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Film StudieS
An Introduction
This book is dedicated to the memory of
my father
Film StudieS
An Introduction
Warren Buckland
First published in Great Britain in 2015 by John Murray Learning. An Hachette UK
company.
Based on material previously published as Understand Film Studies, 2010
This edition published in 2015 by John Murray Learning
Copyright © Warren Buckland 2015
The right of Warren Buckland to be identified as the Author of the Work has been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Database right Hodder & Stoughton (makers)
The Teach Yourself name is a registered trademark of Hachette UK.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
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of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, John Murray Learning, at the
address below.
You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose
this same condition on any acquirer.
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available from the British Library.
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ISBN 9781473608795
eISBN 9781473608801
1
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 Contents
Acknowledgements vii
introduction ix
1 Film aesthetics: formalism and realism 1
mise-en-scène
Set design
mise-en-shot
Film sound
Theoretical analysis of film aesthetics
2 Film structure: narrative and narration 31
Narrative structure
Restricted and omniscient narration
3 Film authorship: the director as auteur 77
The origin of the auteur policy
Style and themes in Alfred Hitchcock’s films
The cinema of Wim Wenders
The cinema of Kathryn Bigelow
The contemporary auteur
4 Film genres: defining the typical film 119
Problems in the study of genres
Genre film as myth
New studies of melodrama
Film noir
1950s science fiction
5 the non-fiction film: five types
of documentary 153
Expository documentary
Observational documentary
Interactive documentary
Reflexive documentary
Performative documentary
 6 the reception of film: the art
and profession of film reviewing 179
The four functions of film reviewing
The four components of film reviewing
Evaluation
Three reviews of interstellar

taking it further 201

Film studies on the internet
Bibliography 205
index 217

vi
 Acknowledgements
Most of this book has grown out of lectures that have been
‘tested out’ on undergraduate students at the University of East
Anglia, Liverpool John Moores University, the University of
Amsterdam and Oxford Brookes University. The need to present
points that are obvious to the lecturer/writer (points that have,
in fact, been acquired over years of study) but which are new to
the listener and reader requires a determined effort to be concise
and informative at the same time. I hope I have gone some way
to achieving these qualities in this book. This book, therefore,
owes a great deal to the students who sat through the original
lectures. Their reactions helped me to transform my notes into
the following chapters.
On a more personal note, many friends and colleagues have
read individual chapters, and have offered critical and creative
suggestions for revision. I would, therefore, like to thank Glen
Creeber, Sean Cubitt, Kevin Donnelly, Thomas Elsaesser, Sibel
Karabina, Peter Krämer, Julie Maclusky, Steve Marchant, Alison
McMahan, Brian O’Leary and Lydia Papadimitriou for their
comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank Philip
French and The Observer for allowing me to reproduce Philip
French’s review of The English Patient.

Acknowledgements vii
This page intentionally left blank
 Introduction

To study the cinema: what an absurd idea!

Christian Metz

In this book I hope to show you that studying the cinema is

not an absurd idea (Metz, the French film scholar, made his
living out of studying the cinema, so of course he did not
think it was an absurd idea either). To study film should not
be thought of as an activity inferior to studying other arts,
such as theatre, painting or opera, for two reasons. Firstly,
film occupies a dominant place in society and because film is a
popular medium, it should be studied seriously. Secondly, if the
film student adopts a serious, responsible and critical approach
to film, then film studies becomes as important as any other
type of study. I use the term ‘film student’ in the broadest sense
– that is, anyone who wants to develop an interest in analysing,
comprehending and evaluating films; the term does not just
refer to those who study in higher education. Ultimately, it is
the student’s attitude that justifies the study of film, not the
nature or popularity of film. If the student takes his or her task
seriously, then studying Steven Spielberg’s film The Lost World:
Jurassic Park becomes as important and legitimate as studying
Shakespeare’s play Hamlet, Hans Holbein’s painting The
Ambassadors or Mozart’s opera The Magic Flute.
Metz also wrote that ‘The cinema is difficult to explain because
it is easy to understand’. In this book I hope to show you
that the cinema is not so difficult to explain once you become
familiar with the main critical tools film scholars use to analyse
films. As a secondary aim, we shall look at films that are not
easy to understand and we shall see what makes them difficult.
By analysing the complex nature of difficult films, we should be
able to appreciate them more.
In studying films, film scholars and film critics end up describing
and/or analysing them. With description, we repeat in words

Introduction ix
 what we see in a film. We can describe the content of the film
(what we see): for example, in Jurassic Park, we can describe the
moment when Grant (Sam Neill) walks beside a brachiosaur,
and stares up at it in wonderment. Or we can describe the film’s
form (how the film is constructed): in the same example, we can
describe how the camera pans and tracks to the right as Grant
and the brachiosaur move. Description is a necessary, but not
a sufficient, condition for writing about film. The writer simply
ends up repeating what the film shows.
We need to supplement description with analysis. Analysis
involves examining a film’s overall form or structure – that is, the
film’s design. We look for patterns that give significance to films,
or individual scenes. The art critic Clive Bell came up with the
term ‘significant form’ to indicate what he believes distinguishes
good art from bad art. When we say that a film has ‘significant
form’, we mean that the whole is more than the sum of its parts.
The film’s parts add up to create a new entity that does not exist
in each part. The film scholar Stefan Sharff wrote:

