. Civil defense programs proliferated
across communities during this time. Individuals and communities were encouraged
to build bomb shelters to protect themselves and their families from nuclear attack
from the Soviet Union.
Almost every community had a civil defense director and most states had
someone who represented civil defense in their state government hierarchy. By
profession, these individuals were usually retired military personnel, and their
operations received little political or financial support from their state or local
governments. Equally often, their civil defense responsibilities were in addition
to other duties.
4 CHAPTER 1 The historical context of emergency management

Federal support for these activities was vested in the Federal Civil Defense
Administration (FCDA), an organization with little staff or financial resources,
whose main role was to provide technical assistance. In reality, the local and state
civil defense directors were the first recognized face of emergency management in
the United States.
A companion office to the FCDA, the Office of Defense Mobilization, was estab-
lished in the Department of Defense (DOD). The primary functions of this office
were to allow for quick mobilization of materials and production and stockpiling
of critical materials in the event of a war. It included a function called emergency
preparedness. In 1958, these two offices were merged into the Office of Civil and
Defense Mobilization.
The 1950s were a quiet time for large-­scale natural disasters. Hurricane Hazel,
a Category 4 hurricane, inflicted significant damage in Virginia and North Carolina
in 1954; Hurricane Diane hit several mid-­Atlantic and northeastern states in 1955;
and Hurricane Audrey, the most damaging of the three storms, struck Louisiana and
North Texas in 1957. Congressional response to these disasters followed a familiar
pattern of ad hoc legislation to provide increased disaster assistance funds to the
affected areas.
As the 1960s started, three major natural disaster events occurred. In a sparsely
populated area of Montana, the Hebgen Lake earthquake, measuring 7.3 on the Richter
scale, was proof that states other than California were at risk for severe earthquakes.
Also in 1960, Hurricane Donna hit the west coast of Florida, and Hurricane Carla
blew into Texas in 1961. The incoming Kennedy administration decided to make
a change to the federal approach to such disasters. In 1961, it created the Office of
Emergency Preparedness inside the White House to deal with natural disasters. Civil
defense responsibilities remained in the Office of Civil Defense within the DOD.

Changes to Emergency Management: The 1960s

As the 1960s progressed, the United States would be struck by a series of major natural
disasters. The Ash Wednesday storm in 1962 devastated more than 620 miles of shore-
line on the East Coast, producing more than $300 million in damages. In 1964, an earth-
quake measuring 9.2 on the Richter scale in Prince William Sound, Alaska, became
front-­page news throughout America and the world. This quake generated a tsunami
that affected beaches as far down the Pacific Coast as California and killed 123 people.
Hurricane Betsy in 1965 and Hurricane Camille in 1969 killed and injured hundreds
of people and caused hundreds of millions of dollars in damage along the Gulf Coast.
As with previous disasters, the response was the passage of ad hoc legislation for
funds. However, the financial losses resulting from Hurricane Betsy’s path across
Florida and Louisiana raised the issue of disaster insurance against future floods and
a potential method to reduce continued government assistance after such disasters.
Congressional interest was prompted by the unavailability of flood protection insur-
ance on the standard homeowner policy. If this type of insurance was available, it was
   Critical Thinking 5

cost prohibitive. These discussions eventually led to the passage of the National Flood
Insurance Act of 1968, which created the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP).
Congressman Hale Boggs of Louisiana is appropriately credited with steering
this unique legislation through Congress. Unlike previous emergency management/
disaster legislation, this bill sought to do something about the risk before the disaster
struck. It brought the concept of community-­based mitigation into the practice of
emergency management. In simple terms, when a community joined the NFIP, in
exchange for making federally subsidized, low-­cost flood insurance available to its
citizens, the community had to pass an ordinance restricting future development in
its floodplains. The federal government also agreed to help local communities by
producing maps of their community’s floodplains.

Additional Research
In October 2006, a report entitled Costs and Consequences of Flooding and the Impact of the
National Flood Insurance Program was issued, which provided an overview of what the NFIP had
accomplished. It is available at http://bit.ly/29s6ulo.

The NFIP began as a voluntary program as part of a political compromise that

Boggs reached with then Senator Tom Eagleton of Missouri. As a voluntary program,
few communities joined. After Hurricane Camille struck the Louisiana, Alabama,
and Mississippi coasts in 1969, the goals of the NFIP to protect people’s financial
investments and to reduce government disaster expenditures were not being met.
Change would not occur until Hurricane Agnes devastated Florida in 1972.
George Bernstein, who was brought down from New York by President Nixon to run
the Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) within the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD), proposed linking the mandatory purchase of flood insurance to all
homeowner loans that were backed by federal mortgages. This change created an incen-
tive for communities to join the NFIP because a significant portion of the home mortgage
market was federally backed. This change became the Flood Insurance Act of 1972.
It is important to note how local and state governments chose to administer this
flood risk program. Civil defense departments usually had the responsibility to deal
with risks and disasters. Although the NFIP dealt with risk and risk avoidance, respon-
sibilities for the NFIP were sent to local planning departments and state Departments
of Natural Resources. This reaction is one illustration of the fragmented and piece-
meal approach to emergency management that evolved during the 1960s and 1970s.

