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2009 Nanotechnology 20 395502

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IOP PUBLISHING NANOTECHNOLOGY
Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502 (7pp) doi:10.1088/0957-4484/20/39/395502

Wireless and embedded carbon nanotube

networks for damage detection in concrete
structures
Mohamed Saafi
Department of Construction Engineering and Management, North Dakota State University,
Fargo, ND 58108, USA

E-mail: mohamed.saafi@ndsu.edu

Received 12 May 2009, in final form 24 July 2009

Published 2 September 2009
Online at stacks.iop.org/Nano/20/395502

Abstract
Concrete structures undergo an uncontrollable damage process manifesting in the form of
cracks due to the coupling of fatigue loading and environmental effects. In order to achieve
long-term durability and performance, continuous health monitoring systems are needed to
make critical decisions regarding operation, maintenance and repairs. Recent advances in
nanostructured materials such as carbon nanotubes have opened the door for new smart and
advanced sensing materials that could effectively be used in health monitoring of structures
where wireless and real time sensing could provide information on damage development. In this
paper, carbon nanotube networks were embedded into a cement matrix to develop an in situ
wireless and embedded sensor for damage detection in concrete structures. By wirelessly
measuring the change in the electrical resistance of the carbon nanotube networks, the progress
of damage can be detected and monitored. As a proof of concept, wireless cement–carbon
nanotube sensors were embedded into concrete beams and subjected to monotonic and cyclic
loading to evaluate the effect of damage on their response. Experimental results showed that the
wireless response of the embedded nanotube sensors changes due to the formation of cracks
during loading. In addition, the nanotube sensors were able to detect the initiation of damage at
an early stage of loading.
(Some figures in this article are in colour only in the electronic version)

1. Introduction to improve the performance and safety of structures and reduce

Recent advances in nanotechnology research have lead to the
development of smart multifunctional nanostructured sensing
materials that could improve the way we detect anomalies
in structural components. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are
being considered as one of the most promising smart and
multifunctional nanostructured materials due to their excellent
mechanical, electrochemical, piezoresistive and other physical
properties [1]. These excellent properties represent a potential
for developing low cost, low operating voltage and sensitive
sensors for various applications such as aerospace structures,
biomedical and environmental engineering. One of the new
potential applications of these advanced sensors is in the area
of monitoring the structural integrity of concrete structures.
The deterioration and ageing of civil infrastructure have
emphasized the urgent need for structural integrity monitoring
their maintenance costs. Structural integrity monitoring allows
damage in a concrete structure to be detected at an early stage
so that required measures can be taken to schedule repairs and
prevent any catastrophic failure. In the area of structural health
monitoring, CNTs were mainly used to monitor the level of
mechanical strain in composite materials where CNTs were
integrated into polymers to act as strain sensors. For example,
Frogley et al [2] developed a strain sensor by embedding CNTs
into a polymer matrix and measured the Raman spectrum
shift as a function of mechanical strain. Dharap et al [3]
proposed a CNT film sensor made up of randomly oriented
CNTs to measure mechanical strain at a macrolevel, then
Kang et al [1] developed a CNT polymer material and used
it to form a piezoresistive strain sensor for structural health
monitoring applications. Other efforts in utilizing CNTs as
strain sensors for health monitoring are described in detail