Significant form is the opposite of pedestrian rendition… Images

fit together so magnificently that they ascend to a higher level of
visual meaning.
The Elements of Cinema, p. 7

A pedestrian film is one that is not more than the sum of its
parts. The parts of a pedestrian film, when joined together,
do not attain ‘a higher level of visual meaning’, but remain a
collection of parts. To determine whether a film has significant
form or not, we need to go beyond mere description and analyse
how a film’s individual parts fit and work together. If we can
then identify ‘significant form’ in the way the individual parts
fit together, this gives us a good reason to evaluate the film
positively, by judging it a well-made film.
But how do we recognize significant form? You need to train
yourself to appreciate the special qualities of a film, or each
scene in a film. You need to acquire a broad knowledge of
the inner workings of film (which is one of the aims of this

x
book), and be sensitive to the unique meaning of each camera
movement or framing in each scene in a film. Not all camera
movements are the same. A tracking shot in Spielberg’s
film Jurassic Park is different from a tracking shot in Max
Ophuls’s film Letter From an Unknown Woman or in Jean-
Luc Godard’s film Le Weekend. All film-makers use the same
standard tools, but not in the same way. To understand the
special qualities of each film, you need to develop a film-
maker’s perspective, his or her sensitivity to single shots and
scenes in individual films.
One of the best ways to acquire a broad knowledge of the inner
workings of film is to analyse the decision-making process that
took place in a film’s construction.
This involves looking at the various technical, stylistic and
narrative options available to a film-maker and the choices
that he or she makes in putting together a film or sequence of
film. To emphasize a film’s construction combines the study of
film practice and film aesthetics. This is because we consider
both the practical choices that are made when a film is
constructed and the aesthetic effects these choices have on the
film spectator.
For example, what is the difference between shooting a scene in
one continuous take, where the camera is left rolling while the
whole of the action takes place, and shooting the same scene in
several shots? The first option involves the film-maker filming
the action as it unfolds, uninterrupted. The second option
involves breaking the action down into individual shots. Each
new shot will include a change in camera position, camera
angle, shot scale (the distance between the camera and the
action) and so on. Film-makers have to weigh up the advantages
and disadvantages of choosing one technique over another for
each scene, since the choice of technique will influence the way
spectators respond to the film. This is just one of the questions
we shall be looking at in this book.
However, you may think that analysing a film in this way
destroys the pleasurable experiences we get when we go to the
cinema. My response to this point is to argue that film studies
does not destroy our experiences of films but transforms them.

Introduction xi
 In his poem The Dry Salvages, T. S. Eliot wrote:

We had the experience but missed the meaning

And approach to the meaning restores the experience
In a different form…

The opposition Eliot sets up between experience and meaning

is useful in explaining the relation between watching a film and
analysing it. My aim in this book is to employ critical tools to
analyse a film’s meanings, which involves the spectator taking
a step back from his or her experience of the film. Yet, as Eliot
makes clear in his poem, the analysis of meaning will restore the
experience in a different form. So my main point is that critical
analysis does not destroy the spectator’s pleasurable experience
of a film, but transforms it. This transformed experience
primarily involves developing a critical understanding of how
films are made and what effects they have on you.
Peter Wollen describes what is involved in studying film:

There is often a hostility towards any kind of explanation which

involves a degree of distancing from the ‘lived experience’ of
watching the film itself. Yet clearly any kind of serious critical
work … must involve a distance, a gap between the film and the
criticism… It is as though the meteorologists were reproached
for getting away from the ‘lived experience’ of walking in the
rain or sun-bathing.
Signs and Meaning in the Cinema, p. 169

This leads me to one of my main arguments about the aim of film

studies. Film studies is not simply about accumulating more and
more information about films, film-makers and the film industry.
This is a passive form of learning. In this book I do not present
you with pages and pages of facts on the cinema. Instead, you
will find an emphasis on an active form of learning in which you
develop critical and analytical skills – skills that can be applied
to any film. I want to discourage you from merely talking about

