UNIT THREE

SOIL PROPERTIES
3.1 Introduction
Soil properties are characteristics of soils exhibiting
both physical and chemical attributes.
Activity Question 3.1:
1. What is soil property?
2. What is the difference between physical and chemical
soil properties?
3. How soil texture class is determined?
4. What is Munsell soil colour chart?
5. What is the difference between soil structure and soil
texture?
6. Define the following terms:
- Soil pH
- Cation exchange capacity (CEC),
- Base saturation
2.1. SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
These are the physical attributes of soil that can
be described in terms of their color, texture,
structure, depth and porosity. They determine
the productive capacity, degree of aeration and
moisture holding capacity, plus zone of
penetration of plant roots.
Soil physical properties are also important in
soil survey and land evaluation. They are
base for soil classification. Soil physical
properties reflect the chemical and biological
attributes of soil.
Soil color
Soil color is an important indicator of certain chemical
and physical properties and give information in the
field about the presence of organic matter &
moisture. Most soils in the world are named by their
colors as black soil, brown soil, red soil etc.
Soil color is determined by the humus content and the
chemical nature of iron compounds (Table 3.1). Soils
with high humus content are dark brown or black in
color. Iron gives yellow, red or brown colors to most
soils. About 5% or more of the mineral soils is iron.
Hence, oxides and hydroxides of iron exist in soils in
the following forms:
 Table 3.1 Iron compounds and soil colour relationship
Form of iron oxide Chemical Soil color
formula
Ferrous oxide FeO Grey
Ferric oxide (hematite) Fe2O3 Red
Hydrated iron oxide 2Fe2O3 3H2O Yellow
(Limonite/ Geotite)

Note: a red color produced by Fe2O3 is associated with good

aeration and free drainage
Too much water and absence of oxygen cause anaerobic
condition (reduce the ferric iron/ Fe2O3/ to ferrous iron
(FeO) & grey color would result. Where the ferric iron
is hydrated, a yellowish color dominates.

In soil science, soil colour is described using a universally

standardized system of the Munsell Soil Color Chart.
In this system, soil color is described using numbers
and letter codes.
The Munsell Soil Color Chart is described using three
components named as: Hue, Value & Chroma. The Hue
notation indicate the dominant (major) color ( a shed of
red to yellow, e.g. Red /R, Green /G/, Yellow /Y), Blue
/B/, Purple /P). It ranges to series from 0-10. The Value
notation indicates the degree of lightness (i.e. the
variation in color between black and white) and ranges
from 0-10.
The Chroma notation indicates the strength of
color /color intensity/ , i.e. the departure from a
neutral of the same lightness or the purity of the
Hue. It is the measure of intensity and is given in
numerical values along/ across/ the bottom of the
chart in a horizontal scale.
Figure 3.1 Munsell soil colour chart: a standardized color classification system
used to determine precise color by comparing the soil to the color samples
found in Munsell soil color books (Gabler et al., 2007).
 Hue
2.5 YR
10
9 B E
8
7
6 A
Value

5
4
3 C
2 D
1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Chroma

The color of soil A in the above diagram can be described as

2.5YR 6/6:
where 2.5YR is the Hue;
6 is the Value; and
6 is the Chroma
This generally means a yellowish red soil with a value of 6 and a
chroma of 6.
Soil Depth
Soil depth refers to the depth of soil at which the parent
rock appears.
Effective soil depth: is the depth/soil volume at which plants
are able to obtain moisture and nutrients. It is governed
by the presence of cemented, toxic, compacted, hard
rock or indurate gravel layers.
Deep soils provide more moisture and nutrients to growing
plants than shallow soils.
According to FAO (1990), the following soil depth
classes are identified on the basis of littic contact:

Extremely shallow < 10 cm

Very shallow < 30 cm
Shallow 30-50 cm
Moderately shallow 50-100 cm
Deep 100-150 cm
Very deep >150 cm
Extremely deep > 200 cm

A soil depth <30 cm is used for identification of leptosols.

Soil clod (Figure 3.2, right) is dense with a poor texture
and leads to a poor structure if badly managed. Due to
continual compaction it is blue-grey in colour due to low
oxygen conditions. It is a poor environment for root
development. Soil clod on left has been well managed
and is relatively loose with ample pore space for good,
healthy root development.

Figure 3.2 Soil clods

Soil Texture
Soil texture refers to the size of soil particles (grains). It
is used to describe the distribution of the different
sizes of mineral particles or the proportion of sand, silt
and clay in soils. Textures ranges from clay, sand, and
silt at the extremes, to a loam which has all the three
sized fractions present. It determines permeability or
the water retention and transmission capacity of soils.
Three types of soils are identified in terms of texture:
sandy soil, silt soil and clay soil.
 Soil Texture Classification
Particle size analysis: refers to the analytical
procedure by which soil particles are separated and
analyzed.
Table 3.2 Main systems of classifying soil texture
Diameter of the particles or size of the grains (in mm)
Soil fraction or texture International scale USDA UK standards
class institute
Sand Coarse sand 2.0 - 0.2 2.0 - 0.05 2.0 - 0.06
Fine sand 0.2 - 0.002 2.0 - 0.05 2.0 - 0.06
Silt 0.02 - 0.002 0.05 - 0.002 0.06 – 0.002
Clay <0.002 <0.002 <0.002
Olaitan & Lombin (1984)
Determination of soil texture
Soil texture can be determined using different methods
with including the following:
I) Laboratory method
II) Field method
I) Laboratory methods of soil texture determination
In soil laboratories, the texture of soils is commonly
determined using two known methods named as:
A) Bouyoucos/hydrometer/method
B) Pipette method
A) Bouyoucos/hydrometer/method
This method is the simplest and most commonly used
laboratory method of soil texture determination. The
procures and steps followed in the bouyoucos method
are provided hereunder:

Apparatus Requirements
1. Air dried soil samples from different locations,
2. Stone mortar and wooden pestle,
3. Dispersing agent of either sodium hexamethyl
phosphate (50 g) and sodium carbonate (20 g)
dissolved in 2.5 dm3 of distilled water , or sodium
hydroxide (80 g) dissolved in 2 dm3 of distilled water,
4. 2 mm or 1.7 mm sieve,
5. Stirrer,
6. 1 dm3 measuring cylinder,
7. Hydrometer,
8. Small beaker,
9. 0.2 mm to 0.02 mm sieve
Procedures
1. Sieve an air dried soil sample through a 2 mm or 1.7
mm sieve. If the soil sample has dried to form hard
lumps, gently grind it up first. Use a clean stone
mortar with a wooden pestle and take care not to
break-up the stones. The soil that passes through the
sieve is called fine earth. The stones, that will not pass
through the sieve, and the fine earth are weighed
separately and may be expressed as percentages of
the whole air dried soil sample.
2. Weigh out exactly 50 g of the soil sample into a 750
cm3 beaker,
3. Add 50 cm3 of dispersing agent and 200 cm3 of
distilled water to the soil sample,
4. Stir the suspension and leave it over night,
5. Transfer the mixture from the beaker to a bottled
cup. Rinse/wash the beaker thoroughly with a small
quantity of distilled water,
6. Fix the cup of the bottled stirrer and stir/mix for 10
minutes or until the soil aggregates are broken down,
7. Pour the soil suspension into a 1 cm3 measuring
cylinder,
8. Make the solution up to 1 dm3 with distilled water,
9. Cover the top of the measuring cylinder with the
palm of your hand and shake vigorously,
10. Put the hydrometer into the suspension and after
four minutes take a reading,
11. Remove the hydrometer from the suspension.
Shake the suspension again, record the time and
take the hydrometer reading at the end of two
hours.
Note: the sand settles within four minutes, therefore,
the first hydrometer reading gives the amount of silt
and clay in the suspension. After two hours, the silt
and sand have settled out of suspension. The second
hydrometer reading gives the amount of clay in the
sample. The amount of silt in the sample is the
difference between the two readings.
12. After the second hydrometer reading, decant
off/pour out the liquid carefully taking care not to
disturb the sediments. Fill up the measuring cylinder
with distilled water again and decant. Repeat the
process of decanting several times until the
supernatant (upper liquid) is clear.
13. Transfer the sand at the bottom of the cylinder to a
small beaker and put it in the oven overnight to dry
at a temperature of 1050C.
14. Weigh the sand,
15. Sieve the sand through a 2.0 mm – 0.02 mm
diameter sieve and weigh the coarse sand remaining in
the sieve.
Example: For a 50 g soil sample the first hydrometer
reading was 20 g and the second hydrometer reading
was 15 g. Calculate the percentage of:
a) Clay
b) Silt
c) Sand, and
d) fine sand?
a) % clay =?
Given: - weight of soil sample = 50 g
- reading for clay = 15 g
% clay = 15 g/50 g*100/1 = 30%