0957-4484/09/395502+07$30.00 1 © 2009 IOP Publishing Ltd Printed in the UK

Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502
Table 1. Properties of SWNTs (NanoAmor, Inc.).
Young’s Tensile
Constituent modulus (GPa) strength (GPa)
Carbon nanotube 810 32
in [1–8]. To monitor the health of civil structures, Loh et al
[9] developed surface mounted single walled carbon nanotube–
polyelectrolyte (SWNT–PE) composite sensors to measure
strain in concrete structures; the sensors were then coupled
with radiofrequency identification (RFID) tags to wirelessly
measure their electrical resistance [10]. CNTs were also used
to detect damage initiation, such as matrix microcracking and
delamination, in composite materials. This was accomplished
by embedding CNTs into the host structure to form conductive
percolating network-based sensors. Thostenson and Chou [11]
processed glass-fiber–epoxy composites with embedded CNTs
to evaluate the onset and evaluation of damage. They showed
that the measured electrical resistance is sensitive to the initial
stage of matrix microcracking and could be used to identify
the nature and progress of damage. They also demonstrated
that by combining load and strain measurements in real time
with the direct current electrical resistance measurement of
the CNT network, insight could be gained in the evolution
and accumulation of damage in composite structures [12].
These researchers also used CNTs for health monitoring of
mechanically fastened composite joints [13], where CNTs
were integrated into the joints to detect local damage such
as delamination, cracking and fastener loosening. Gao et al
[14] coupled CNTs and acoustic emission (AE) monitoring for
sensing damage development in composites. They used the
relationship between the resistance change and the AE signal
cumulative counts to sense damage initiation in the laminated
composite specimens.
Although several CNT sensors have been proposed,
they suffer from some serious drawbacks when applied to
concrete structures, including susceptibility to damage by the
concrete alkaline environment, high cost and incompatibility
with concrete. The research presented here focuses on the
concept of using wireless embedded nanotube sensors in
concrete structures for structural integrity monitoring rather
than material characterization.
Embedded sensors provide accurate in situ measurements
whereas wireless signal acquisition is less time consuming and
inexpensive. The sensors exhibit good durability and excellent
compatibility with the host structural material. Cement matrix
with randomly dispersed and networked CNTs was used to
fabricate long-gauge sensors. The sensors were embedded into
concrete specimens to prove the concept of using the change
in the electrical resistance of the embedded CNT sensors to
wirelessly detect crack propagation and damage accumulation
during loading. Before embedment, the sensors were subjected
to direct monotonic and cyclic tensile tests to evaluate their
response, then similar wireless sensors were embedded into
concrete specimens and subjected to monotonic and cyclic
bending tests to analyze and quantify the effect of damage on
their wireless electrical resistance response.
M Saafi
Poisson’s Diameter Length Electrical conductivity
ratio (nm) (με ) (S cm−1 )
0.2 1.5 10 102 –10−4
2. Experiments
2.1. Fabrication of the sensor
For structural integrity monitoring we used the change in the
electrical resistance of the cement–CNT sensor to detect crack
propagation in the concrete material. Cement matrix with
randomly dispersed and networked CNTs was used to fabricate
the long-gauge cement–CNT sensors. The cement matrix
was used to improve the compatibility with the host concrete
material, while the long-gauge allows for crack detection in
large civil structures such as bridges and buildings.
The proposed cement–CNT sensor exhibits two sources of
electrical resistances, the intrinsic resistance of nanotubes and
the contact resistance at nanotube junctions [8]. The contact
resistance is the resistance of the cement matrix connecting
the crossing nanotubes and through which electrical tunneling
occurs. When subjected to mechanical strain, the sensor
deforms and subsequently its effective resistance changes. This
change in the effective resistance is mainly attributed to the
change in the contact resistance where the thickness of the
insulating cement film between adjacent nanotubes is altered
due to the applied load. The change in the intrinsic electrical
resistance of CNTs is expected to be a small contributing factor
because of their extremely high modulus of elasticity that could
lead to a small elastic deformation [8]. When microcracks
develop in the cement matrix, some percolation branches will
be cut off causing a sudden and sharp change in the electrical
resistance of the sensor. This sudden and sharp change reflects
the development of cracks in the host material, and therefore
the evolution and accumulation of damage in the concrete
material could be monitored with the wireless response of the
embedded sensor.
The raw materials used to manufacture the cement–
CNT sensors include Portland cement (ASTM type I),
untreated SWNTs (purchased from NanoAmor, Inc.) and
thin copper electrodes. Three volumes of CNTs, 0.5,
1 and 1.5%, were used to determine the optimum CNT
concentration for the sensors. The properties of the nanotubes
as provided by the manufacturer are given in table 1.
Early research on the development of high performance
cement–CNT composites [15, 16] showed that conventional
cement–water admixtures were able to disperse small number
of untreated SWNTs (less than 2% mass concentration)
by sonication. Their results indicated that conventional
cement–water admixture (containing cement superplasticizer)
acted as a surfactant and improved the wettability of
cement and CNTs and formed calcium silicate hydrates
leading to a strong bond between CNTs and the cement
paste. Therefore, in this paper, cement–water admixture
containing 5% of cement superplasticizer (polycarboxylate-
based superplasticizer, purchased from Master Builders Inc.)
2
Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502 M Saafi