xii
your personal impressions of a film and simply passing judgement
on it (‘I liked this film’ or ‘I didn’t like this film’). This is a very
superficial way to talk about films and I hope this book will
enable you to go beyond this impressionistic type of criticism.
We have already seen that the idea of ‘significant form’ enables
critics to make an informed evaluation of a film, by asking:
‘Do the separate parts of a film join together to create a higher
level of visual meaning?’ If they do, then this is justification
for evaluating the film positively. By adopting this informed
approach, this book is encouraging you to become a film
connoisseur (more commonly known as a ‘cinephile’). Just
as wine connoisseurs can identify and explain very small and
subtle differences in the taste of wine, so the film connoisseur
can identify the subtle differences between films – especially the
small differences that make a difference.
Film studies consists of a huge amount of histories, theories,
critical tools and discussions of individual films. Due to the
overwhelming amount of information available, I have decided to
be very selective in the topics I write about. One of the questions I
asked myself when selecting topics is the following: ‘What works
in film studies?’ A great many of the issues and problems that film
scholars decide to write about are badly chosen and ill-formed.
Because they do not always work in particular instances (they are
not general enough), the theories and critical tools that some film
scholars use are irrelevant and misguided.
Furthermore, I have divided up the topics in this book into
those that develop an internal perspective on film and those
that develop an external perspective. An internal perspective
develops an intrinsic approach to film and studies a film’s
inner workings. That is, an internal perspective studies the
film itself, in isolation from any historical, moral or social
context. This approach is often referred to as ‘poetic’.
Chapters 1, 2 and 3 outline those approaches that develop
a poetic perspective on film. Chapter 1 scrutinizes the work
of the formalist film scholars (such as Rudolf Arnheim and
Sergei Eisenstein) and the realist film scholars (such as André
Bazin) and looks at the particular filmic techniques they
promote in their cause to define film as an art. The formalists

Introduction xiii
 promoted editing, montage, low and high camera angles and
so on, while the realists promoted the long take and deep
focus photography. This chapter also offers a brief survey of
colour, the techniques of continuity editing and film sound.
Films discussed include: The Magnificent Ambersons (Orson
Welles), Citizen Kane (Welles), Secrets and Lies (Mike Leigh),
Notorious (Alfred Hitchcock) and Jurassic Park (Spielberg).
Chapter 2 investigates the structures of narrative and narration
at work in the cinema, including narrative structures such
as cause–effect logic, character motivation, transformation,
linear and non-linear chronology, together with restricted
and omniscient narration. Films discussed include: Psycho
(Hitchcock), North by Northwest (Hitchcock), Taxi Driver
(Martin Scorsese), Magnificent Obsession (Douglas Sirk),
Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino) and Mulholland Dr. (David
Lynch). Chapter 3 explores the concept of the director as
auteur (author), charting the history of this approach to films
from the 1950s to the present day. The chapter looks at the
stylistic and thematic approaches to auteurism and investigates
the careers of three directors: Alfred Hitchcock, Wim Wenders
and Kathryn Bigelow. It can be argued that auteurism is an
external approach to the cinema. However, I have emphasized
that auteurism looks for stylistic and thematic patterns in
a group of films, which therefore defines it as an internal
approach.
Chapters 4, 5 and 6 outline those approaches that develop
an external perspective on film. An external perspective
studies the relation between the film and particular aspects
of reality outside it. This type of criticism places a film within
its historical and social context. For this reason, external
approaches are often called ‘contextual criticism’. Chapter 4
examines the problematic area of film genres. Genre study is
both internal and external: it is internal to the extent that it
attempts to identify the common intrinsic attributes of a group
of films, and external to the extent that it attempts to relate
a film to its historical and social context, arguing that genre
films manifest the basic anxieties and values of a society. This

xiv
chapter examines the following genres: the melodrama (and
analyses films such as Josef von Sternberg’s Blonde Venus and
John Stahl’s Only Yesterday), the film noir (in particular the
neo-films noirs of John Dahl), and the 1950s science fiction film
(such as Gordon Douglas’s Them! and Don Siegel’s Invasion of
the Body Snatchers). Chapter 5 looks at the way documentary
film-makers organize and structure reality. Prominence is given
to the five types of documentary format: expository (in films
such as Alberto Cavalcanti’s Coalface), observational (Frederick
Wiseman’s High School), interactive (Michael Moore’s Roger
and Me and Bowling for Columbine), reflexive (Dziga Vertov’s
Man With a Movie Camera) and performative (Errol Morris’s
The Thin Blue Line). Finally, in Chapter 6, the activity of film
reviewing comes under scrutiny. Here I expose the conventions
film reviewers adopt in writing about and evaluating films.
As examples, reviews of Anthony Minghella’s The English
Patient and Christopher Nolan’s Interstellar (2014) are closely
examined.
Following each chapter you will find a list of books that
have been quoted in the chapter and recommendations
for further reading (Dig deeper). This book is intended to
function only as the first step on the long and enjoyable path
called film studies.

Dig deeper
Corrigan, timothy, A Short Guide to Writing About Film, Fourth
edition (New York: HarperCollins, 2000).
A concise and practical guide for students on how to write about
films, from taking notes during screenings, to the style and
structure of essay writing.
Hayward, Susan, Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts, third edition
(london and New York: Routledge, 2006).
more than a glossary, this invaluable reference book includes
both shorter entries and mini essays on the industrial, technical
and theoretical concepts that currently dominate film studies.