b) % of silt =?
Given: - weight of soil sample = 50 g
- reading for clay = 15 g
- reading for clay + silt = 20 g
% silt = (20 g – 15 g/50) *100/1 = 10%
% sand = ?
Given: - weight of soil sample = 50 g
- weight of clay = 15 g or 30%
- weight of silt 5 g = 10%
- weight of silt + clay = 20 g (40%)
% sand = [(50 g – 20 g)/ 50 g]* 100
= (30 g/50)*100 = 60% or
100% - 40% = 60%
d) % fine sand =?
Given: - weight of total sand = 50 g – 20 g = 30 g
- assume weight of sieved sand = 12 g
then, % of coarse sand = (12 g/50 g) *100 = 24%
so, % fine sand = percentage of sand (60%) - % of
coarse sand (24%) = 36% or
% fine sand = [(30 g – 12 g)/50g] *100
= (18 g/50 g)* 100
= 36%
Note: soils are classified into textural classes based on their
sand, silt and clay percentages and a soil texture triangle is used
to determine their accurate classes.

Example, determine the texture class of a sample soil when 32%

is clay, 59% silt and 9% sand?

Procedures: first consider clay from the left-side of the triangle

(Figure 3.3). Read 32% sand from this side and draw a pencil
line parallel to the base of the triangle through the 32% point.
Secondly, Read down the right-side of the triangle to just past
59% silt, and draw another line parallel to the left hand side of
the triangle . Thirdly, read along the bottom of the triangle to 9%
sand. Draw a line parallel to the right hand side of the triangle.
The point where all the three lines cross indicates the textural
class of the soil which in this case is silty-clay-loam.
 Figure 3.3 Soil Triangle 1.
See additional example from Figure 3.4 next slide
Figure 3.4 Soil triangle 2.
 Table 3.4 FAO/ UNESCO Grouping of Basic Soil Textural Classes

Soil textural groups Basic textural classes FAO texture groups

Sandy soils Sand Coarse textured soils

Loamy sand
Loamy soils Sandy loam Medium textured soils
Loam
Silty-loam
Sandy-clay loam
Silty-clay loam
Clay loam
Silt
Clay soils Sandy-clay Fine textured soils
Sitly-clay

Source: FAO/ UNESCO (1990, p .94)

Assignment
Dear students, please determine the textural classes of
the given soil samples (Table 3.6)

Table 3.6 Analyzed soil samples

Soil sample First hydrometer Second hydrometer Texture class
reading reading
A (60 g) 29 10
B (100 g) 41 19
C (80 g) 60 28
Description of main soil texture types
Sandy soil: is a coarse textured soil in which the
individual soil grains/particles/ can be seen with the naked
eye. They range from 2.00 - 0.05 mm in diameter. The
grains of sandy soil are light colored & rounded in shape.
They are dominated by silica (SiO2), mica and feldspars.
Sandy soils are well aerated and have good drainage, but
excessively drained and are susceptible to drought or
drought prone. They are loose and single grain. The
individual grains can easily be seen or felt.
Since they have bigger pore spaces which initiate rapid
water passage and, hence, have low capacity of
holding water and plant nutrients (poor storehouse of
water & plant nutrients). They are therefore, infertile
and less productive. To be productive, there should be
frequent addition of manure/fertilizer and water
through irrigation. Sandy soils are usually referred to
as light soils because they are easy to work on and to
till/to cultivate.
Silt soil: is a moderately drained soil made up of
medium sized particles with diameter of 0.05 - 0.002
mm. Individual silt particles (grains) can be seen with
the help of a microscope. When compared to sandy soils,
silt soil contains less silica and more of the cations
important in plant nutrition. The physical properties are
intermediate between sand and clay. Silt soil is
irregularly fragmented in shape and susceptible to
compaction and crusting. Tropical soils contain less silt
than soils in the temperate regions.
Clay soils: these are fine textured soils with very fine
grains that can not be seen with naked eye since they are
< 0.002 mm in diameter. They contain silica and hydrous
oxides of iron and aluminum. They are platy in shape,
susceptible to crusting and compaction.

When fine clay soils are shaken-up in water, they show

some of the properties of both solids and liquids and are
called colloids. Clay colloids are important because they
can hold nutrients on their surface in a form which is
readily available to plants.
Clay soils are spongy and can hold water better than sand,
but they have a tendency to become waterlodged and to
be partly aerated. They are sticky and plastic when wet
and form very hard-lumps or clods and crack when dry.
They form long and flexible ribbon when pinched
between thumb and forefinger. They have strong
capacity to hold water and plant nutrients. A clay
content of about 20-25% provide desirable qualities of
aeration, water and nutrient holding capacity.
Clay soils in Ethiopia are usually poorly drained/
waterlodged/ and are often cultivated sometime after
the rainy season. They are seldom hard to work on, to
till or cultivate and thus termed as heavy soils. They
are mostly left for grazing livestock. They cover 10%
of the soils in Ethiopia on flat topography. In the
Sudan, they are named as black cotton soils. To be
productive, clay soils require careful and proper
management.
Loamy soils: are soils with best combinations of clay, silt
and sand to provide excellent water holding and nutrient
storage capacities. They are soils with a relatively even
mixture of sand, silt and clay. Loamy soils feel gritty
when dry and are slightly plastic when wet. Dry loam can
be squeezed to form a cast that will not break easily.
II. Field Method of Soil Texture Determination
Soil can be determined in the field by using finger feel
method. At the field condition of texture determination
using finger feel method, the soil surveyor observes a
coarse feeling in the case of sandy soils, spongy feeling
in case of silt soils while a glassy feeling in clay soil
conditions.

Figure 3.5 Soil analysis in the field is a hands-on process

(Gabler et al., 2007)
Experiments to compare soil texture

Apparatus
1. Samples of different known soils such as
loamy, sandy loam, silt loam and clay loam,
2. Texture triangle,
3. Samples of unknown soils,
4. Wash bottle of water,
Procedure A
To determine soil texture class, using a modified key:
1. Make observations on samples of air dried soils.,
2. Is the soil aggregated or non-aggregated?
3. If the soil is non-aggregated it is described as
single grained,
4. If the soil is aggregated, note the degree of
firmness according to one of the following
descriptions:
a) Aggregate can be crushed easily with the
fingers,
b) Aggregates can be crushed with moderate
pressure,
c) Aggregates cannot be crushed with the fingers.
5. Moisten the soil to the consistency of workable
putty. Record your answers to the following
questions,
6. Does the soil feel smooth or gritty or
intermediate between these two?
7. Does the soil form a ribbon when it is pushed
over the thumb and forefinger?
Record your results:
a) Soil does not form a ribbon,
b) Soil forms a medium ribbon,
c) Soil forms a good ribbon
 Table 3.7 Simplified key for identification of soil classes by texture
Air dried Moist Soil class
A Single grained Gritty Sand
Loose No ribbon
Gritty Sandy loam
Aggregated Soft clods No ribbon
Intermediate Loam
No ribbon
Smooth Silt loam
No ribbon
Gritty Sandy clay loam
Aggregated Moderate pressure needed Medium ribbon
to break aggregates Intermediate Clay loam
Gritty/smooth
Medium ribbon
Smooth Silty clay loam
Medium ribbon
Aggregates cannot be Smooth Silty clay
crushed with the finger Good ribbon
Gritty Sandy clay
Good ribbon
Olaitan & Lombin (1984)
 Procedure B
To determine soil texture class using the definition of
soil classes students should examine soil samples in
dry and moist conditions.
1. Dry sand squeezed in the hand will fall apart as the
pressure is released. Moist sand squeezed in the hand
will form a cast. The cast will crumble when it is
touched.
2. Sandy loam contains a large proportion of sand but
also enough silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent.
Individual sand grains can be felt or seen. Dry sandy
loam squeezed in the hand will form a cast which
readily falls apart. Moist sandy loam squeezed in the
hand forms a cast that will bear careful handling without
breaking.
3. Loamy soil feels gritty when dry and is slightly
plastic when wet. Dry loam can be squeezed to form a
cast that will not break easily.
4. Silt loam contains a moderate amount of fine sand,
only a small amount of clay but over half of the
particles are of silt. Dry silt loam may form clods but
the lumps can be broken readily and when pulverized it
feels soft and floury. Either moist or dry, this soil will
form casts that can be handled freely without breaking.
It forms ribbon which have a broken appearance.
 5. Clay loam is fine textured soil which usually breaks
into clods or lumps that are hard when dry. When the
moist soil is pinched between the thumb and finger, it
forms a thin ribbon which will break readily and
barely supports its own weight. The moist soil is
plastic and will form a cast that withstands much
handling.
6. Clay is a fine textured soil that usually form hard
lumps or clods when dry and is quite plastic and
usually sticky when wet. When the soil is pinched
between the thumb and forefinger, it forms a long,
flexible ribbon.
Size category of different soil types
Particle Size (mm)
Boulder >200
Stone 60 - 200
Gravel 2.0 - 60
Sand 2.0 – 0.05
Silt 0.05 – 0.002 USDA
clay < 0.002
Soil Structure
Soil structure (Fabric) refers to the shape,
groupings, arrangement or degree of
aggregation of soil particles into larger
structural units called peds. It is the grouping or
arrangement of soil particles in aggregates of
varying consistencies.