Critical Thinking
Can you think of any positive or negative aspects of disaster-­driven evolutionary
changes in the United States’ emergency management system? What about changes
that occur in the absence of initiating disaster events?
6 CHAPTER 1 The historical context of emergency management

The Call for a National Focus on Emergency Management:

The 1970s
In the 1970s, the responsibility for emergency management functions was evident
in more than five federal departments and agencies, including the Department
of Commerce (weather, warning, and fire protection), the General Services
Administration (GSA) (continuity of government, stockpiling, and federal pre-
paredness), the Treasury Department (import investigation), the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (power plants), and HUD (flood insurance and disaster relief).
With the passage of the Disaster Relief Act of 1974, which was prompted by the
previously mentioned hurricanes and the San Fernando earthquake of 1971, HUD
possessed the most significant authority for natural disaster response and recovery
through the NFIP under the FIA and the Federal Disaster Assistance Administration
(disaster response, temporary housing, and assistance). On the military side were
the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (nuclear attack) and the US Army Corps of
Engineers (flood control); however, considering the broad range of risks and poten-
tial disasters, more than 100 federal agencies were involved in some aspect of risks
and disasters.
This pattern continued down to the state and, to a lesser extent, local levels.
Parallel organizations and programs added to the confusion and the turf wars that
often occurred during disaster response efforts. The states and the governors grew
increasingly frustrated over this fragmentation. In the absence of one clear federal
lead agency in emergency management, a group of state civil defense directors led
by Lacy Suiter of Tennessee and Erie Jones of Illinois launched an effort through the
National Governors Association (NGA) to consolidate federal emergency manage-
ment activities into one agency.
With the election of a fellow state governor, President Jimmy Carter of Georgia,
the effort gained steam. President Carter came to Washington committed to stream-
lining all government agencies and seeking more control over key administrative
processes. The state directors lobbied the NGA and Congress for a consolidation of
federal emergency management functions. When the Carter administration proposed
such an action, it was met with a receptive audience in the Senate. Congress already
had expressed concerns about the lack of a coherent federal policy and the inability
of states to know whom to turn to in the event of an emergency.
The federal agencies involved, however, were not as excited about the prospect. A
fundamental law of bureaucracy is a continued desire to expand control and author-
ity, not to lose control. In a consolidation of this sort, there would be both losers and
winners. There was a question of which federal department/agency should house the
new consolidated structure. As the debate continued, the newly organized National
Association of State Directors of Emergency Preparedness championed the creation
of a new independent organization, an idea that was quickly supported by the Senate.
During these discussions, an accident occurred at the Three Mile Island nuclear
power plant in Pennsylvania, which added impetus to the consolidation effort. This
   The Call for a National Focus on Emergency Management: The 1970s 7

accident brought national media attention to the lack of adequate off-­site prepared-
ness around commercial nuclear power plants and the role of the federal government
in responding to such an event.
On June 19, 1978, President Carter transmitted to Congress the Reorganization
Plan Number 3 (3 CFR 1978, 5 US Code 903). The intent of this plan was to con-
solidate emergency preparedness, mitigation, and response activities into one federal
emergency management organization. The president stated that the plan would estab-
lish the (FEMA) and that the FEMA director would report directly to the president.
Reorganization Plan Number 3 transferred to FEMA the National Fire Prevention
Control Administration (Department of Commerce), the Federal Insurance
Administration (HUD), the Federal Broadcast System (Executive Office of the
President), the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency (Department of Defense), the
Federal Disaster Assistance Administration (HUD), and the Federal Preparedness
Agency (GSA). The following emergency preparedness and mitigation functions
were also transferred to FEMA:
  
● oversight of the Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (Office of Science and

Technology Policy);
● coordination of dam safety (Office of Science and Technology Policy);

● assistance to communities in the development of readiness plans for severe

weather-­related emergencies;
● coordination of natural and nuclear disaster warning systems;

● coordination of preparedness and planning to reduce the consequences of major

terrorist incidents.
  
Reorganization Plan Number 3 articulated the following fundamental organiza-
tional principles:
  
1. Federal authorities who were to anticipate, prepare for, and respond to major
civil emergencies should be supervised by one official who is responsible to the
president and given attention by other officials at the highest levels.
2. An effective civil defense system requires the most efficient use of all available
resources.
3. Whenever possible, emergency responsibilities should be extensions of federal
agencies.
4. Federal hazard mitigation activities should be closely linked with emergency
preparedness and response functions.
  
Subsequent to congressional review and concurrence, FEMA was officially estab-
lished by Executive Order 12127 of March 31, 1979 (44 FR 19367, 3 CFR, Comp.,
p. 376). A second Executive Order, 12148, mandated the reassignment of agencies,
programs, and personnel into the new entity, FEMA.
Creating the new organization made sense, but integrating the diverse programs,
operations, policies, and people into a cohesive operation was a much bigger task
than realized when the consolidation began. It would take extraordinary leadership
and a common vision. The consolidation also created immediate political problems.
   The Steps Leading to the Katrina Debacle 19

coast more vulnerable to hurricanes. Design and construction decisions on the levee
system and inadequate maintenance of that system contributed to the impacts of
Katrina.
The storm challenged the capacities and capabilities of emergency management
operations at all levels of government. The lack of planning for the Superdome as the
designated shelter of last resort for New Orleans and the subsequent problems that
occurred in that facility provided the most visible demonstration of the failed capaci-
ties. Many of the problems of the immediate response exposed the impacts of priority
focus on terrorism and homeland security in recent years and may have contributed
to the decrease in these capacities and capabilities.
Elected officials at all levels of government stumbled badly as they tried to
provide leadership in the face of this disaster. The business community, voluntary
agencies, and nongovernmental organizations stepped up to provide extraordinary
services to storm victims. The general public, corporations, unions, and foundations
donated billions of dollars for disaster relief.

Additional Research
In the aftermath of Katrina, both houses of Congress held extensive hearings on what went wrong.
The Senate report “The Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, 2006.
Hurricane Katrina: A Nation Still Unprepared” provides insight into the results of the hearings and
deliberations.

http://bit.ly/29B4wCd.