Introduction xv
 Sharff, Stefan, The Elements of Cinema: Toward a Theory of
Cinesthetic Impact (New York: Columbia university Press, 1982).
A concise and informative study of cinematic structure through
the close analysis of several significant film scenes.
Wollen, Peter, Signs and Meaning in the Cinema, Second edition,
(london: Secker and Warburg, 1972).
this is a key book in the history of film studies. Wollen was the
first author to present a sophisticated, theoretical exposition in
english of Sergei eisenstein, film semiology and a structuralist
version of auteur criticism.

xvi
 Spielberg combines the long take with deep focus in The
Lost World (1997) when Ian Malcolm visits Hammond at
his home. While waiting in the hallway talking to Tim and
Lex, Hammond’s nephew, Peter Ludlow, enters. As he signs
documents in the foreground, Malcolm, Tim and Lex are shown
in the background (and there is also considerable space behind
them). Malcolm then walks into the middle-ground to talk to
Ludlow, and in the background the children prepare to leave.
This shot consists of deep focus and long take (of 73 seconds).
It appears to be strongly influenced by the long take in the
Colorado sequence from Citizen Kane that I analysed above. In
addition to the use of the long take with deep focus (and low
camera angle), the staging is similar: documents being signed
in the foreground, Ian Malcolm in the middle-ground (he’s as
powerless as the father in the middle-ground of the Colorado
sequence), and the children in the background (just as Kane was
in the background).
Many other directors also prefer to use long takes. Secrets and
Lies (Mike Leigh, 1996) focuses on two characters: Hortense
(Marianne Jean-Baptiste), as she searches for the mother she
has never met, and Cynthia (Brenda Blethyn), an unhappy,
working mother preoccupied and distracted with the mundane
problems of everyday life. In one scene, Cynthia talks to her
brother Maurice during one of his infrequent visits to her. After
talking about mundane matters, Cynthia is suddenly overcome
by emotion and hugs her brother. They hug each other for
over two minutes, which Leigh films in one take, with little
camera movement (except a very slow zoom in). Leigh does not
interrupt or distract from this sudden expression of repressed
emotion with any marked camerawork or editing. He allows the
emotion to express itself uninterrupted.
Leigh’s use of the long take is more pronounced later in the film
when Hortense has telephoned Cynthia, informing her that she
is Cynthia’s daughter and they meet in a café; Leigh films the
scene in one take lasting 7 minutes 40 seconds (and, this time,
with no camera movement). The drama of this scene is created
by Cynthia’s gradual realization that Hortense, who is black,
is her daughter (Cynthia is white). The long take then shows
the desperate attempts of the two women to communicate