Soil structure development is the result of the

aggregation of primary soil particles through
the help of clay, iron oxides, carbonates,
organic matter and soil fauna.
Primary soil particles (sands, silts, clays) become
cemented together by organic matter and/or electrostatic
forces over time. These groupings are called aggregates
or peds. The strength and shape of the peds greatly
influence pore size distributions, water holding capacity,
gas exchange, and rooting condition.
As soil swells (wets or freezes) and then shrinks (dries
or thaws), cracks form around soil masses, creating
peds. Peds are held together and in place through the
adhesion of organic substances, iron oxides, clays or
carbonates. Cracks and channels between peds are
important for water, air, and solute transport and deep
water drainage. Finer soils usually have a stronger, more
defined structure than coarser soils due to shrink/swell
processes predominating in clay-rich soils and more
cohesive strength between particles.
Soil structure formation is facilitated by wetting and
drying cycles that lead to cementing by clay and oxides
and faunal excreta such as worm casts. Physical,
chemical and biotic factors are important for the
formation of soil structure. Soil structure varies vertically
and best identified at field conditions. If taken to
laboratory, it losses its structure.
Soil aggregates consist of many fine soil particles held in a
single mass or cluster. The aggregation is so important
for drainage, aeration, and for releasing plant
nutrients. Human activities that help to maintain good
soil structure in the surface layers for agricultural
purposes are minimum tillage, working the soil at the
proper moisture content, growing legumes and
addition of organic matter.
Generally, soil structure on the top soil is important:
- for seed bed preparation: depth to which soils
can be ploughed,
- in soil erodibility: less stable soil aggregates
easily disperse in water and erode easily.
Unstable aggregates are liable to crusting and are
impermeable.
- for aeration: poor structured soils in the sub-
soil hinder passage of water and air.
- for water absorption and runoff generation:
poorly structured soils in the B-horizon hinder
free movement of water and root penetration. If
structure less like sand, it may generate strong
runoff.
The classes of soil structure: refers to the shape of the
peds or aggregates
1. Structure-less soils: These are soils that do not have
aggregate with naturally preserved boundaries (peds).
They are soils with separate grains such as sand. Soils
made up of only sand and silt show very little structural
arrangements because of lack of the binding properties
provided by clay.
Two forms of structure-less soil conditions are
recognized:
a) Single grain: are individual detrital grains/ where
there are no aggregates/ or small rock fragments
common in spongy leached horizons. e.g. arenosols and
underlying an altered sandy materials. In these soils
particles more or less exist separately (Figure 3.6).
Single grain structures are common in very sandy
surface soils where each grain of sand appears
separate from all others.
b) Massive: a condition where particles adhere closely
to each other but the mass lacks planes of weakness
(Figure 3.6). Massive structures are very common in
sandy loams, loamy sands, and silt loams.
Massive/coherent soils form continuous soil
phases/continuous pore spaces without peds usually
found in lower horizons or underlying material.
Figure 3.6 Soil structure permeability relationship
2. Granular soils: are roughly spherical aggregates with
spaces between the granules (figure 3.6). This is the
most desirable soil structure for plants to grow in.
Water can be held between the granules. A granular soil
has a good crumb structure. It is made up of rounded
peds or aggregates. The sizes of the grains are < 10 mm
that form a freely loose porous mass. They are the
characteristics of surface soils common on the upper
horizons. They contain high organic matter and
commonly found in grasslands. They usually occur in
the A-horizon (in the top mass layer) at < 1 cm depth
and they are spongy.
„Granular‟ structure consists of loosely packed
spheroidal peds that are glued together mostly by
organic substances. Granular structure is characteristic
of many A-horizons, particularly those with high soil
organic matter (SOM) content and biological activity.
Larger peds, in the form of plates, blocks, or prisms, are
commonly associated with the B-horizon and are
formed by way of shrink-swell processes and adhesive
substances.
Crumb structure: refer to irregularly shaped peds with
rough surfaces that form a loose porous mass. They are
common on the upper horizons beneath grasslands
(Figure 3.7).
 3. Structured soils: these are soils that form individual
natural soil aggregates which are referred to as peds
described in terms of grade, class and type.

Types of Structured Soils

A) Platy: these are horizontally shaped aggregates
common at the soil surface or as surface crusts, but in
virgin soils. Water can move laterally through a platy
soil. Platy soil looks like flat plates placed one upon
another (see Figures 3.6 & 3.7). The aggregates of
platy soils are arranged in thin horizontal plates but
have weak vertical development.
B) Blocky: here the aggregates form blocks that fit
together like three-dimensional jigsaws (Figure 3.6).
Blocky soil aggregates may be angular or sub-angular
(Figure 3.7). Angular blocky if the corners are sharp
with flat, convex or concave faces. They are firm,
hard and fairly tightly packed. They are common in
the B-horizons. Sub-angular if having rounded
corners (edges) with convex or concave faces
common in the middle horizons. They are common in
the B-horizon. The sizes of blocky soils may range
from 1 to 10 cm.
Spheroidal characteristic of surface A-horizon Plate-like structure common in E-horizon & may
soils [granular-porous & crumb-very porous occur in any part of the profile. Often inherited
structures] subject to wider and rapid changes from parent material or caused by compaction.

Angular blocky Sub-angular blocky

These are block-like structures often developing in B-horizons mainly in humid areas. They may
occur also in A-horizons.

Figure 3.7 Common soil structures

C) Prismatic: are aggregates or peds that are tall with
fairly flat vertical surfaces (Figure 3.6). Prismatic
aggregates are common in the sub-soil. They
contain vertically oriented/streched pillar-like
aggregates or elongated peds with three or more
vertical flat faces. They are characteristic features of
the subsoil horizons in arid and semi-arid regions.
They also occur in some poorly drained soils of the
humid regions. They are common in many medium
and fine-textured soils. Two kinds of prismatic
aggregates are identified (Figure 3.7):
Prismatic: are soils with plane or level/flat tops.
Columnar: are soils with rounded top corners
created as a result of the effect of eluviation on
the prismatic structure. They are large, vertically
elongated peds with domed upper surfaces and
three or more vertical faces. They are distinctive
middle horizon of many solonetz and solodic
planosols.
Grades of Soil Structure: indicate the degree of
development of the soil aggregates. The grade of the
structure could be structure-less, weak, moderate or
strong.
- Structure less: e.g. coarse sand not tightly bound.
- Weak: is poorly firmed and weakly structured if
the peds are observable in place but cannot be
removed without being destroyed.
- Moderate: if the peds can be removed from the
profile for examination in the hand. It is well
formed and durable.
- Strong: if the peds when removed from the profile
are rigid and durable in the hand. They are double
aggregate soils.
Destruction of Soil Structure
When soils rich in clay are ploughed or trampled after
heavy rain, they become puddled or run together. The
soil structure is destroyed and larger pores between the
aggregates collapse.
Stability and consistency of soil structure
Stability is the resistance that a particular soil shows to
any change that is caused by external forces such as
rainfall and soil cultivation. Consistency is the degree
of cohesion (degree of firmness) of the individual
particles that make up the soilmass and the resistance of
the aggregates to breakage when they are handled.
Soil consistency can be determined quite simply by
attempting to crush a handful of moist soil in the palm
of the hand.
 Depending on the resistance to crushing, the soil can be
put into one of the following classes:
1. Loose: separate non-coherent soil particles,
2. Friable: lumps of soil which can be crushed into
smaller crumbs with only gentle pressure,
3. Slightly compact: layer of soil which can be crushed
into fragments with moderate pressure,
4. Compact soil: dense lumps of soil which can be
broken up only with difficulty,
5. Cemented soil: soil materials that cannot be broken
in the hand and which are bound together by a
cementing agent.
Soil Porosity
Soil porosity refers to the amount of a given soil
volume occupied by air and water. It is the
percentage volume of the pore spaces and it
influences the bulk density of the soil-mass. The
fewer the pore spaces, the greater will be the bulk
density and vice versa. Fine textured soils and soils
with high organic matter tend to be more porous.
High organic matter implies low bulk density.
Top soil exhibiting granular structured Soil pores (fissures)