More than 1800 people died from Hurricane Katrina, and tens of thousands were
displaced and suffered for days in places like the Superdome, on freeway ramps, and on
the tops of roofs while waiting to be rescued. Thousands lost their homes and were sepa-
rated from loved ones. The dislocation, chaos, and desperation that lingered for months
after the storm were direct results of the failure of government at all levels to plan, pre-
pare for, and respond aggressively to the storm. Failure can be assessed at all levels, but
when President Bush signed the federal declaration of disaster and announced it before
Katrina even made landfall, the federal government, through DHS/FEMA, assumed the
primary responsibility for the stewardship of the response to this storm’s aftermath. And
by any objective evaluation of the response, it was a colossal failure.

The Steps Leading to the Katrina Debacle

In many respects, FEMA’s failures after Katrina were a predictable outgrowth of steps
that were taken in the aftermath of September 11. FEMA lost its status as an independent
agency—and its direct access to the president—when it was absorbed into the newly cre-
ated DHS. The director of FEMA was no longer on the same level as the cabinet secretar-
ies whom FEMA had to task and direct during disasters. At the state level, many states
created their own offices of homeland security that subsumed emergency management
or were competitive structures, further complicating emergency response organization.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
grande sforzo, vi sarete capacitati del vero stato e delle condizioni di
Pompei al momento della sua distruzione.
A me, sorretto dalla memoria delle antiche storie e de’ classici
scrittori e de’ poeti di Roma antica, percorrendo fra i più concitati
sussulti del cuore le vie dissepolte di Pompei, davanti le macerie e
gli avanzi solenni di questi pubblici edificj, quest’opera di
immaginosa ricostruzione riuscì agevole e spontanea. Fu per poco,
se nel varcar la soglia della Basilica, non udissi le arringhe degli
avvocati, nel rasentar le colonne del Foro non mi togliessi per
reverenza il cappello al passar delle maestose figure di Pansa e di
Olconio e non mi commovessi alla passione di questo giovane
innamorato, che lungi dall’aver guasto il cuore dalla general
corruzione, così io credessi vedere graffire sentimentalmente sulla
muraglia:

Scribenti mi dictat amor monstratque Cupido

Ah! peream sine te si Deus esse velim [315].

FINE DEL PRIMO VOLUME

 INDICE

Dedica Pag. V
Intendimenti dell’Opera VII
Introduzione 1

CAPITOLO I. — Il Vesuvio. — La carrozzella

napoletana — La scommessa d’un Inglese
— Il valore d’uno schiaffo — Pompei! —
Prime impressioni — Il Vesuvio — Temerità
giustificata — Topografia del Vesuvio — La
storia delle sue principali eruzioni — Ercole
nella Campania — Vi fonda Ercolano — Se
questa città venisse distrutta
contemporaneamente a Pompei — I popoli
dell’Italia Centrale al Vesuvio —
Combattimento di Spartaco — L’eruzione
del 79 — Le posteriori — L’eruzione del
1631 e quella del 1632 — L’eruzione del
1861, e un’iscrizione di V. Fornari —
L’eruzione del 1868 — Il Vesuvio ministro
di morte e rovina, di vita e ricchezza —
Mineralogia — Minuterie — Ascensioni sul
Vesuvio — Temerità punita —
Pompejorama 15

CAPITOLO II. — Storia. Primo periodo. — 41

Divisione della storia — Origini di Pompei
— Ercole e i buoi di Gerione — Oschi e
Pelasgi — I Sanniti — Occupano la
Campania — Dedizione di questa a Roma
 — I Feciali Romani indicon guerra a’
Sanniti — Vittoria dell’armi romane — Lega
de’ Campani co’ Latini contro i Romani —
L. Annio Setino e T. Manlio Torquato —
Disciplina militare — Battaglia al Vesuvio
— Le Forche Caudine — Rivincita de’
Romani — Cospirazioni campane contro
Roma — I Pompejani battono i soldati della
flotta romana — Ultima guerra de’ Sanniti
contro i Romani

CAPITOLO III. — Storia. Periodo secondo.

— La legione Campana a Reggio — È
vinta e giustiziata a Roma — Guerra
sociale — Beneficj di essa — Lucio Silla
assedia Stabia e la smantella — Battaglia
di Silla e Cluenzio sotto Pompei — Minazio
Magio — Cluenzio è sconfitto a Nola —
Silla e Mario — Vendette Sillane — Pompei
eretto in municipio — Silla manda una
colonia a Pompei — Che e quante fossero
le colonie romane — Pompei si noma
Colonia Veneria Cornelia — Resistenza di
Pompei ai Coloni — Seconda guerra
servile — Morte di Spartaco — Congiura di
Catilina — P. Silla patrono di Pompei
accusato a Roma — Difeso da Cicerone e
assolto — Ninnio Mulo — I patroni di
Pompei — Augusto vi aggiunge il Pagus
Augustus Felix — Druso muore in Pompei
— Contesa di Pompejani e Nocerini —
Nerone e Agrippina — Tremuoto del 63
che distrugge parte di Pompei 61

CAPITOLO IV. — Storia. Periodo secondo. 91

 — Leggi, Monete, Offici e Costume — Il
Municipio — Ordini cittadini — Decurioni,
Duumviri, Quinquennale, Edili, Questore —
Il flamine Valente — Sollecitazioni elettorali
— I cavalieri — Gli Augustali — Condizioni
fatte alle Colonie — Il Bisellium — Dogane
in Pompei — Pesi e misure — Monete —
La Hausse e la Baisse — Posta —
Invenzione della Posta — I portalettere
romani — Lingua parlata in Pompei —
Lingua scritta — Papiri — Modo di scrivere
— Codicilli e Pugillares — Lusso in Pompei
— Il leone di Marco Aurelio — Schiavi —
Schiavi agricoltori — Vini pompejani —
Camangiari rinvenuti negli scavi — Il garo
o caviale liquido pompejano — Malati
mandati a Pompei

CAPITOLO V. — Storia. Periodo secondo.