Figure 1. Fabrication process of cement–CNT sensors.

and CNTs were first mixed and sonicated to produce

a homogeneous dispersed suspension. The CNT–water
admixture was then mixed with cement using a rotary mixer
with a flat beater for a period of 5 min and the mixture was
poured into aluminum molds as shown in figure 1. During the
fabrication process, electrodes (one electrode at each end) were
inserted into the fresh mixture. After 24 h of curing, the sensors
were removed from molds and moist cured at a temperature
of 25 ◦ C for 25 days and then dried at 40 ◦ C for 5 days. The
typical dimensions of the cement–CNT sensor are shown in
figure 2.

2.2. Wireless communication system

The off-the-shelf wireless communication system used to
wirelessly measure the response of the embedded cement–
CNT sensor is shown in figure 3. The wireless and embeddable
sensing system consists of a rectifier, 16 bit A/D converter with
a sampling rate of 80 Hz, 110 dB common-mode rejection ratio
(CMRR) amplifier, 16 bit ID-memory and coil antennas. The
interrogator consists of an oscillator, demodulator/level shifter,
data logger and antennas. The wireless monitoring system
Figure 2. Typical cement–CNT sensor.
uses inductive links for sensor powering and data collection.
Through the transmitter antenna, the interrogator emits an
electromagnetic wave in the range of 916.5 MHz, the latter is send the rectified sensor signal to the interrogator, which will
picked up by the receiver antenna of the sensor system and uses be transferred to a data logger for processing to obtain the
it to power its data acquisition system attached to the cement– information from the sensor such as ID number and electrical
CNT sensor. The sensor node uses its transmitter antenna to resistance.

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Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502
Figure 3. Wireless communication system for a cement–CNT
sensor.
2.3. Percolation threshold
To determine the percolation threshold of the SWNT, the
sensors were interfaced to the wireless communication systems
and their electrical resistance was measured. Three samples
were used for each volume of SWNTs as shown in figure 4.
As can be seen, there was a sudden decrease in the electrical
resistance as the volume of CNTs increased from 0 to 0.5% and
a percolation threshold of 0.5% was assumed for the sensors.
The electrical resistance further decreased when the volume of
SWNTs increased from 0.5 to 1%. However, it appeared that
the increase of the SWNT volume beyond 1% yielded a slight
decrease in the electrical resistance, indicating that continuous
conductive networks have been formed in the cement matrix
at 1% and there is no need to exceed this volume. Therefore,
based on this finding, only cement–CNT sensors with a volume
of 1% of SWNTs were evaluated.
2.4. Experimental setup
To evaluate their response, eight cement–CNT sensors were
interfaced to the wireless communication system and subjected
to monotonic and cyclic tensile loading using a universal
testing machine (UTM) with a loading rate of 33 N min−1 .
Four sensors were monotonically loaded up to failure, whereas
four other sensors were cyclically loaded for a period of
3 min with a load ranging from 0 to 5 N. After each
cycle, the load was kept at 0 N for a duration of 10 s.
During loading, the electrical resistance was measured using
a two-point measurement scheme and the tensile strain
along the longitudinal axis of the sensor was measured with
conventional strain gauges attached to the middle of the sensor.
The electrical resistance was recorded using the wireless
communication system while the strain was simultaneously
measured using a wired National Instrument data acquisition
system. The resistance of contacts and wires is negligible
relative to the resistance of the sensors and therefore was
not accounted for. The experiments were conducted at room
temperature.
4
M Saafi
Figure 4. Effect of SWNT concentration on electrical resistance.
Cement–CNT sensors were also interfaced with the
wireless monitoring system and embedded into concrete
beams to wirelessly detect crack propagation in the concrete
specimens. The nanotube sensors were embedded into
concrete beams of 100 mm× 100 mm× 600 mm and placed just
below the steel wire reinforcement (24 mm) and above the
artificial concrete notch. The concrete notch is used to initiate
crack propagation through the cement–CNT sensor. The
concrete beams were subjected to a three-point bending test
using a universal testing machine (UTM), where two beams
were monotonically loaded up to failure and two others were
subjected to two load cycles then monotonically loaded up to
failure. During loading, the sensor response was recorded with
the wireless interrogator and the middle deflection of the beams
was recorded with a linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT) attached to a wired data acquisition system.
For each experimental test, the measured wireless signals
were averaged to obtain a typical sensor response and this latter
was used to evaluate their wireless sensing capability.
3. Results and discussion
Figure 5 shows the effect of the applied monotonic load on
the tensile strain and electrical resistance of the embedded
cement–CNT sensors with a SWNT volume of 0.5 and 1%.
As shown, for sensors with 1% of SWNTs the electrical
resistance increased linearly and monotonically up to 125 με
strain and then transitioned to a non-linear behavior up to
specimen failure. Under applied tensile load, the thickness
of the cement matrix between neighboring nanotubes tends to
increase, resulting in an increase in the effective resistance of
the sensor. As the applied stress continues to increase, damage
begins to develop at the nanotube–cement–nanotube interface
due to high strain concentrations. This damage formation
increases the length of the gap area between nanotubes where
electrical tunneling takes place and thus increases the effective
resistance of the cement–CNT sensor. With the progress of
damage, some percolation paths were cut off leading to a
sudden change in the electrical resistance, as can be seen
in figure 5 where the resistance suddenly increased around
65 με , 125 με and 160 με . These changes roughly correspond
to the drop points in the load–strain curve. As the damage
Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502 M Saafi

