Henry James (1843 – 1916) and The Turn of the Screw (1898)

 Anglo-American writer, born in New York, lived in Paris and finally settled
in London and Rye
 From an intellectual family. Brother of the eminent psychologist William
James (who coined “stream of consciousness”). It was through his brother
that he attended the Society of Psychical Research meetings and bore
witness to the telling of ghost stories. This experience had a profound
effect on The Turn of the Screw and the concept of “The Will to Believe”
 He is considered as a Victorian and pre-modernist writer

 He was extremely prolific, trying his hand at all literary forms. After his failed attempt at writing
plays, he then resolved in his subsequent “Experimental Period” (1895 – 1900) to infuse his work
with the spirit of theatre in the following ways:-
1) to combine “the essence of drama” with “the quintessence of the novel”. Often uses
metatheatrical references in his experimental novels and they are frequently structured in 3 acts
e.g. TTOTS
2) to place the “consciousness” at the centre of stage, specifically with a female focaliser or
“reflector”. Young, naïve, impressionable, susceptible, earnest female character with acute
perception on the threshold, in a liminal position e.g. governess (→ why would he favour a
character in a liminal position? What unique perspective might they occupy? ) ; the focaliser
often does not understand what she sees and is bewildered but attempts to offer an explanation
for her impression by “reading in meaning” or “filling in the blanks” – the perfect consciousness
for an “imperfect telling”
3) to enhance his use of dialogue over narration and narrative structure. Dialogue also provides the
perfect space to explore the potential of ambiguity, particularly in the use of emphatic pronouns
e.g. “get me away from her” (Is Flora talking about Miss Jessel or the governess?)
4) to be concise and succinct – as influenced by Maupassant
5) to use symbolic props
6) to allow the dominant consciousness of the female reflector to take centre stage and to
suppress James’ authorial voice; this removes the possibility of clarification (which is further
extended by the use of frame narrative, the manuscript being locked away in a drawer (another
favourite trope of his)) and the governess being long dead)
7) to perfectly meld the combination of the “masculine” and “feminine” forces
(economy/concision/exactness/truth/construction/organisation vs. explosive principle of
overflow/emotion/exaggeration/chaos/growth). This is why, despite his progressive impulse to
place a female consciousness at the centre of his work, he is not considered to be a feminist
writer
 Despite the plot appearing to be superficially simple, there remains the infamous double reading
in interpreting the text. Both interpretations are mutually exclusive and yet are individually
consistent right through to the end (i.e. the ghosts exist or the governess is driven insane)
 The frame narrative, metadiegesis and governess’ unreliable and ambiguous narration all play
key roles in perpetuating this double reading. James’ characteristic flashes of “operative irony”
suggest the alternative reading.
 Some perceive The Turn of the Screw as a novel about the interpretative process itself and is
therefore considered as a cornerstone of literary interpretation
 Consider Todorov ‘s theory (1975) (The Fantastic = The Marvellous + / vs The Uncanny, &
Wilson’s (she is mad – new reading where people realised true nature of double reading)