— Il Cataclisma — T. Svedio Clemente
compone le differenze tra Pompejani e
Coloni — Pompei si rinnova — Affissi
pubblici — La flotta romana e Plinio il
Vecchio ammiraglio — Sua vita — La
Storia Naturale e altre sue opere — Il
novissimo giorno — Morte di Plinio il
Vecchio — Prima lettera di Plinio il Giovane
a Tacito — Diversa pretesa morte di Plinio
il Vecchio — Seconda lettera di Plinio il
Giovane a Tacito — Provvedimenti inutili di
Tito Vespasiano 127

CAPITOLO VI. — Gli Scavi e la Topografia. 161

— I Guardiani — Un inconveniente a
riparare — Ladri antichi — Vi fu una
 seconda Pompei? — Scoperta della città
— Rinvenimento d’Ercolano — Preziosità
ercolanesi — Possibilità d’un’intera
rivendicazione alla luce di Ercolano —
Scavi regolari in Pompei — Disordini e
provvedimenti — Scuola d’antichità in
Pompei — C. A. Vecchi — Topografia di
Pompei — Le Saline e le Cave di pomici —
Il Sarno

CAPITOLO VII. — Le Mura — Le Porte —

Le Vie. — Le Mura, loro misura e
costruzione — Fortificazioni — Torri —
Terrapieno e Casematte — Le Porte — Le
Regioni e le Isole — Le Vie — I
Marciapiedi — Il lastrico e la manutenzione
delle vie — La via Consolare e le vie
principali — Vie minori — Fontane
pubbliche — Tabernacoli sulle vie —
Amuleti contro la jettatura — Iscrizioni
scritte o graffite sulle muraglie —
Provvedimenti edili contro le immondezze
— Botteghe — Archi — Carrozze — Cura
delle vie 181

CAPITOLO VIII. — I Templi. — Fede e 219

superstizione — Architettura generale de’
templi — Collocazione degli altari — Are
ed altari — Della scelta dei luoghi —
Tempio di Venere — Le due Veneri —
Culto a Venere Fisica — Processione —
Descrizione del tempio di Venere in
Pompei — Oggetti d’arte e iscrizioni in
esso — Jus luminum opstruendorum —
Tempio di Giove — I sacri principj —
 Tempio d’Iside — Culto d’Iside — Bandito
da Roma, rimesso dopo in maggior onore
— Tibullo e Properzio — Notti isiache —
Origini — Leggenda egizia — Chiave della
leggenda — Gerarchia Sacerdotale — Riti
— Descrizione del tempio d’Iside in
Pompei — Oggetti rinvenuti — Curia Isiaca
— Voltaire e gli Zingari — Tempio
d’Esculapio — Controversie — Cenni
mitologici — Il Calendario Ovidiano concilia
le differenze — Descrizione — Tempio di
Mercurio — Descrizione del tempio —
Tempio della Fortuna — Venerata questa
dea in Roma e in Grecia — Descrizione del
suo tempio — Antistites, Sacerdotes,
Ministri — Tempio d’Augusto — Sodales
Augustales — Descrizione e Pittura,
Monete — Tempio di Ercole o di Nettuno —
Detto anche tempio greco — Descrizione
— Bidental e Puteal — Tempio di Cerere
— Presunzioni di sua esistenza — Favole
— I Misteri della Dea Bona e P. Clodio — Il
Calcidico era il tempio di Cerere? — Priapo
— Lari e Penati — Cristianesimo — Ebrei e
Cristiani

CAPITOLO IX. — I Fori. — Cosa fossero i

Fori — Agora Greco — Fori di Roma —
Civili e venali — Foro Romano — Comizj
— Centuriati e tributi — Procedimento in
essi per le elezioni de’ magistrati, per le
leggi, per i giudizii — Foro Civile
Pompejano — Foro Nundinario o
Triangolare — Le Nundine —
Hecatonstylon — Orologio Solare 305
CAPITOLO X. — La Basilica. — Origine
della denominazione di Basilica — Sua
destinazione in Roma — Poeti e cantanti
— Distribuzione della giornata — Interno
ed esterno delle Basiliche — Perchè
conservatone il nome alle chiese cristiane
— Basiliche principali cristiane — Basilica
di Pompei — Amministrazione della
giustizia, procedura civile e penale —
Magistrati speciali per le persone di vil
condizione — Episodio giudiziario di Ovidio
— Giurisprudenza criminale — Pene —
Del supplizio della croce — La pena
dell’adulterio — Avvocati e Causidici 325

CAPITOLO XI. — Le Curie, il Caldicico, le

Prigioni. — Origine ed uso delle Curie —
Curie di Pompei — Curia o Sala del Senato
— Il Calcidico — Congetture di sua
destinazione — Forse tempio — Passaggio
per gli avvocati — Di un passo dell’Odissea
d’Omero — Eumachia sacerdotessa
fabbrica il Calcidico in Pompei —
Descrizione — Cripta e statua della
fondatrice — Le prigioni di Pompei —
Sistema carcerario romano — Le Carceri
Mamertine — Ergastuli per gli schiavi —
Carnifex e Carnificina — Ipotiposi 365
 ERRORI CORREZIONI

Pag. lin.
4 17, vi morisse e Stazio e Silio
Italico e altri
illustri vi si
ispirassero
6 ultima linea: S’intromette il S’intromette il
Tirreno. Tirreno infuriato
13 19, mi do dovea mi dovea
28 12, dice chè dice che
41 17, horrendum, horrendum,
ingens informe, ingens
44 24, dovendo dovendo
poggiare appoggiarsi
71 5, soggetta ligia persona
persona
74 6, Lucio Lucio Cornelio
Cornelio congiunto
parente
76 11, non veridiche non sempre
veridiche
79 9, la dissenzione la dissensione
81 22, patrizii e i patrizii e i plebei
plebei
203 15, distici di distici che
Ovidio erroneamente
alcuni dissero di
Ovidio
325 in fine del La pena
sommario dell’adulterio —
Avvocati e
Causidici
 NOTE:

1. Epist. Ex Ponto. Lib. II. ep. III.

Il primo ei fu che me sì audace rese

Da commettere i miei carmi alla Fama;
Egli all’ingegno mio guida cortese.