12
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Cobbett, William, population theory, 185n.
Cognition, and nature, 94, 102, 103
Colleoni, Bartolommeo, statue, 238, 272
Colosseum, and real Rome, 44;
form type, 204;
contemporaries, table ii
Colossus of Rhodes, and gigantomachia, 291
Colour, Goethe’s theory, 157n., 158n.;
and depth-experience, 242;
Classical and Western use, symbolism, 245-247;
Western blue and green, 245;
Arabian Culture and gold, 247-249;
brushwork and motion-quality, 249;
studio-brown, as symbol, 250, 288;
Leonardo’s sense, 280;
plein-air, 288.
See also Painting
Columbus, Christopher, and Spanish ascendency, 148;
and Leonardo, 278;
and space and will, 310, 337;
spiritual result, 334
Column, as symbol, 166, 184, 214, 260n., 345;
Classical orders, 204;
and arch, 214, 236
Compass, symbolism, 333
Compassion, times and meaning, 347-351;
and Socialism, 362
Composition in art, cultural basis, 243
Comprehension, qualities, 99
Comte, Auguste, provincialism, 24;
and economic ascendency, 367, 373;
contemporaries, table i
Confession, as Western symbol, 131, 140, 261, 264;
absence in Renaissance art, 273
Confucius, and actuality, 42;
and analogies, 357
Conic sections, contemporaries, table i
Conquest, as Western concept, 336
Consciousness, phases, 154
Consecutives in church music, 188
Conservation of energy, and causality, 393;
and first law of thermodynamics, 413;
and concept of infinity, 418;
and entropy, 420-424
Constable, John, significance of colour, 251;
and impressionism, 288
Constantine the Great, and artistic impotence, 294;
as caliph, 405;
religion, 407
Constantinople. See Byzantium; Haggia Sophia
Consus, materiality, 403
Contemplation, defined, 95
Contemporaneity, intercultural, 26, 112, 177, 202n., 220;
number paradigm, 90;
Classical sculpture and Western music, 226, 283, 284, 291;
in physical theories, 386;
spiritual epochs, table i;
culture epochs, table ii;
political epochs, table iii
Contending States, period in China, homology, 111
Content, and form, 242, 270
Contrition, sacrament as Western symbol, 261, 263
Conversion, impossibility, 345
Copernicus, Classical anticipation of system, 68, 139;
and destiny, 94;
discovery and Western soul, 310, 330, 331
Corelli, Arcangelo, sonatas, 226, 283;
and dominance of music, 231;
colour expression, 252n.;
Catholicism, 268n.
Corinth, and unknown gods, 404
Corinthian column, contemporaries, table ii. See also Column
Corneille, Pierre, and unities, 323
Corot, Jean B. C., colour, 246, 289;
and nude, 271;
impressionism, 286;
landscape as portrait, 287;
ease, 292
Cosmogonies, contemporaries, table i
Cosmology, cultural attitude, 63, 68, 69, 147, 330-332.
See also Astronomy
Counterpoint, and Gothic, 229;
and fugue, 230.
See also Music
Counter-Reformation, Michelangelo and spirit, 275
Couperin, François, pastoral music, 240;
colour expression, 252n.
Courbet, Gustave, landscapes, 288-290
Courtyards, Renaissance, 235
Cousin, Victor, and economic ascendency, 367
Coysevox, Antoine, sculpture, 232;
decoration, 245
Cranach, Lucas, and portraiture, 270
Crassus Dives, M. Licinius, and city of Rome, 34
Cremation, as cultural symbol, 134
Cresilas, and portraiture, 130n., 269
Crete, inscriptions, 12n.;
Minoan art, 198
Cromwell, Oliver, and imperialism, 149;
contemporaries, table iii
Crusades, symbolism, 15n., 198;
and Trojan War, 27;
Christianity, 357n.;
contemporaries, table iii
Ctesiphon, school, 63
Cult and dogma, cultural attitudes, 401, 410, 411;
in natural science, 412
Cultures, Spengler’s morphological theory, xi;
obligatory stages, symbols, 3, 4, 6, 38, 39;
superficial and real analogies, 4, 6, 27, 38;
theory of distinct cycles, 21, 22, 31, 78;
divergent viewpoints, 23, 46, 131;
as organisms, mortality, 26, 104, 109, 167;
contemporary periods, 26, 112, 177, 202n., 220;
Civilization as destiny, 31-34, 106, 252, 353, 354;
symmetry, 47;
and notion of the world, language, 55;
physiognomic meaning as essence of history, 55, 101, 104, 105;
mathematical aspects, separation, 57-63, 67, 70;
and universal validity, 60, 146, 178-180, 202, 287;
number-thought and world-idea, 70;
stages, 106, 107;
application of term “habit” or “style”, 108, 205;
recapitulation in life of individuals, 110;
homologous forms, 111;
 separate destiny-ideas, 129, 145;
comparative study, 145n.;
as interpretation of soul, 159, 180, 302-304, 307, 313, 314;
cultural and intercultural macrocosm, 165;
particular, and nature, 169;
kind of extension as symbol, 173-175;
actualization of depth-experience, 175;
plurality of prime symbols, 179, 180;
tutelage, 213;
art forms and spiritualities, 214-216;
arts of form as symbolic expression, 219;
significance of species of art, 222-224;
as bases of morale, 315, 345-347;
and times of day, 325;
and nature-law, 377-380, 382, 387;
scientific period, 381;
religious springtimes, 399-402;
renunciation, second religiousness, 424;
characteristics of seasons, table i;
contemporary art epochs, table ii;
contemporary political epochs, table iii.
See also Arabian; Art; Chinese; Classical; Egyptian; History;
Indian; Macrocosm; Morphology; Nature; Spirit; Western
Cupid, as art motive, 266
Cupola. See Dome
Curtius Rufus, Quintus, biography of Alexander, 4
Cusanus, Nikolaus. See Nicholas of Cusa
Cuyp, Albert, landscape as portrait, 287
Cyaxares, and Henry the Fowler, 4
Cybele, cult, 406
Cynics, practicality, 45;
morale, 203, 342;
and digestion, 361;
contemporaries, table i
Cypress, as symbol, 396
Cyrenaics, practicality, 45;
contemporaries, table i

Dante Alighieri, historical consciousness, 14, 56, 142, 159;