Figure 3.8 Free spaces (pores) in soils reserved for air & water
The total porosity of soils is estimated based on bulk
density (BD) and particle density (PD), i.e.
% pore space = [1- (BD/PD)]*100
e.g. Calculate the % pore space of a soil when its BD =
1.25 g/cm3 and the PD measures 2.66 g/cm3 ?
% pore space = [1- (BD/PD)]*100
= [1- (1.25 g/cm3 /2.66 g/cm3)]*100
= (1- 0.4699248120300752)*100
= 0. 5300751879699248*100
= 53%
Bulk Density
The weight of a particular volume of oven dried soil
with its natural structure intact is compared with its
volume to obtain a figure for bulk density. The fewer
the pore spaces, the greater the bulk density. Pore
space in the soil refers to volume occupied by air
and water. Cultivation reduces the amount of organic
matter in the soil and compacts it, as a result density
increases. It is assumed that a hectare of oven dried
soil to a depth 12 cm weighs 1 million kg.
Cultivation increases BD by introducing compaction
which reduces percolation and root penetration. The BD
of uncultivated soils usually ranges from 1.0 to 1.6
g/cm3. The variations are due largely to differences in
total pore space. The finer the texture of the soil, the
greater is its percentage area of total pore space. A loose
porous soil will have a smaller BD than a compact soil.
Clay soils have BD values ranging from 1.10 to 1.40
g/cm3. Loams, sandy loams, and sand have BD
ranging from 1.20 to 1.80 g/cm3.

Note: high proportion of pore space implies low BD.

BD, generally refers to the ratio of the weight of dry
soil to the volume of soil, i.e. the density of the
whole undisturbed soil.
BD = Weight of oven dried soil (g) / Volume of
soil when sampled (cm3) or
Weight of soil / Volume of soil
NB: the weight of the soil is determined after drying
it at 105 – 1100C.
- Volume refers to the volume of the soil when it is
collected in the field by measuring the whole or
the ring cylinder sample container.
Bulk = particle + air + water
BD ranges from <1 – 2 g/cm3 and sometimes
1.33 g/cm3 is taken as an average value.

Calculate the BD of a soil when its weight

measures 1.0 g and its volume equals 0.8 cm3?
BD = Weight of soil / Volume of soil
= 1.0 g /0.8 cm3
= 1.25 g/cm3
Particle Density (PD) refers to the ratio of the weight of
solids to the volume of solids and usually expressed as
g/cm3
If the weight and volume of a certain sample soil
measures 1.33 g and 0.5 cm3, respectively, what will be
the solid particle density of the soil?
PD = Weight of solids (g) / Volume of solids (cm3)
= 1.33 g / 0.5 cm3
= 2.66 g/ cm3
Since it is usually difficult to determine PD, the value
2.65 is assumed for total pore volume determination
as a standard measurement.

The true density of a soil is the measure of the density of the constituent
components and varies from about 2.65 for the mineral particles to
about 2.0 for organic matter.
Soil Colloids
„Soil colloids‟ refer to the finest clay and SOM particles
in a soil. Colloids are important soil fractions due to
properties that make them the location of most physical
and chemical activity in the soil. One such property is
their large surface area. Smaller particles have more
surface area for a given volume or mass of particles
than larger particles. Thus, there is increased contact
with other colloids and with the soil solution. This
results in the formation of strong friction and cohesive
bonds between colloid particles and soil water, and is
why a clay soil holds together better than a sandy soil
when wet.
Soil Moisture
Soil moisture is essential because it makes soil
solution. It regulates soil air and soil temperature
because it has high specific heat capacity. Three
different types of water movement are observed in
soils.
1. Saturated flow: takes place when water is moving
through the soil in which all the pores are filled with
water (waterlodged).
 2. Unsaturated flow: water moves from pore to pore
by flowing over the surfaces of aggregates/ particles
and where considerable amount of air moves on the
large spaces (field capacity).

3. Vapour transfer: movement of water in the vapour

phase from one place to another in the soil and from
the soil to the atmosphere.
Moisture movement in soils is affected by factors like:
a) Adsorption: when water is attracted to the surface
of colloids (mainly by electrostatic force). This
condition is strong in soils with high clay content and
with organic matter content.

b) Capillarity: water is held in soil pores by

adsorptive forces between the water and the pore
surfaces and surface tension forces at water
surfaces. If the pore size is bigger, the lower will
be the water because it easily drain than in
narrow pore space.
Soil temperature
Soil temperature affects microbial activity, seed
germination, and root growth. When the soil is cold,
there is little or no biological activity. In the soil the
most important microbial activity takes place within
the temperature range 20 to 280C. The temperature
that is most favorable for seed germination varies
according to the plant species. For instance, cotton
germinates when the temperature is about 210C. Root
growth is also greatly affected by temperature.
Warm soils are generally well drained. Water has a high
specific heat capacity and waterlodged soils are
therefore usually cold. Temperatures in the subsoil are
particularly important for the growth of seedlings
during the rainy season and for the control of fungus
diseases such as damping off.
Soil aeration
Living organisms in the soil require both air and water
in correct and adequate proportions. Air in the soil
tends to be similar in composition to atmospheric air
but it may contain more CO2 (0.1 -3% in soil air) and
water vapour (relative humidity 100% in soil air).
The pore space in soil is variable. In a well drained
topsoil macro-pores and micro-pores each constitute
25% of the volume composition, so that 50% of the
soil volume is occupied by water and air of which
about 10% is air filled, 20% is water available to
plants, and the final 20% is water held too tightly for
roots to be able to absorb it.
An excess of water in the soil usually means that the soil
pores are filled with water. Gases can only diffuse
slowly through liquids so inadequate circulation of air
will result. If the soil is wet but well drained, diffusion
of air in the soil is through the macro-pores and it is
greatly increased by animal burrows, cracks and
movement of the soil
Plant roots can only respire in the absence of oxygen for
a limited time. If the oxygen supply is poor or non-
existent for lengthy periods, plants will die. One
important exception is rice. Air differences from the
leaf down the stem and into the root of a rice plant and
many varieties of rice allow considerable volumes of
oxygen to diffuse out of the root into the soil.
Cultivation of the soil by digging, ploughing, and
hoeing all help to loosen the soil particles and
encourage circulation of air in the soil. Poor
aeration has an important effect on the micro-
organisms in the soil. Anaerobic conditions will
reduce the populations of nitrifying bacteria in the
soil and increase the number of denitrifying
bacteria. In severe cases this will deplete nitrate
levels in the soil dramatically.
The most harmful effect of poor aeration is that the
anaerobic bacteria start carrying out reduction,
producing toxic by-products such as simple fatty acids,
for example acetic acid and hydrogen sulfide both of
which are poisonous to plant roots. If the soil is also
high in iron, toxic concentrations of ferrous iron can
also result.
Questions
1. Describe the soil texture triangle and justify its use as a suitable technique for
classifying soil into classes (2 points).
2. What is meant by the term soil structure? Name and describe three types of structured
soils.
3. Define soil texture and describe an experiment for determining it.
4. What are the differences in the physical properties of sand, silt and clay?
5.Explain the terms stability and consistency in relation to soil structure. Describe an
experiment to demonstrate the structural stability of the soil (3.5 points).
6. Write short notes on the following:
a) Bulk density
b) soil color
c) Soil temperature
d) Soil aeration (4.5 points)
e) Soil moisture or soil water
3.2 Soil Chemical Properties
The soil chemical properties refer to the chemical
attributes of soils. The following chemical properties
are considered here:
A) Soil PH
B) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
C) Soil organic matter (SOM)
D) Soil nutrients
A) Soil PH
Soils may be acidic, neutral or alkaline. This is very
significant in crop production and soil management
practices because soil reactions are produced by the
chemical conditions that exist in soils. In humid
climates there is a natural tendency for soils to become
increasingly acidic and the trend is accelerated when
soils are under cultivation. In the tropics, acid soils
contain aluminum ions which prevent acid intolerant
plants from growing in the soil.
A soil becomes acidic when the positive ions (cations)
in the soil are replaced by hydrogen (H+) ions. For
instance, a soil containing calcium and potassium may
become acidic if these elements are replaced by H+
ions from water. When the number of H+ ions and
the number of hydroxyl (OH-) ions in the solution
around the soil particles are equal, the soil is
neutral.
The PH of a soil solution is a measure of soil acidity or
alkalinity. Whether a soil is acidic, neutral or alkali
depends on the relative concentration of H+ and OH-
ions. Soil acidity is therefore dependent on the
concentration of hydrogen ions. The PH scale is the
most frequently used to express acidity. Water is a
neutral substance with equal concentrations of H+
and OH- ions.
Soil PH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion
concentration i.e.
PH = - log[H+], where H+ is expressed in moles/liter