2. Veggasi al Canto XII l’Odissea d’Omero, così egregiamente tradotta in

versi dal chiarissimo cav. dottor Paolo Maspero, da oscurar di molto la
fama della versione di Ippolito Pindemonte.

3. Già Casina Reale, avente a lato sinistro il Castel dell’Ovo che si avanza
in mare, donata da Garibaldi dittatore ad Alessandro Dumas; ma
rivendicata poscia — non da Garibaldi — venne venduta e convertita
nell’attuale Albergo di Washington, tra i primarj della città.

4. Naturalis Historiæ, Lib. III.

5. Hortensii villa quæ est ad Baulos, Cicero Acad. Quæst. Lib. 4.

6. Ενθα διὲ Κιμμερἰων ανδρων δῆμοστε πὀλιστε, che si tradurrebbe

letteralmente: Qui poi sono degli uomini Cimmerj, il popolo e la città.

7. Lib. 1. 6; Dionigi d’Alicarnasso, IV; Aulo Gellio, 1. 19.

8. Georgica L. II. v. 161. Questi versi suonerebbero nel nostro idioma:

O fia che il porto qui rammenti e l’opre

Al Lucrin lago aggiunte, e il corrucciato
Flutto ch’alto vi mugge; ove lontano
Respinto il mar, la Giulia onda risuona
E dove dentro dell’Averno i gorghi
S’intromette il Tirreno infuriato.

9. Virgil. Georg. L. I. v. 468.

10. Monumenta epigraphica pompejana ad fidem archetyporum expressa.

Napoli 1854. Edizione di soli cento esemplari fatta a spesa di Alberto
 Detken.

11. Le Case ed i Monumenti di Pompei disegnati e descritti. Napoli, in corso

di publicazione.

12. Pompei. Seconda edizione, Firenze 1868. Successori Le Monnier.

13. Inscriptions gravée au trait sur les murs de Pompei.

14. Sono gli uomini di questo villaggio che vengono più specialmente
reclutati per la difficile e perigliosa pesca del corallo sulle coste di
Barberia, e così possono ricondursi di poi in patria con un bel gruzzolo
di danaro.

15. La misurazione dell’elevazione del Vesuvio sopra il livello del mare varia
nelle scritture dei dotti che la vollero fissare. Nollet nel 1749 la disse di
593 tese; Poli nel 1791 di 608 tese; il colonnello Visconti nel 1816 di
621; Humboldt dopo l’eruzione del 1822 la rinvenne di 607 tese, e nel
settembre 1831 l’altezza della punta più alta del cono risultò di tese 618.
La tesa, antica misura di Francia, era lunga sei piedi; la nuova tesa
francese si chiama doppio metro e per conseguenza contiene 6 piedi, 1
pollice, 10 linee. Siffatta varietà di misure non da altro procede che dagli
elevamenti e dalle depressioni, le quali si avvicendano secondo le
diverse eruzioni.

16. «Ricerche filosofico istoriche sull’antico stato dell’estremo ramo degli

Appennini che termina dirimpetto l’isola di Capri.»

17. «Partito Ercole di poi dal Tevere, seguendo il lido italiano si condusse al
Campo Cumeo, nel quale è fama essere stati uomini assai forti, ed a
cagione di loro scelleratezze, appellati giganti. Lo stesso Campo del
resto, denominato Flegreo, dal colle che vomitando sovente fuoco a
guisa dell’Etna sicula, ora si chiama Vesuvio, e conserva molte vestigia
delle antiche arsioni.»

18. Storia degli Italiani, Tom. 1, pag. 99. Torino 1857.

19. Nella vita di Marco Crasso.

20. Anno 1674, pag. 146.

21. Ragguaglio dell’incendio del Vesuvio. Napoli 1694.

22. L’eguale fenomeno si avverò sul Vesuvio nella eruzione del 79. Ecco le
parole di Plinio: Nubes (incertum procul intuentibus ex quo monte;
 Vesuvium fuisse postea cognitum est) oriebatur: cujus similitudinem et
formam non alia magis arbor, quam pinus expresserit. Nam longissimo
velut trunco elato in altum, quibusdam ramis diffundebatur, etc. Epist.
XVI. Lib. VI.

23. Prodromo della Mineralogia Vesuviana. Napoli 1825.

24. Horatius, Lib. 1. Od. 3. In Virgilium Athenas proficiscentem. Gargallo

traduce, o a meglio dire, parafrasa così:

Ov’è maggior l’ostacolo,

Più impetuosa ed avida
L’umana razza avventasi
Ad ogni rischio impavida.

25. Vedi i dispacci telegrafici e giornali dell’ultima settimana del dicembre

1869.

26. Vedi Descrizione del Vesuvio di Logan Lobley.

27. Sylv. 2

«Nè allettin più del Pompejano Sarno

Gli ozii.»

28. Satir. Lib. II. Sat. 1. v. 35. Così traduce Tommaso Gargallo:

Io, che s’appulo son, se non lucano,

Dir non saprei, perchè tra due confini
L’aratro volga il venosin colono,
Colà spedito (come è vecchia fama)
Cacciatine i Sabini.