influence of Joachim of Floris, 20;
and vision, 96;
homology, 111;
and popularity, 243;
and confession, 273;
and psychology, 319;
and time of day, 325n.;
esoteric, 328;
morale, 355;
variety of religion, 394;
contemporaries, table i
Danton, Georges, adventurer, 149
Darwinism and evolution, and Socialism, 35, 370-372;
and practical philosophy, 45;
morphology and vision, 104n., 105;
Goethe and, 111n.;
and teleology, 120;
and destiny, 140;
and cultural art-theory, 141n.;
and usefulness, 155;
and biological politics, 156;
nature and God, 312;
anticipation, Darwin’s political-economic application, 369-373;
contemporaries, table i
Daumier, Honoré, act and portrait, 271n.;
and grand style, 290
David, Pierre Jean, naturalism, 212
Dea Cælestis, 406
Death, and historical consciousness, 13;
 and become, 54, 167;
Cultures and funeral customs, 134, 135, 185;
and space, 166;
and world-fear and symbolism, 166;
stone as emblem, 188;
and ornament, 195
Decoration, architectural, 196;
Gothic, and bodilessness, 199;
Arabian, 208, 212;
mosaic, 214;
Acanthus motive, 215.
See also #Ornament#
Dedekind, Richard, notation, 77, 95
Definitions, and destiny, xiv;
fundamental, 53-56
Deism, cause, 187, 412;
concept, 312n.;
Baroque, and mechanics, 412.
See also Religion
Deities, cultural basis, 312. See also Religion
Delacroix, Ferdinand V. E., and impressionism, 288;
contemporaries, table ii
Delphi, Polygnotus’s frescos, 243
Demeter cult, 83;
spring festivals, 320;
contemporaries, table i
Demeter of Knidos, statue, 136
Demetrius of Alopeke, and portraiture, 130, 269
Democracy, decay by formalism, 35;
contemporary periods, table iii.
See also Politics
Democritus, and corporeality, 177;
 and ego, 311;
cosmology, 331;
atoms, 385;
Leibniz as contemporary, 386;
and motion, 389;
and mechanical necessity, 392-394;
contemporaries, table i
Demosthenes, statue, 270
Depth-experience, significance, 168, 169, 172-174;
and number, 171;
and time, 172, 173;
realization as cultural symbol, 173-175;
in Western painting, 239, 246;
in Western gardening, 240;
and destiny, 241;
and philosophy in art, 243;
in portrait, 263, 266;
and impressionism, 285-287;
and will, 311;
in Socialism, 361;
and natural science, 380, 386, 394;
Western God-feeling, 395;
cathedral and organ, 396.
See also Destiny; Space
Desargues, Girard, mathematic, 75
Descartes, René, civic world-outlook, 33;
and actuality, 42;
style, 61;
mathematics and religion, 66;
relation to Classical mathematic, 69;
and new number-idea, 74, 75, 81, 88, 90, 126, 188;
contemporaries, 112, table i;
and Jansenists, 314n.;
as thinker, 366;
thinking and being, 387;
 on force, 413
Des Près, Josquin, music, 230
Destiny, and pessimism, xiv;
historical, 3, 4, 6, 38-41;
as logic of time, 7;
acceptance, 40, 44;
in World War, 47;
fulfilment of Western mathematic, 90;
of a Culture, 106, 145;
and causality, 117-121;
soul and predestination, 117;
organic logic, 117;
and time and space, 119, 120;
and idea, 121;
in art, revolts, 127, 128, 233;
separate cultural ideas, illustrations, 129-131, 145-149, 189, 190,
424;
in Western Christianity, 140, 141;
and incident, 138-141, 144;
and nature, 142;
Classical “fate”, body and personality, 143, 147;
youth, 152;
and Western depth-experience, 241;
patina as symbol, 253;
and motherhood, 267;
Western, and painting, 276n.;
ethic and soul’s view, 302, 346, 355;
and will, 308;
and Civilization, 360;
and causality in natural science, 379;
and decay of exact science, 422-424.
See also Becoming; Causality; Civilization; History; Time
Devil, disappearance, 187;
and Arabian dualism, 312, 363
Diadochi, period as episode, 149, 151
Diagoras, character of atheism, 408n.;
condemnation, 411
Diatribe, as phenomenon of Civilization, 359
Dido, cult, 406n.
Diet, and Civilization, 361
Diez, Feodor, significance of colour, 252
Differential calculus, as symbol, 15. See also Calculus
Dimension, abstract notion, 89;
significance of depth, 168;
singularity, 169n.
Dinzenhofer, Kilian I., architecture, 285
Diocletian, as caliph, 72, 212, 405;
as epoch, 149;
and Mithras 406
Diogenes, morale, 203;
and deity, 313;
Indian kinship, 347, 357
Dionysiac movement, Alexander and legend, 8;
contemporaries, homology, 27, 110, table i;
as revolt, 233, 356;
spring festival, 320, 321, 324
Dionysius I, contemporaries, table iii
Diophantus, algebra, and Arabian Culture, 63, 71-73, 383
Dipylon vases, 73, 107, 196
Direction, and time and becoming, 54, 56;
and extension, 99, 172;
and dimension, 169n.;
and will, 308;
and aim, 361.
See also Time
Discant, music, 229
Discobolus, Myron’s, 263, 265
Discovery, as Western trait, 278, 279, 332;
and space and will, 310, 337;
spiritual results, 334
Divinities. See Religion
Dogma and cult, cultural attitude, 401, 410, 411;
in natural science, 412
Doliche, Baal, 407
Dome, as Arabian art expression, 210
Dome of the Rock, characteristics, 200
Dominicans, influence of Joachim of Floris, 20
Domitian, contemporaries, table iii
Donatello, and Gothic, 225n.;
“David”, 265;
and portrait, 272
Doric, column as symbol, 9, 195;
and Gothic, 27;
timber style, 132;
and Ionic, 205;
and Egyptian, 213;
Western exclusion, 345;
contemporaries, table ii, iii.
See also Architecture; Column
Dostoyevski, Feodor M., and Europe, 16n.;
Raskolnikov’s philosophy, 309;
and compassion, 350
Drama, cultural basis, Classical and Western, 128-131, 141n., 143,
147, 148, 203, 255, 317-322, 347;
German, 290;
development of Classical, 320, 321;
cultural basis of form, unities, 322, 323;
undeveloped Western, 323;
 Classical elimination of individuality, 323;
chorus, 324;
and time of day, 324;
attitude toward scene, 325;
and cultural basis of morale, 347;
and philosophy of Western activism, 368, 372;
Classical, and atomic theory, 386
Dresden, architecture, 207, 285;
chamber music, 232
Droem, autumnal accent, 241
Dryads, passivity, 336;
materiality, 403
Dschang Yi, and imperialism, 37
Dualism, in Arabian Culture, 305-307, 363;
and will and reason, 309;
in religion, 312
Dühring, Eugen Karl, position in Western ethics, 373
Dürer, Albrecht, historical heads, 103;
colour, 245, 250;
and act and portrait, 270
Dufay, Guillaume, music, in Italy, 230, 236
Duns Scotus, historical place, 72;
contemporaries, table i
Dunstaple, John, music, 230
Duration. See Life
Durham, palatinate, 349n.
Dyck, Anthony van. See Van Dyck
Dynamics, as Western system, 384, 393. See also Natural science