PH value ranges from 0 to 14.

At PH of < 7, the soil solution contains more H+ than
OH- and hence considered acidic. At PH of > 7, the OH-
dominates and the soil is alkaline.
Figure 3.9 Soil pH scale (Huddart & Stott, 2010)
The PH of water is found by calculation to be 7. A strong
acid has a PH of 1 and a strong alkali has a PH of 14.

0,1,2,3,4,5, 6,7,8, 9,10,11,12,13,14

Acidic Neutral Alkaline

H+ is more in acidic soils while OH- is more in alkaline

soils. In neutral soils, the concentration of the two ions
is in balance
If PH rises to above 7 or 8, nutrients such as P, Fe, Mn,
and Zn become unavailable in the soil solution. When
PH falls below 5, Al, Fe & Mn in the soil solution
increase to toxic levels.
PH Soil category
< 4.5 Extremely acid
4.5 – 5.0 Very strongly acid
5.0 -5.5 Strongly acid
5.5 – 6.0 Moderately acid
6.0 – 6.5 Slightly acid
6.5 – 7.3 Neutral
7.3 -7.8 Slightly alkaline
7.8 – 8.5 Moderately alkaline
8.5 – 9.0 Strongly alkaline
> 9.0 Very strongly alkaline
Fitzpatrick (1989)
Determination of Soil PH
Soil PH can be determined using the glass electrode
technique or a colorimetric PH indicator. The glass
electrode is used in nearly all soil testing laboratories
for the determination of soil PH. It can also be used
effectively and reliably for the field work.
Colorimetric indicators are most useful for testing soils
in the field and are also used in some testing
laboratories. When used properly, they give
approximate, but satisfactory results.
A soil indicator kit contains a solution of two dyes
mixed together so that a range of colors is obtained for
the various hydrogen ion concentrations in soils. Use
of such a kit gives a rapid field estimate of PH within
0.2 of a unit from PH 4.0 - 8.0.
Experiment to demonstrate a colorimetric method of
determining PH in soils

Apparatus
1. Test tube 15 to 18 cm long with rubber corks to fit,
2. Wash bottle containing 200 to 300 cm3 of distilled
water,
3. Universal soil indicator solution,
4. Indicator color chart or a series of buffer solutions to
show color changes of the indicator over the PH range,
5. Barium sulphate powder.
Procedures:
1. Fill a test tube to depth of about 1 cm with the soil to
be tested,
2. Add the same quantity of barium sulphate to it,
3. Fill the test tube with distilled water to within 4 cm
from the top of the tube,
4. Shake the tube thoroughly,
5. Allow the contents to settle, then add 8 to 10 drops of
universal soil indicator,
6. Shake the tube again and allow the contents to settle,
7. Hold the test tube against the printed color chart,
8. Compare each color on the chart with the color of
the suspension containing the indicator and note the
PH of the color which it matches exactly. Use Table
below to interpret your results.
Table 8. Colorimetric determination of acidity in soils
Relative soil acidity PH Color of soil indicator
Very strongly acid 4.0 Yellow
Very acidic 4.5 Greenish yellow
Acidic 5.0 Yellowish green
Moderately acidic 5.5 Light green
Slightly acidic 6.0 Bluish green
Very slightly acidic 6.5 Greenish blue
Causes of soil acidity
Soil can become acidic because of the following
reasons:
1. When soil is formed from acidic rocks: rocks such
as granite and rhyolite contain an excess of quartz
(SiO2), and these combined with various proportions
of water and form acids such as silicic acid, and
tricilicic acid. There are considerable areas of sandy
soils which have been produced from acidic rocks.
 2. Presence of humus: humus may react with iron and
aluminum ions to form complexes which subsequently
undergo hydrolysis to yield hydrogen ions which will
increase soil acidity.
3. Presence of soluble salts: soluble salts may be acidic,
neutral or basic. They may arise from fertilizer salts,
mineralization or organic matter and the weathering of
minerals. These salts may also undergo hydrolysis to
form acids.
4. Waterlodging: excessive water causes hydrolysis of
some of the cations in the soil. These are replaced by
hydrogen ions.
5. Rain water: carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can
dissolve in rain water to form carbonic acid which is a
weak acid.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
The atmosphere also contains acidic gases such as
sulphur dioxide. These gases dissolve in rain water to
form dilute acid solutions in the soil.
6. Cultivation: cultivation has some acidifying effects
on the soil because nutrient elements are removed by
crop plants. The plants will absorb cations and these
are replaced by hydrogen ions.
7. Application of fertilizers: This can also have an
acidifying effect on the soil. Normally, fertilizer
application will increase the cation and anion content
of the soil. However, all nutrients are soluble and when
they are leached from the soil they take cations with
them. Ammonium nitrate fertilizers have a particularly
acidifying effect.
8. Biological activities in the soil: The following
biological activities influence soil acidity:
a) Aerobic oxidation of organic matter
b) Anaerobic decomposition of organic matter: in
the absence of oxygen, decomposition of organic
matter may release weak acids such as lactic acid,
acetic acid, butyric acid, and propionic acid. These
acids can dissolve in water to release hydrogen ions
which acidify the soil.
c) Nitrification: Nitrification increases soil acidity
because hydrogen ions are released. This effect is of
great importance when commercial fertilizers are used
which contain ammonium salts such as ammonium
sulphate.
9. Removal of bases: the removal of bases from the soil
minerals makes them unstable in structure and when the
process continues for long periods the minerals
disintegrate. These products of mineral decomposition
may remain in the soil as substances containing
replaceable hydrogen ions which will increase soil
acidity.
In all regions where rainfall is high enough to leach
appreciable amounts of exchangeable bases from the
surface layers of the soil, the soil will tend to be acid.
Organic matter decaying in the soil may also lose its
constituent bases and hence acidic humus may be
produced which contains replaceable hydrogen ions.
The organic soil fraction may therefore be a reason
for soil acidity.
 10. The presence of sulphides: Sulphides in the soil
can also cause soil acidity due to the production of
hydrogen ion.