29. Secondo Esiodo, Gerione era il più forte di tutti gli uomini nell’isola
d’Eritia presso Gade o Cadice sulla costa della Spagna. I poeti venuti di
poi ne hanno fatto un gigante con tre corpi, che Ercole combattendo
uccise, menandone seco i buoi. Coloro i quali ridur vorrebbero tutta la
scienza mitologica ad un solo principio, cioè, al culto antico della natura,
pretesero Ercole un essere allegorico e non significar altro che il Sole.
Questa impresa vinta su Gerione sarebbe il decimo segno che il sole
trascorre, vale a dire i benefizj d’esso che, giunto al segno equinoziale
del Toro, avviva tutta la natura e consola tutte le genti. Vedi Dizionario
della Mitologia di tutti i Popoli di Gio. Pozzoli e Felice Romani. Milano
presso Gio. Pirotta.
30. La Mitologia chiama i Dioscuri figliuoli di Giove e afferma essere il
soprannome di Castore e Polluce. Glauco fu il primo che così li chiamò,
quando apparve agli Argonauti nella Propontide (Filostr. Paus.). È stato
dato questo nome anche agli Anaci, ai Cabiri, e ai tre fratelli che
Cicerone (De Natura Deorum 3, c. 53) chiama Alcone, Melampo ed
Eumolo. Sanconiatone conserva l’identità dei Dioscuri coi Cabiri, che
Cicerone vuol figli di Proserpina. Ritornerò su tale argomento nel
capitolo I Templi.

31. Titi Livii Historiarum. Lib. VII c. XXIX.

32. I Feciali erano sacerdoti, l’uffizio de’ quali corrispondeva a un di presso

a quello degli Araldi d’armi. Essi dovevano trovarsi particolarmente
presenti alle dichiarazioni di guerra, ai trattati di pace che si facevano,
ed avvertivano a che i Romani non intraprendessero guerre illegittime.
Allorchè qualche popolo avea offeso la Republica, uno de’ Feciali si
portava da quello per chiedergli riparazione: se questa non era
accordata subito, gli si concedevano trenta dì a deliberare, dopo i quali
legittima si teneva la guerra. E questa dichiaravasi col ritornare il Feciale
sulla frontiera nemica e piantarvi una picca tinta di sangue. Anche i
trattati si facevano da un Feciale, che durante le negoziazioni veniva
appellato pater patratus, per l’autorità che egli aveva di giurare pel
popolo. Vegliavano pure al rispetto degli alleati, annullavano i trattati di
pace che giudicavano nocivi alla Republica, e davano in mano ai nemici
coloro che li avevano stipulati.

33. Secondo la più probabile opinione, Caudio era situato dove ora il borgo
Arpaja, e le Forche Caudine in quell’angusto passo donde si discende
ad Arienzo, specialmente nel sito che si chiama pur oggi le Furchie.

34. Ora Lucera delli Pagani, nella Puglia Daunia, volgarmente Capitanata,
provincia di Foggia, nel già reame di Napoli.

35. Tito Livio; Lib. IX, c. XXXVIII.

36. Dante, Paradiso c. VII. 47. Qui parla il Poeta di Manlio Torquato che
comandò, come più sopra narrai, la morte del figliuolo per inobbedienza,
e parla di Quinzio Cincinnato.

37. Vellei Paterculi, Historiæ Lib. II. c. XIII.

38. Bell. Civ. Lib. I. c. 94.

39. De Legibus, II. 2.

40. Roma Illustrata, Ant. Thisli J. C. Amstelodami.

41. Veglie storiche. Milano 1869, presso A. Maglia.

42. Sallustio, Bellum Catilinarium, c. XVII: «Lucio Tullo, Marco Lepido

consulibus, Publius Autronius et Publius Sulla, designati consules,
legibus ambitus interrogati, pœnas dederunt. Post paullo, Catilina
pecuniarum repetundarum reus, prohibitus erat consulatum petere, quod
inter legitimas dies profiteri nequiverit». La legge Calpurnia dell’àmbito,
prodotta dal console Calpurnio Pisone nell’anno 686, era che chi avesse
colle largizioni o capziosamente conseguito il magistrato, dovesse
lasciarlo e pagare una multa pecuniaria. Catilina era stato escluso dal
chiedere il consolato, perchè reo repetundarum, che noi diremmo di
concussione, cioè di ripetizione di cose, la cui restituzione si esige da
colui che, magistrato, abbia spogliato la provincia. Essendosi i legati
d’Africa querelati assai gravemente di Catilina, ne veniva pubblicamente
accusato da Publio Clodio.

43. Quid ergo indicat, aut quid affert, aut ipse Cornelius, aut vos, qui ab eo
hæc mandata defertis? Gladiatores emptos esse, Fausti simulatione, ad
cœdem, ac tumultum. Ita prorsus: interpositi sunt gladiatores, quos
testamento patris videmus deberi. Cic. Pro. P. Sulla cap. XIX.

44. Id. ibid. cap. XXI.

45. Questi erano i triumviri deputati a trasportare, o come meglio direbbesi

con frase latina, a dedurre le colonie, chiamati perciò patroni di esse.

46. La Clientela venne istituita da Romolo, onde avvincere in nodo d’affetto

maggiore e d’interessi i patrizi e i plebei. Questi eleggevano i loro patres
per esserne protetti, e ai patres correva debito di proteggere i colentes;
interdetto ad entrambi di accusarsi avanti i tribunali, nè mai essere
nemici; pena a chi infrangesse la legge di aver mozzo il capo, vittima
sacra a Plutone. La purezza dì questa istituzione durò buona pezza: poi
degenerò come ogni umana cosa.