Eckhardt, Meister, on imitation, 191;

mysticism, 213;
 egoism, 335;
wisdom and intellect, 409;
contemporaries, table i
Economic motives. See Money
Economic organization, cultural attitude toward care, 138
Economics, and Western practical ethics, 367-369.
See also Politics; Socialism
Eddas, space-expression, 185, 187;
and Western religion, 400, 423;
contemporaries, table i
Edessa, school, 63, 381;
and Arabian art, 209;
Baal, 407
Edfu, temple, 294
Edward I of England, and archery, 333n.
Edward III of England, and archery, 333n.
Egoism, in Western Culture, 262, 302, 309, 335
Egyptian Culture, historic aspect, 12;
and immortality, 13;
and pure number, 69;
historical basis, funeral custom, 135;
and care, 136;
and Mary-cult, 137;
attitude toward state, 137;
economic organization, 138;
stone as symbol, 188;
destiny-idea, path as prime symbol, 188, 189;
architectural expression, 189, 202;
brave style, 201-203;
and tutelage, 213;
streets, 224;
art composition, 243;
sculpture, 248n., 266;
 and portrait, 262;
Civilization, 294, 295;
view of soul, 305;
morale, 315;
and discovery, 332;
and Socialism, 347;
and man-deification, 405n.;
art epochs, table ii;
political epochs, table iii.
See also Cultures; arts by name, especially Architecture
Egyptianism, contemporary periods, table iii
Eichendorff, Joseph von, poetry, 289
Eleatic philosophy, and motion, 305n., 388, 390
Elements, cultural concepts of physical, 383, 384. See also Atomic
theories; Natural science
Eleusinian mysteries, dramatic imitation, 320
Elis, treaty, 10n.
Emigration, cultural attitude, 336
Empedocles, elements, 327, 383, 384;
on atoms, 386
Emperor-worship, 405, 407, 411
Empire style, as Classicism, 207;
contemporaries, table ii
Encyclopedists, contemporaries, table i
Energy, and voluntas, 310n.
Engels, Friedrich, and Hegelianism, 367;
position in Western ethics, 373
England, Manchester system and Western Civilization, 29, 151, 371;
imperialism and Napoleonic epoch, 149-151
Enlightenment, Age of, and movement, 155;
effect on monasticism, 316n.;
 and tolerance, 343;
and cult and dogma, 411
Entelechy, ahistoric aspect, 15
Entropy, theory, formulations, 420;
effect, 421-424
Epaminondas, and invented history, 11
Ephesus, Council of, and Godhead, 209
Epic, and religion, 399-402
Epictetus, and Jesus, 347
Epicureanism, practicality, 45;
morale, 315;
and will, 341, 342;
contemporaries, table i
Epicurus, Indian kinship, 347;
character of Nihilism, 357;
and Socialism, 358;
and mathematics, 366;
and ethics, 367;
contemporaries, table i
Epigoni, and Socialism, 374
Epistemology, and history, 119, 355
Epochs, personal and impersonal, 148. See also Incident; Destiny
Epos, contemporaries of popular, table i
Erastosthenes, as creator, 425
Erechtheum, in style history, 108, 207
Eroticism. See Sex
Esoterics, in Western Culture, 326-329.
See also Popularity
Etching, Leonardo’s relation, 281;
as Western art, 290
Ethics, relation to Culture, 354;
period in philosophy, 365-367;
socio-economic character of Western, 367-369;
dramatical presentation of Western, 368, 372;
evolution theory, aspects, 369-372;
landmarks of Western, 373, 374;
exhaustion of period, 374.
See also Metaphysics; Morale; Philosophy
Etruscan, round-buildings, 211n.;
contemporaries of discipline, table i
Eucharist, cultural significance, 185, 186;
as centre of Western Christianity, 247
Euclid, mathematical style, 59, 64, 65;
limitation of geometry, 67, 88;
mathematical position, 90;
parallel axiom, 176n.
See also Geometry
Eudoxus, and higher powers, 66;
and infinity, 69, 69n.;
and mathematic, 78, 90
Euler, Leonhard, mathematic, 78, 90;
and differentials, 86;
and time, 126;
contemporaries, 231, table i
Euripides, unpopularity, 35;
foreshadowing by, 111;
end-art, 223;
tragic method, 319
Europe, as historical term, 16n.
Evolution. See Darwinism
Exhaustion-method of Archimedes, 69
Experience, and historical sense, 10;
lived and learned, 55;
in Western concept of nature, 393;
and faith, 394;
and theory, 395
Experiment, and experience, 393
Exploration. See Discovery
Expressionism, farce, 294
Extension, and direction, 99, 172;
and reason, 308.
See also Space
Eyck, Jan van, portraits, 272, 309;
contemporaries, table ii
Eye, in sculpture, 329