The effect of acid in soils on plants

There are some plants that are tolerant of acidic soils
and others that grow more favorably in alkaline or
neutral soils. An acidic soil is one in which the
concentration of hydrogen ions is greater than that of
hydroxyl ions. Acidic soils are characterized by toxic
levels of aluminum and manganese. The growth of
plants in such a soil must be due to tolerance of these
conditions.
Some acid tolerant plants, such as rice, grow much
better in a soil to which lime has been applied. The
level of acidity which plants tolerate is also
influenced by the supply of available nutrients and
moisture. When other conditions are favorable for the
growth of a plant, it will thrive in a much more acidic
soil than it would if the nutrient or moisture supply
were limited.
Alkaline Soils
Alkaline soils have a greater concentration of hydroxyl
ions than hydrogen ions. These soils are formed as a
result of the chemical reaction between carbonates of
calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium, and
hydroxyl ions. For example, sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) is readily hydrolyzed to form sodium
hydroxide.
Na2CO3 +H2O → 2NaOH + CO2
This will eventually raise the PH value of the soil to
8.5 or above. Sodium hydroxide is corrosive to
plant tissue. The sodium ions are absorbed by the
colloidal complex and this slows up the development
of roots and water absorption. Phosphorous is
generally most readily available to plants in a neutral
or slightly acidic soils. When soils become deficient
in bases, the solubility of aluminum, iron and
manganese increases and the high concentration of
aluminum and manganese may be toxic to crop
plants.
b) Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
The minute soil colloidal particles or micelle (soil
colloidal particle composed of clay and humus), be it
inorganic or organic, carries a negative charge and
consequently thousands of positively charged ions
(cations) are drawn to each colloidal crystal by
electrostatic attraction. An electrical double layer is thus
established with the colloidal micelle forming the inner
layer of a large anion and the adsorbed cations which
surround the anion constituting the outer layer.
In humid tropical soils the exchange complex is
dominated in order by H+, Ca2+, Mg+, K+, and Al+.
Because of the preponderance/predominance of H+ and
Ca2+ ions in the exchange complex, the clays of humid
region are usually described as having a calcium-
hydrogen complex. In the semi-arid tropical soils,
calcium, magnesium and potassium ions tend to
dominate the exchange complex.
In the humid tropical environment, H+ ions may displace
metallic ions giving rise to an acid (hydrogen saturated)
clay. Acid clays are calcium-aluminum clays. In arid
region which hardly experiences any leaching or where
drainage is impeded, alkaline salts may accumulate
and adsorbed Na+ ions may equal or even exceed those
of Ca2+. This gives rise to a sodium or sodium-calcium
complex.
The adsorbed cations on the exchange complex cannot be
leached out easily, but they can be replaced by other
cations in solution through simple mass action because
of the ion competition for negative sites. This ionic
competition exists because there are large numbers of
ions present.
Cation exchange is replacement of one cation by another
on the exchange complex. Factors that control cation
exchange in soils include the relative concentration of
the ion involved, the number of charges on the ion and
the speed of movement or activity of the ion.
The greater the number of charges an ion carries, the
more efficient it is replacing others on the exchange
complex. The speed of movement of an ion is
essentially a function of its size. Hydrated ions, for
instance, are usually less active than non-hydrated
ions of the same species. The replaceability series of
some of the common cations in soils is Al > Ca > Mg
> K > Na; and the ionic exchange is on a chemical
equivalent basis.
Thus when an ammonium fertilizer, e.g. (NH4) SO4;
potash fertilizer e.g. KCl, are added to the soil, the
NH4+ or K+ ions will replace other cations on the
exchange complex and these will go into soil solution.
Cation exchange takes place on the surfaces of clay
and humus colloids as well as on the surfaces of plant
roots. The CEC of soil is thus dependent on humus
content and the type of clay mineral.
Under natural conditions the process of cation exchange
accounts for the fact that calcium and, to a lesser
extent, potassium, magnesium and sodium are lost by
leaching. At the same time aluminum and hydrogen
ions, both of which enhance soil acidity, are
increased. This explains in part why soils in humid
regions tend to become acid quickly.
Cation exchange is a critical factor in soil fertility from
two important standpoints. Firstly, it affects the total
amounts of nutrients available to plants as
exchangeable cations. Secondly, it influences the
degree to which the exchange complex is saturated
with basic ions as opposed to hydrogen ions. Where
exchangeable hydrogen predominates, the PH will
obviously be low and plant growth will be retarded.
The nutrients calcium, magnesium and potassium, for
instance, are supplied from exchangeable sources.
Low CEC implies that:
a) the soil is low in exchangeable plant nutrients,
b) Nutrients such as K+, Mg+, and NH4+ can only be
held weakly by the soil and so may easily leach out,
c) Conventional fertilizer practices could lead to
nutrient imbalance,
d) A rapid fall in PH may occur if ammonium sulphate
and, to a lesser extent, urea or calcium ammonium
nitrate are used.
 The CEC is a measure of the number of adsorption sites
per unit weight of soil at a particular PH. It is the
measure of the nutrient storing and exchanging
capacity of soils.
It is often defined as the sum of the exchangeable
cations adsorbed per unit weight of soil. It is a soil
property measured in milliequivalents per 100 g of
soil (m.e/100 g). Table shows the approximate CEC
values for a variety of soil colloids at PH 7. The CEC is
affected quite dramatically by PH changes.
Table 3.9 CEC at PH 7

Soil colloid CEC (m.e/100 g)