47. In Toscana l’aveva alle falde degli Appennini e dalla regione in cui era
situata si dicea Tusci; in Romagna l’aveva sul litorale del Mediterraneo
fra le due città di Laurento e di Ostia, e per esser più vicina a quella città
chiamavala Laurentino e l’abitava nel verno; in Lombardia due ne
possedeva lungo le ridenti sponde del Lario una nel paesello di Villa e si
nomava Commedia, e l’Amoretti nel suo Viaggio ai tre laghi credette
riconoscerla nel luogo ove v’ha la villeggiatura dei signori Caroe,
pretendendosi persino di vederne tuttora i ruderi contro l’onde del lago;
 l’altra, detta Tragedia, in altra località che forse fu presso Bellagio. Lo
che valga a rettifica dell’opinione volgare che crede la Commedia fosse
dove ora è la Pliniana, così detta unicamente perchè vi si trovi la fonte
da lui descritta nell’ultima Epistola del libro IV e dell’opinioni di taluni
scrittori che la assegnano in altra parte del lago. Alla Pliniana, venne
fabbricato da Giovanni Anguissola, altro degli uccisori di Pier Luigi
Farnese, nè prima di lui vi si riscontrarono ruderi che accusassero
antecedenti edificazioni. Della prima, in Toscana, fa una magnifica
descrizione nella lettera 6 del lib. V; della seconda in Romagna, nella
lettera 17 del lib. II.

48. Plures iisdem in locis villas possidebcat, adamatisque novis, priora

negligebat. Lett. 7 a Caccinio, lib. III. Silio Italico morì anzi in una sua
villa sul tenere di Napoli.

49. Da una fiera e passionata invettiva contro Cicerone, che Quintiliano

attribuisce senz’altro a Sallustio di lui nemico (Instit. lib. IV), tolgo il
seguente brano che ricorda appunto le villa sua in Pompei: «Vantarti
della congiura soffocata? Meglio dovresti arrossire che, te console, sia
stata messa la republica sottosopra. Tu in casa con Terenzia tua
deliberavi ogni cosa e chi dannare nel capo e chi multar con denaro, a
seconda del capriccio. Un cittadino ti fabbricava la casa, un altro la villa
di Tusculo, un altro quella di Pompei, e costoro ti parevano buoni; chi pel
contrario non ti avesse giovato, era quegli un malvagio che ti tramava
insidie nel Senato, che t’assaliva in casa, che minacciava incendiar la
città. E vaglia il vero, qual fortuna avevi e quale or possiedi? quanto
arricchisti col procacciarti cause? Come ti procurasti le splendide ville?
col sangue e colle viscere de’ cittadini; supplichevole coi nemici, altero
cogli amici, riprovevole in ogni fatto. Ed hai cuore di dire o fortunata
Roma nata te console? Infelicissima che patì pessima persecuzione,
quando nelle mani avesti giudizi e leggi. E nondimeno non ti stanchi di
rintronarci le orecchie cedan l’armi alla toga, alla favella i lauri, tu che
della Republica pensi altra cosa in piedi ed altra seduto, banderuola non
fedele a vento alcuno.» Ognuno comprenderà quanta ira partigiana
ispirasse questa invereconda tirata. Fra’ luoghi in cui Cicerone parla del
suo Casino, ve ne ha uno nell’epistola 3, lib. 7 al suo amico M. Mario,
che villeggiava in Pompei.

50. Ovidio nei Fasti, I. 614, canta:

Sancta vocant augusta patres; augusta vocantur

Templa, sacerdotum rite dicata manu
Hujus et augurium dependet origine verbi,
 Et quodcumque sua Jupiter auget ope.

51. Cap. XVII.

52. Tacito nel libro XV degli Annali c. XVII non fa che accennare sotto
quest’anno un tanto disastro: «Un terremoto in Terra di Lavoro rovinò
gran parte di Pompeja, terra grossa.»

53. Canto VI. v. 45 e segg.

54. Aulo Gellio trova la etimologia del municipio a munere capessendo; più
propriamente forse il giureconsulto Paolo: quia munia civilia capiant. E
l’uno e l’altro accennano al diritto o dono conferito della cittadinanza, a
differenza di quelle altre località che erano solo fœderatæ, ricevute dopo
vinte e a condizione inferiore, che non acquistavano la podestà patria,
nè le nozze alla romana, nè la capacità di testare a pro’ d’un romano
cittadino, o d’ereditarne, nè l’inviolabilità della persona.

55. Gargallo traduce al solito infedelmente:

Manchin seimila o sette al censo equestre,

E prode, onesto sii, probo, facondo,
Plebe sarai.

Orazio nel suo primo verso non disse censo equestre, ma sì

quadringentis: perchè il Gargallo non potè dire quattrocento? Avrebbe
egli pure fatto sapere come il poeta che traduceva, che il censo
equestre era di quattrocentomila.

56. Il laticlavo era una striscia di porpora che orlava la toga di porpora,
scendendo dal petto fino a’ ginocchi. Essa era alquanto larga a
distinzione della striscia de’ cavalieri, che però dicevasi augusticlavo.
Come basterebbe oggi dire porporato per intendersi cardinale, allora
dicevasi laticlavius per senatore; onde leggesi in Svetonio (in August., c.
38): binos laticlavios præposuit, per dire due senatori.

57. Trattato dell’Onore del Bisellio.

58. Fabretti, Inscr. 3. 324. e 601. Gruter., 475, 3.

59.

D’oro lucente altri ricchezze aduni

E molti di terreno jugeri tenga.
Lib. 1 Eleg. 1.
60. Vol. I. Appendice VI.

61. Tutti i mulattieri con Agato Vajo si raccomandano a C. Cuspio Pansa

Edile. — Il Collega Giulio Polibio fece.