Façades, cultural significance, 224;

Renaissance, 235
Fact, and theory, 378
Fairies, cultural attitude, 336, 403
Faith, and Western mathematic, 78.
See also Religion
Family, Western portraits, 266;
Civilization and race-suicide, 359.
See also Motherhood
Faraday, Michael, and theory, 100, 378, 416
Farnese Bull, theatrical note, 291
Fate, cultural attitude, 129.
See also Destiny
Faunus, materiality, 403
Faustian soul, explained, 183. See also Western Culture
Fauxbourdon, music, 229
Fayum, 58n.
Fear, and Classical and Western tragedy, 321
Federigo of Urbino, portrait, 279
Feeling, and “proper,” 53
Fermat, Pierre de, relation to Classical mathematic, 69;
mathematic style, 74, 75, 90;
problem, 76, 77;
contemporaries, table i
Feudalism, contemporary periods, table iii
Feuerbach, Anselm von, act and portrait, 271n.
Feuerbach, Ludwig A., provincialism, 24;
position in Western ethics, 373;
contemporaries, table i
Fichte, Johann G., basis of Socialism, 362, 374;
esoteric, 369;
and mathematics, 374;
contemporaries, table i
Fifty-year period, cultural rhythm, 110
Fischer von Erlach, Johann B., architecture, 285
Flaminius, C., and economic motive, 36;
and imperialism, 37
Fleury, Andre, Cardinal de, policy, 4, 349
Florence, culture city, loss of prestige 29, 33;
cathedral, 184, 238;
and Arabian Culture, 211;
and Renaissance, 233-238;
and Northern art, 236;
character as state, 273.
See also Renaissance; Savonarola
Fluxions, significance of Newton’s designation, 15n.
Fontainebleau, park, 240
Force, as undefinable Western concept, numen, 390, 391, 398, 402,
412-417;
stages of concept, 417;
contradictions, 418.
See also Natural science
Forest, and Western cathedrals, 396
Form, and law, 97;
and music, 219;
and content, 242, 270
Forum of Nerva, craft-art, 198, 215
Forum of Trajan, ornament, 215
Fouquet, Nicolas, and gardening, 241
Four-part movement, 231
Fourteen Helpers, 400
Fourth dimension, and Classical mathematic, 66;
and time and space, 124
Fox, Charles James, contemporaries, table iii
Fragonard, Jean H., and music, 232
France, and maturity of Western Culture, 148, 150;
plein-air painting, 288, 289
Francesca, Piero della, and static space, 237;
perspective, 240;
and artistic change, 279, 287
Francis of Assisi, art influence, 249n.;
morale, 348;
God-feeling, 395;
contemporaries, table i
Francis I of France, and imperial crown, 148
Franciscans, influence of Joachim of Floris, 20
François Vase, composition, 244
Frau Holle, and Mary-cult, 267
Frau Venus, symbolism, 403
Frazer, Sir J. G., error on “Unknown God”, 404n.
Frederick the Great, and analogy, 4;
on chance, 142n.;
contemporaries, table iii
Frederick William I of Prussia, and Socialism, 138;
Egyptian kinship, 347
Frederick William IV of Prussia, and German unity, 145
Free will, and destiny, 140, 141. See also Will
Freedom, and historical destiny, 39
Freiburg Minster, Viking Gothic, 213
French Revolution, incident and destiny in, 148, 149
Frescobaldi, Girolamo, music, 230
Frescos, Classical, and time of day, 225, 283, 325;
Renaissance, 237, 275;
displacement by oil, 279.
See also Painting
Fresnel, Augustin J., light theory, 418
Friedrich, Kaspar D., and grand style, 289
Frigga, and Mary-cult, 267
Fronde, contemporaries, table iii
Front, cultural basis of architectural, 224
Fugue, style and theme, 230, 231
Function, as symbol of Western Culture, 74-78;
and proportion, 84;
contrast with Classical construction, 85;
basis of Western number, thought, 86, 87;
Goethe’s definition, 86n.;