Organic colloid (humus) 200
Vermiculite 150
Montmrillonite 100
Illite 30
Kaolinite 10
Hydrous oxide 5
It is clear that soils high in organic matter or the 2:1
type clays, notably vermiculite and montmorillonite,
have a high CEC. In contrast, soils dominated by
kaolinite and hydrous oxide clays generally have a
low CEC. Soils which contain small amounts of clay
are also invariably low in organic matter and
therefore the CEC is poor. Fine textured soils are
usually rich in organic matter and hence their CEC
values are often high.
In many weathered tropical soils the maintenance of
organic matter is critical in order to maintain the CEC
at a satisfactory level.
In general, colloids low in cation exchange are high in
anion exchange. Some of the cations, such as iron,
have hydroxyl (OH-) ions that can be exchanged with
sulphate (SO42-), phosphate (H2PO4- and HPO42-), and
molybdate (MoO42-) ions.
Soils high in hydrous clays (oxides of iron and
aluminum) and amorphous clays, such as alophane, are
particularly high in anion exchange. This explains why
tropical soils are known to fix considerable quantities
of phosphate and suphate.
Work done at the Institute of Agricultural Research at
Samaru in Nigeria has shown that most of the west
African savannah soils fix plenty of sulphate. The
soils are relatively high in kaolinite and the
sesquioxides. Kaolinite soils are not necessarily high
in anion exchange, but they are if they also contain
hydroxides of iron and aluminum.
Experiment to demonstrate cation exchange
Objective:
- to show that soils are acidic because they contain
exchangeable hydrogen ions,
- to appreciate the cation exchange reactions which
are important in the soil and for plant growth,
- to understand the role of exchangeable hydrogen
ions in soil acidity.
Apparatus
1. Sample of acidic soil (PH 4.5 to 5.5) of medium
texture or fine,
2. Two filter funnels with the filter paper to fit,
3. Funnel rack/ frame,
4. Two 500 cm3 beakers,
5. Distilled water,
6. 10% nitrate solution,
7. Soil PH indicator solution or methyl red.
Procedure
1. Place the filter papers in the two funnels and fill
them with the acidic soil,
2. Leach/ percolate the soil in one of the funnels with
a 10% potassium nitrate solution. Leach the soil in
the other funnel with distilled water,
3. Add a few drops of soil indicator solution to both
leachates. As a rough guide add 10 to 20 drops of
indicator for each 5 to 10 cm3 of solution.
The PH of the leachate from the soil which was treated
with potassium nitrate will turn the indicator yellow or
green (i.e. it is acidic). This is because the potassium
ions in the solution replaced the exchangeable
hydrogen ions in the soil which combined with the
nitrate ions to form nitric acid. This does not occur in
the soil leached with distilled water since there are no
exchangeable cations.
Note: Soils are acidic due to the presence of hydrogen
ions on the clay particles. The addition of lime will
cause an exchange to take place so that the hydrogen
ions will be replaced by calcium ions.
Exchangeable basic cations and base saturation
The total sum of cations such as Ca, Mg, K, and Na on the
exchange complex constitutes the total exchange bases
(TEB). The extent to which the exchange sites are
occupied by the exchangeable bases is estimated from
the base saturation:
% Base Saturation (BS) = (TEB/CEC)*100
Percentage Base Saturation (PBS) is the measure of the
extent to which the exchange complex is saturated
with basic cations and usually reflects the intensity of
present day leaching. In humid tropical areas BS
drops to 25% while in the drier savannah lands it rises
to 100%. In areas where there are soluble Ca++ ions
the BS can be > 100%. Soils with PBS of > 100% are
generally considered as fertile.
Note: - exchangeable bases increase with decreasing
rainfall. Cultivation leads to rapid reduction in basic
cations such as Ca and K if they are not added as
fertilizers. Low basic cations indicate presence of
intense leaching.
Soil organic matter (SOM)
Soil organic matter is the organic component of the soil
and it includes all parts of living and dead plants and
animals, micro-and macro-organisms and products of
decaying processes that occur in the soil. The dark
colouration of certain soils is attributed to the presence of
organic matter because dark coloured colloidal humus
compounds are able to coat mineral particles of soil; hence
the darker the soil, the more organic matter it is likely to
contain.
In addition to clay minerals in the soil, organic matter is
a major source of plant nutrient elements. The greatest
amount of organic matter in the soil resides in the top
soil. The organic matter of most soils ranges between 1-
5% mostly in the top 25 cm of soil, and the
concentration reduces with depth except, relatively in
cases in which deep ploughing is being used to
incorporate organic materials into the soil.
So generally, SOM is any material produced originally
by living organisms (plant or animal) that is returned
to the soil and goes through the decomposition
process. It consists of three groups of substances:
1. Original tissue: refer to the un-decomposed body of
animals and plants (roots, leaves and stems of higher
plants or remains of animals),
2. Microorganisms,
3. Humus
Composition of SOM
About 75% of green tissue is made up of water while
90% of the remaining dry matter is made up of carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogen and other mineral
elements constitute the remainder of organic matter. The
major source of SOM (plant tissue) is made of very
complex substances such as: carbohydrates (Sugar,
starch, hemicellulose, cellulose, pectiles, muscilages)
 lignins (wood),
proteins/albumens (soluble proteins and crude
proteins),
fats (oils & waxes),
Minerals (Ca, Fe, P, S, Mg, K),
Resins,
Tannins,
Pigments.
Note: these are materials that make-up organic matter in
the soil. The largest percentage of soil organic matter
is made of lignins and proteins. Lignin builds up as the
plant ages and it is resistant to decomposition.
Sources of SOM
There are two main sources of organic matter in soils and
these include:
(i) Plant sources: These are the most prevalent and they
include dead and decayed plant roots, leaf droppings,
crop residues, green manures and dead and decayed
“above ground” parts of plants.
(ii) Animal sources: These form the next most
important source of SOM. They include all residues of
animals and micro-organisms, domestic wastes, animal
faeces, animal feeds, and animal manures.
Organic matter are generally in short supply in the
tropics, but even those that are fairly easily
available are often ignored or even wasted. There
are any different sources of organic matter of
which compost is the most popular. Other sources
include:
a) poultry manure
b) horse and cow manure
c) sheep and goat manure
d) fish waste and fish meal
e) green manure
f) wood ash, and
g) night soil or sewage
Poultry manure has a high nutrient content which is
quickly made available to plants. For this reason, it can
be of great value to crops requiring a great deal of
nitrogen for growth at a particular time.
Horse and cow manure should be used in preference to all
other measures as it will improve any soil. Horse
manure obtained from stables contain plenty of straw
which when rotted down becomes perfect humus.
Fresh horse manure should never be used because the
ammonia in it will burn the roots of young vegetable
crops. Cow manure is not harmful when fresh and may
be applied on top of the soil or dug in.
Sheep and goat manures are both good organic manures.
They must be kept covered up or the nitrogen, which
is in the form of ammonium salts, may be lost by
leaching.
Fish waste and fish meal contain a good supply of
readily available nitrogen and phosphorous. The
manure has unpleasant smell and should be dug into
the soil immediately.
Green manure of fresh green weeds and plants can be dug
into the ground and it will gradually decompose to
form humus. Some plants such as Mucuna,
Colopogonium, Pueraria and Centrosema, are grown
especially for this purpose since they produce an
abundance of soft, green manure which rots down
easily.
Wood ash provides a valuable source of potash which is
usually lacking in acidic soils. In most places in the
tropics, wood is the main source of fuel and so wood
ash can be collected quite easily. The potash is in the
form of potassium carbonate and this is extremely
soluble and can even be leached away by damp rising
from the soil. It is best used immediately, but if this is
not possible it should be stored in wooden boxes. A
good sample may contain up to 12% potash but the
percentage varies considerably according to the wood
from which it is obtained.
Night soil (sewage) from humans form the most
important organic manures. It may be disposed with
soil and other waste organic matter or it may be
fragmented in pits and then spread on the soil in
liquid form. Untreated night soil should not be used
as manure. This is because of the risk of spreading
diseases such as amoebic dysentery. Night soil has
been used effectively to make compost by mixing it
with town refuse.
Classification of SOM
For practical purposes, organic matter may be classified
into (a) aboveground and (b)belowground fractions.
(a) Aboveground organic matter comprises plant
residues and animal residues. Organic matter existing
on the soil surface as raw plant residues helps protect
the soil from the effect of rainfall, wind and sun.
Removal, incorporation or burning of residues
exposes the soil to negative climatic impacts, and
removal or burning deprives the soil organisms of
their primary energy source.
(b) Belowground organic matter consists of living soil
fauna and microflora, partially decomposed plant and
animal residues, and humic substances. Organic matter
within the soil serves several functions. From a
practical agricultural standpoint, it is important for two
main reasons: (i) as a “revolving nutrient fund”; and
(ii) as an agent to improve soil structure, maintain tilth
and minimize erosion.
Importance of SOM
Organic matter is so important to the soil that it has been
described as the life blood of plants. Its importance is
enumerated as follows:
1) nutrient reserve (storehouse of plant nutrients),
2) the stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and
holds nutrients in a plant available form. Hence, it
contributes to the CEC of the soil. It is storehouse of
exchangeable cations and plant available nutrients and
thus increases CEC.
3) it improves soil physical conditions like soil structure
and structural stability.
4) it provides medium for microbial growth and activities
or improves the condition for microbial growth. Fresh
organic matter supplies food for soil life such as earth
worms, ants, rodents, etc.
5) humus adds substantially to the buffering capacity of
soils making it less amenable to PH changes by bases or
acids.
6) organic acids released during decomposition of the
SOM aid in the process of rock mineral weathering.
7) decreases soil acidity.
8) reduces surface runoff and erosion.
9) adsorption/ deactivation of organic pesticides.
10. Fresh organic matter has a special function
because it makes phosphorous more readily
available in acidic soils.
11. It improves soil texture
 12. it improves soil tilth and the rate of water
percolation. It improves soil moisture holding
capacity.
13. it helps to buffer soils against rapid chemical
changes which may result when there is addition of
lime and fertilizer.
14. it improves soil porosity.
15. heat absorption by the soil is influenced by soil
color because darker soils absorb more heat. Organic
matter makes soils darker in color.
16. organic matter contains soil water and air which is
important for the effective absorption of nutrients by
plants.
Decomposition of SOM
Decomposition is a biological process that includes
the physical breakdown and biochemical
transformation of complex organic molecules of
dead material into simpler organic and inorganic
molecules ones by the activities of microorganisms
such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and
protozoa.
In the decomposition process, different products are
released which include carbon dioxide (CO2), energy,
water, plant nutrients and re-synthesized organic
carbon compounds. Successive decomposition of dead
material and modified organic matter results in the
formation of a more complex organic matter called
humus. This process is called humification.
Humus is a darkly stained, spongy and sticky substance
which is a by-product of organic matter
decomposition. It is resistant to further decomposition
and is the source of nutrient storage capacity. The
dark color is due to the presence of decomposed
organic matter, especially humic acid. In the
formation of soil humus, there is a rapid
decomposition of the water soluble constituents:
sugars, organic acids, amino acids, lipids, and
nucleotides. SOM is frequently said to consist of
humic substances and nonhumic substances.
Humic substances are series of relatively high-
molecular-weight, brown to black colored substances
formed by secondary synthesis reactions. It comprises
of humic acid, fluvic acid and humins. Nonhumic
substances are compounds belonging to known
classes of biochemistry, such as carbohydrates,
lipids and amino acids. Decomposition of organic
matter is largely a biological process that occurs
naturally. The rate at which the organic matter
decomposes in the soil is determined by some major
factors.
Humus is an important and supplier of plant nutrients.
Humus particles have a large surface area and absorb
water readily, this accounts for the spongy texture.
The amount of humus in the soil directly influences
the soil moisture content. Humus contains complex
organic compounds which help to stick soil particles
together and so it improves the soil structure.
Factors affecting the rate of organic matter
decomposition
i) The type/ quality of organic material which is being
decomposed such as the type of plant material, age of
the plant and the chemical composition,
ii) The physical environment which could be
categorized into two:
a) soil factors such as aeration, temperature, moisture,
PH, and fertility status,
b) climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature.
iii) Population of soil microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa.