Figure 5. Typical cement–CNT sensor response under monotonic

direct tensile loading.
Figure 6. Typical response of cement–CNT sensors under direct
cyclic tensile loading.

expands, the transition from the linear to non-linear region

takes place. This is mainly attributed to the fact that the number
of percolation routes being cut off by the damage is increased
and the number of nanotube contact points is reduced, leading
to a sharp and non-linear increase in the electrical resistance
as the applied load reaches its maximum. At this stage, most
of the percolation paths have been cut off and the last current
carrying paths were cut off at 180 με .
The cement–CNT sensor with a SWNT volume of 0.5%
exhibited a low sensitivity to the applied stress. The effective
resistance remained dormant over a tensile strain of 75 με
then increased in a non-linear manner up to failure. However,
although, the 0.5% of SWNTs increased the conductivity of
the cement matrix the measured effective electrical resistance
was not able to detect the early cracks that occurred at a
strain of 0.3 με . The author believed that this was due to
the fact that the SWNT content (0.5%) did not produce a large
number of conductive branches compared to samples with 1%
of SWNTs. Based on this, it was concluded that these sensors Figure 7. Typical wireless response of cement–CNT sensors
would not be able to detect crack propagation when embedded embedded into concrete beams and subjected to monotonic loading.
into the concrete beams and therefore were omitted from the
experimental tests.
Although, no scanning electron microscope (SEM) onset of damage such as cracks and delamination, as will be
studies were performed on the samples, previous SEM demonstrated in section 4.
research [15, 16] on CNT reinforced cement indicated The typical wireless response of the embedded cement–
that nanotubes exhibited excellent dispersion in the cement CNT sensor in terms of electrical resistance is depicted in
matrix when a conventional cement–water admixture is used; figures 7 and 8. As can be seen, for monotonically loaded
however, their results revealed sliding of CNTs from the beams the electrical resistance of the sensor increased linearly
cement matrix at ultimate failure, suggesting that the samples with applied load then suddenly increased at a deflection of
experienced an adhesive failure at ultimate load. 0.2 mm. This sudden increase is attributed to cracking of the
Figure 6 illustrates the response of the cement–CNT concrete beam, as indicated in the load–deflection response
sensor under the first three load cycles. As shown in this of the beams. At this stage, the nanotube ends moved away
figure, the electrical resistance increased and then decreased from each other due to the applied strain, causing high strain
following the increase and decrease of the applied load. The concentrations in the cement matrix leading to microcracks
figure also shows that the sensor exhibited good repeatability. at the nanotube/matrix interface which in return cut off one
When embedded into a concrete structure for wireless integrity or more conduction branches. As the applied load increases,
monitoring, the sudden change in the electrical resistance microdamage in the sensor expands and the effective resistance
of the cement–nanotube sensor could be used to detect the of the sensor increases. With the widening of the concrete