62. Vedi Plinio epistola 12 del lib. II: Implevi promissum, priorisque epistolæ
fidem exsolvi, quam ex spatio temporis jam recipisse te colligo. Nam et
festinanti et diligenti tabellario dedi. Vedi anche dello stesso Plinio
l’epistola 17 del lib. III e 12 del VII e la nota alla prima lettera del suo
volgarizzatore Pier Alessandro Paravia. Venezia Tip. del Commercio
1831.

63. Storia della decadenza e rovina dell’Impero Romano di Edoardo Gibbon.

Cap. II. — Vedi anche Plin. Stor. Natur. III. 5. S. Agostino De Civitate Dei
XIX. 7. Giusto Lipsio De Pronuntiatione linguæ latinæ, c. 3.

64. Vita di Claudio, c. 6.

65. Op. cit. cap. II.

66. Tra i papiri latini si conta un frammento di poema sulla guerra di Azio.

67. Milano, 1822.

68. Ad retia sedebam: erant in proximo non venabulum aut lancea, sed
stilus et pugillares. Così Plin. loc. cit. Vedi anche Boldetti, Osserv. sopra
i Cimelii, l. 2, c. 2.

69.

Sardoniche, smeraldi, diamanti,

E diaspri egli porta in un sol dito.
V. II.

70. Svetonio, in Nerone, II.

71. Plutarco, Vita di Lucullo.

72. Plin. XIV. 6.

73. Eccone la traduzione del cav. P. Magenta:

Ecco il Vesuvio, di pampinose

Frondi or or verde, ed ove in tumidi
Vasi spremeansi uve famose.
 Ecco il bel clivo, che anteponea
Sin Bacco a Niso, su cui de’ Satiri
Lo stuol le danze testè movea.

Desso era il seggio più a Vener caro

Dello Spartano, desso era il poggio
Che col suo nome Ercol fe’ chiaro.

74.

Questa che ognor di verde erba si veste,

Che agli olmi avvince le festanti viti,
D’ulivi attrice, alla coltura, al gregge
Troverai pronta e al vomere paziente,
Questa terra ubertosa ara la ricca
Capua e l’abitator delle fiorenti
Del Vesèvo pendici.

75. Histor. Natur. Lib. XXXI, c. 7.

76. Id. ib., c. 8. Laudantur et Clazomenæ garo, Pompeiique, et Leptis.

77. Satir. Lib. II. sat. 8.

78.

Ma ingente il cucinier mucchio consumi

Di pepe e aggiunga indi falerno vino
Al garo arcano.
Lib. 7. epig. 27.

Sostituii la mia versione a quella del Magenta, perchè non comprese

che cosa fosse il garo, ch’ei tradusse per aceto, non avvertendo che ad
esso mal si sarebbe allora potuto applicare l’aggettivo secreto.

79.

Del nobil garo ora lasciva ho sete.

Lib. 13. ep. 77.

80. Avuta autorità dall’imperatore Cesare Vespasiano Augusto i luoghi

pubblici da’ privati posseduti Tito Svedio Clemente tribuno, ventilate le
cause ed eseguite le misure, restituì alla republica de’ Pompejani.

81. Guida di Pompei, pag. 27.

82. Giorn. degli Scavi. Luglio e Agosto 1863, pag. 228.

83. Ne’ possedimenti di Giulia Felice, figlia di Spurio, si affittano dalle prime
idi di agosto alle seste idi per cinque anni continui un bagno, un
venereo, e novecento botteghe colle pergole e co’ cenacoli. Se taluno
esercitasse in casa (o il condannato) lenocinio, non è ammesso alla
conduzione.
La formula invece, quale è ristabilita dal sen. Fiorelli, vorrebbe dire: se
trascorrerà il quinquennio, la locazione ai riterrà tacitamente rinnovata.
Altri poi, leggendo aggiunta alla iscrizione surriferita anche le parole
SMETTIVM . VERVM . ADE, pretendono interpretare le sigle in
questione nella seguente maniera: si quis dominum loci ejus non
cognoverit, — se alcuno non conosca il padrone di questo luogo, si
rivolga a Smettio Vero.

84. Veggasi: Della Patria dei due Plinii, Dissertazione di Pier Alessandro
Paravia indirizzata al cav. Ippolito Pindemonte, edita nell’appendice al
Volgarizzamento delle Lettere di Plinio il Giovane dello stesso Paravia,
già altre volte da noi citato. Il Paravia prova, a non più lasciar ombra di
dubbio, i Plinii essere stati di Como.

85. Essai de Zoologie Générale, par. I. 1, 5.

86. De Viris Illustribus.

87. «Le mofete, scrive Giuseppe Maria Galanti, formano molti fenomeni
curiosi. Terminate le grandi eruzioni sogliono esse manifestarsi sotto le
antiche lave e ne’ sotterranei, e qualche volta hanno infettata tutta
l’atmosfera. Non sono che uno sviluppamento di acido carbonico. Circa
quaranta giorni dopo l’ultima grande eruzione del 1822 comparvero le
mofete nelle cantine ed altri luoghi sotterranei delle adiacenze del
Vulcano. L’aria mofetica cominciava all’altezza del suolo superiore, e
spesso infettava anche l’aria esterna. In alcuni sotterranei si
manifestarono rapidamente, in altri lentamente: dove durarono pochi
giorni e dove sino a due mesi. Dopo l’eruzione del 1794 molte persone
perirono per mancanza di precauzione contro queste mofete. Esse si
sviluppano più assai nei luoghi dove terminano le antiche lave, cioè nei
luoghi prossimi alla pedementina del Vulcano, forse perchè il gas acido
carbonico che si svolge in copia nell’interno del Vulcano, si fa strada
negli interstizi delle lave, le quali partono tutte dal focolare vulcanico.»
Napoli e Contorni, 1829. — Vedi anche La storia de’ fenomeni del
Vesuvio di Monticelli e Covelli. Napoli, 1843.