Generally, younger plants decompose more rapidly than

older ones. This is because they have a higher
content of water-soluble constituents, a higher
nitrogen content, a more narrow carbon-nitrogen
ratio and a smaller percentage of lignin which is
resistant to decomposition.
To determine the content of organic matter in soils, the
carbon percentage is usually multiplied by the
conversion factor of 1.72, i.e.
OM = OC * 1.72
Carbon-nitrogen (C/N) ratio is used as a measure of
humification. OM is rapidly lost by cultivation.
Mineralization of organic matter (OM)
This is the process involved in the release of plant
nutrients from organic matter. Most of the soil nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulphur are present in the organic forms
which are only converted to the mineral forms, utilizable
by plants, through the mineralization process.
Mineralization of OM to release mineral nutrients is a
two step process, namely:
 i) Aminization which is the decomposition of
organic matter by heterotrophic bacteria to release
amino acids and amides.

ii) Amonification which is the release of ammonium

ion from amino acids and amides. Amino acids +
amides heterotrophic bacteria NH4+.

The ammonium ion (NH4+) further undergoes Aminoacid

amides heterotrophic bacteria oxidation process as a
result of participation of special purpose bacteria in
another two-step process called nitrification.
Maintenance of SOM
The maintenance of the OM in soils used for
agricultural production is an important practice. Where
the rate of addition is less than the rate of
decomposition, SOM declines. Conversely, where the
rate of addition is higher than the rate of decomposition,
SOM increases.
The term „steady state‟ describes a condition where the
rate of addition is equal to the rate of decomposition.
For adequate maintenance of SOM, the rate of addition
must be equal to the rate of decomposition i.e. a steady
state condition must be maintained. The practices
involved in the maintenance of SOM include:
i) addition of new organic materials: This is an essential
part of good soil management practice. It involves the
addition of bulky manures, such as farmyard green
manures, compost and processed animal wastes at least
once a year depending on the intensity of cultivation.
ii) sound cropping system that reduces the intensity of
cultivations and keeps the soil protected e.g. cover
cropping and good crop rotation.
iii) green manuring: this is the practice of enriching the
soil by turning under soil green tender plants, usually
legumes grown on the field or brought from outside.
iv) management of crop residues: crop residues provide
varying amounts of organic carbon when incorporated
into the soil or used as mulch.
 Figure 3.10 Soil-plant-atmosphere (SPA) interactions
Adapted from Amundson et al. (2015) & Taylor et al. (2012).
Conceptual model connecting SPA interactions from
ecosystems to the earth system. Solid arrows represent
direct effects (e.g., rising CO2 levels lead to higher
temperatures). Grey squares indicate inverse effects
(e.g., increasing temperatures lead to decreasing soil
carbon stocks). A positive destabilizing feedback loop
links atmospheric CO2 concentration, temperature, and
soil carbon concentration (a-b-c).
A negative stabilizing feedback loop links atmospheric
CO2, vegetation productivity, and root-microbe
associations (d-e-f), which affect and are affected by
soil carbon concentration (j). Dashed arrows represent
uncertain feedbacks involving changes in water regime
and/or temperature and their interactive effect on plant
and soil microbial processes (g-h-i).
ESSENTIAL SOIL NUTRIENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION
The amount of available essential plant nutrients in the
soil are one measure of soil fertility. From the point of
view of plant nutrition and development, an element is
considered essential if:
i) its deficiency results in in a specific injury or growth
abnormality which is in turn reflected in specific
deficiency symptoms,
ii) the deficiency symptoms or growth abnormalities can
only be corrected by supplying the nutrient in question
i.e. the deficient nutrient cannot be substituted with
another,
iii) the element is directly involved in the metabolism
of the plant and its effects can be demonstrated in a
number of species.

There are 18 essential soil nutrients (elements) that can

determine the fertility status of soils. They constitute
the most important components of living matter. They
are classified into 4 categories:
i) structural components of the plants C, H, O.
ii) major nutrient elements also known as primary
nutrients N, P, K.
 iii) secondary nutrient elements Ca, Mg, S (S can be a
major nutrient in some ecology as savanna),
iv) micronutrients these are important but needed in
small quantity. They act as enzyme-system and
cofactors Fe, Mn, Cu, B, Zn, Mo, Cl, Co.
v) Others, they have been established to be very useful
to plants e.g. sodium (Na) important to tomato.
 Table 3.10 Essential nutrients and their available forms
Elements Symbols Available forms (ions or molecules) Remarks
Oxygen O O2-,OH-,CO32-, SO42-, CO2 Are major constituents of
Hydrogen H H+,HOH- (Hydrogen from water plant tissues (make up 98%
Carbon C CO2-, (Mostly through leaves) of the dry matter)
Phosphorous P H2PO4-, HPO42- (Phosphate) Primary nutrients,
Potassium K K+ required in very large
Nitrogen N NH4+, NO3- (Ammonium, nitrate) amounts
Sulphur S SO42- (Sulphate) Secondary nutrients,
Calcium Ca Ca2+ required in medium
Magnesium Mg Mg2+ amounts
Iron Fe Fe2+, Fe3+ (Ferrous, ferric) Micro-nutrients,
Boron B BO33-, B4O2- (Borate, tetraborate) required in relatively
Manganese Mn Mn2+ smaller amounts.
Copper Cu Cu2+ They are trace elements
Zinc Zn Zn2+
Molybdenum Mo MoO42- (Molybdate), Mo3+, Mo4+
chlorine Cl Cl- (Chloride)
Sodium Na Na+
Cobalt Co Co++

Note: The first three are derived from the atmosphere and hydrosphere whereas the rest
come from the soils (rocks).
Factors leading to the loss of nutrients from the soil
Nutrients are present in the soil in varying quantities and
the loss of one may cause the poor growth of crop
plants. Loss of nutrients from the soil may be due to
one or more of the following factors:
a) Leaching: when rain falls there is infiltration of
water into the soil by a process known as percolation.
As this water passes through the soil, some elements or
nutrients are washed off the soil particles and down
deep into the soil where they may not be available to
the plants.
Leaching of plant nutrients from the soils is
particularly noticeable in the tropical rainforests.
The rate at which leaching occurs depends on:
- age of the soil
- situation of the soil (topography)
- quality and distribution of rainfall
Young soils formed from recently deposited volcanic
materials will be subjected into less leaching than
older soils in the upland regions and they are less
fertile than those found in the valleys and river
plains.
Generally, upland soils are leached more and so they are
less fertile than soils on lower regions. Leaching of
plant nutrients also occurs less in regions of lower
rainfall.
b) Erosion: some nutrients or OM present in the top
soil can be washed away by surface water runoff and
this eventually leads to the loss of nutrients.
c) Crop removal: when root crops are harvested there
will be some soil particles sticking to the roots. These
particles contain many important nutrients and their
removal may severely reduce soil fertility. Removal of
crops at harvest time represents a loss of nutrients
from the soil unless these are replaced in full.

d) Continuous cultivation: if a piece of land is

cultivated regularly, there is a tendency for the soil to
lose many of its nutrients and if these are not
replenished the soil may become unproductive.
d) Excessive irrigation: irrigation may be necessary in
order to maintain the water content of the soil when
there is no rainfall. If land is irrigated too heavily, the
soil becomes leached and the surface nutrients may
be washed-out of the plant roots.
e) Drainage: when land is waterloadged, it is
necessary to remove the excess water and in this
process some nutrients are drained away with the
excess water.
Assignment
1. Write short notes on the following: (6 points)
a) Soil temperature
b) Soil aeration
c) Soil moisture or soil water
2. Differentiate between acidic and alkaline soils? (4
points).