5
Nanotechnology 20 (2009) 395502
Figure 8. Typical wireless response of cement–CNT sensors
embedded into concrete beams and subjected to cyclic and
monotonic loading.
crack multiple percolation paths were cut off, resulting in a
sudden increase in the effective resistance at 2.3 mm deflection
as demonstrated by the rapid decrease in the applied load. The
effective resistance is then increased rapidly in a non-linear
manner. The final abrupt increase in the effective resistance
takes place when the applied load reaches its limit, where all
percolation branches were cut off. The cement–CNT sensors
embedded into concrete beams and subjected to two load
cycles exhibited an approximately similar wireless response
to those obtained from monotonically loaded beams, before
and after load cycles, as indicated in figure 8. During the
cyclic loading, the effective resistance decreased and increased
following the pattern of the cyclic load. The sensor response
exhibited excellent sensitivity and repeatability under repeated
loads. As demonstrated in this section, the wireless response
of the cement–CNT sensors well reflects the behavior of the
concrete beams when subjected to mechanical loading and
can pinpoint the occurrence of cracks and other damage. By
monitoring the sudden change in the effective resistance, crack
initiation can be detected.
4. Conclusion
In this paper, wireless and embedded nanotechnology-based
sensors for monitoring the structural integrity of concrete
members are presented. Cement–CNT sensors for crack
detection in concrete structures were designed, fabricated and
evaluated through a demonstration research program. Before
embedment, the signal of the sensors was evaluated then
similar sensors were embedded into concrete specimens to
analyze the effect of cracking on their wireless response. The
proposed cement–CNT sensors were interfaced to a low cost
small wireless communication system. The wireless system
uses inductive links to power and interrogate the sensors.
Electrical resistance measurements showed that a percolation
threshold of 0.5% could be attributed to the sensors. The
6
M Saafi
electrical resistance decreased as the volume of SNWTs
increased from 0 to 1%. Slight decrease was observed when
the volume of SNWTs was increased beyond 1%.
Based on the direct tensile test results, the response of
cement–CNT sensors is composed of a linear and non-linear
region. This behavior is due to the current tunneling process
in the cement matrix. Sudden increases were observed in
the effective resistance of the sensors due to microcracks
in the matrix, which caused the percolation branches to be
cut off. In addition, the experimental results showed that
the cement–CNT sensors exhibited good sensitivity, excellent
repeatability and low hysteresis. The sudden change in the
effective resistance is indicative of crack initiation in the host
structure. Cement–CNT sensors with a SWNT volume of 0.5%
exhibited a low sensitivity to the applied stress as compared to
those with a SWNT volume of 1%. The sensors were not able
to detect crack propagation.
The cement–CNT sensors were successfully embedded
into concrete beams and their wireless response described
well the behavior of the concrete beams in terms of crack
propagation where the latter greatly affected the effective
resistance. Crack initiation resulted in a sudden increase
in the effective resistance. Therefore, by monitoring the
sudden change in the effective resistance, crack initiation
can be detected. The research findings presented in this
paper prove the concept of using wireless and embedded
nanotechnology-based sensors for monitoring the integrity of
concrete structures. However, more research is needed to fully
understand the behavior of the cement–CNT sensors. It is
important to determine the maximum thickness of the cement
matrix connecting CNTs through which the current flow takes
place. Moreover, the effect of light, temperature and moisture
on the cement–CNT sensor response needs to be investigated.
The author is currently addressing these issues through an
extensive research program.
Acknowledgments
The author thanks the undergraduate students Monica McCoy,
Whitney Moore, Karl Hansen and Dominique Bradford for
preparing the test specimens. The wireless monitoring system
was designed and provided by Microstrain Inc.
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