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Introduction to
Nuclear Science
Third Edition
Introduction to
Nuclear Science
Third Edition
Jeff C. Bryan
University of Wisconsin
La Crosse, Wisconsin
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The
authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we
may rectify in any future reprint.
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For Chris
Contents
Preface to the Third Edition......................................................................................xi
Preface to the Second Edition................................................................................. xiii
Preface to the First Edition....................................................................................... xv
Author.....................................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 Introduction...........................................................................................1
1.1 Radiation....................................................................................1
1.2 Atomic Structure........................................................................ 3
1.3 Nuclear Transformations............................................................6
1.4 Nuclear Stability......................................................................... 9
1.5 Ionizing Radiation.................................................................... 12
1.6 A Biological Threat?................................................................ 13
1.7 Natural and Anthropogenic Radiation..................................... 15
1.8 The Chart of the Nuclides........................................................ 19
Questions............................................................................................. 19
Jeff C. Bryan
University of Wisconsin
La Crosse, Wisconsin
xi
Preface to the Second Edition
I never expected to be writing this. When I wrote the first edition of this textbook,
I thought I had really gotten away with something. I wrote this book for students in
my nuclear chemistry and radiation physics classes—almost all of whom are nuclear
medicine or radiation therapy majors with a limited background in physical sciences
and math. My main motivation was to provide them with an accessible textbook that
would be a useful tool in their studies. I honestly didn’t expect that anyone outside
of my students (besides my mom) would be interested in buying it. Much to my
surprise, it exceeded the publisher’s sales expectations, and a second edition became
possible.
I was happy to have this opportunity, as I wanted to add a chapter on dosim-
etry as well as flesh out a few sections in the existing text. It was also a chance to
find out what readers would like to see in a new edition. I asked a student, Lucas
Bartlett, to survey teachers who used the text in their classes, as well as those who
had examined the text but were not yet using it with their students. I am grateful
to all who responded, especially Jason Donev, Thomas Semkow, Brett McCollum,
Craig McLachlan, Lawrence Duffy, Pierre St. Raymond, Dot Sulock, and Magdalen
Normandeau. I wasn’t able to incorporate all of their suggestions, but they will likely
see their influence in some additions listed here:
• The mathematics in some of the examples in the first few chapters are
explained in more detail.
• An appendix containing nuclear data for all nuclides mentioned in the text
(plus some others) is added.
• Discussion of applications are expanded and, generally, moved to earlier
chapters.
• Coverage of nuclear reactors is significantly expanded, with a new chapter
looking at more reactor types, their safety systems, and recent accidents.
• The number of end-of-chapter problems was increased for every chapter.
Along with the new chapters and appendix, new sections, or subsections, were
added on nuclear forensics, radiology, gamma cameras, and decay through proton
or neutron emission. In my hands, the manuscript is about 60% larger than the first
edition, so it is definitely bigger. Hopefully, you will also find that it is better and
more flexible.
In trying to write a textbook that would be more generally useful, I was especially
conscious of how much the first edition centered on nuclear science in the United
States. I have tried to broaden this perspective somewhat by pointing out how things
are sometimes done differently outside of the United States. I was also concerned
that those teaching classes more focused on applications of nuclear science be bet-
ter served by the second edition. By moving the applications chapters earlier in the
text, it gives those instructors an opportunity to get their classes into discussions of
applications sooner.
xiii
xiv Preface to the Second Edition
As was true with the first edition, I had a lot of help with this one. I’d like to thank
all the students in my nuclear chemistry and radiation physics classes over the past
few years for their suggestions and attention to detail. I’d especially like to thank
those who worked directly on this edition with me: Mikaela Barrett, Travis Warmka,
Kelsey Schilawski, Lucas Bartlett, Dan Hanson, and Mike Hoppe. I’d also like to
thank my colleagues at the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse for their suggestions
and review of portions of the manuscript, especially Shelly Lesher, Sherwin Toribio,
Melissa Weege, Nishele Lenards, Bruce Osterby, and Aileen Staffaroni. I would also
like to thank Mary Ellen Jafari of Gundersen-Lutheran Hospital for her comments
on Chapter 8. Finally, I need to thank Douglas Boreham for getting me to think more
critically of the LNT and ALARA (you’ll have to read this book if these acronyms
are unfamiliar!).
While I was able to correct a number of the errors in the first edition, the extensive
nature of the revisions for this edition have undoubtedly created some more. I accept
full responsibility for all of them. If you spot one, I’d appreciate hearing about it, as
we may be able to correct it before the next printing.
I have enjoyed writing this book. I hope you enjoy reading it.
Jeff C. Bryan
University of Wisconsin
La Crosse, Wisconsin
Preface to the First Edition
Like many textbooks for specialized classes, this one was born out of frustration with
the applicability of existing offerings. This text was initially designed for the nuclear
chemistry course I have taught for the past five years. This class is almost entirely
populated by nuclear medicine technology majors who need a solid background in
fundamental nuclear science but have not studied math beyond college algebra and
statistics. There are many excellent nuclear chemistry textbooks available to teach sci-
ence or engineering seniors or graduate students but very few for those lacking a more
extensive science and math background. Ehmann and Vance’s Radiochemistry and
Nuclear Chemistry served as my primary text for this class for the past four years. It is
very well written and nicely descriptive, but it is really intended for radiochemists, not
medical professionals. It is also slipping out of date, with no future edition planned.
I also learned that some of my students were passing my class without ever cracking
the primary text. Clearly, a more appropriate text was necessary.
Writing a nuclear chemistry textbook for nuclear medicine majors seemed too lim-
iting, so this text also includes material relevant to other medical professionals using
ionizing radiation for diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In particular, chapters were
added discussing radiation therapy and X-ray production. Additionally, it seemed that
an introductory nuclear science text should address important contemporary top-
ics such as nuclear power, weapons, and food/mail irradiation. All too often, those
speaking passionately to these issues are inadequately versed and resort to emotional
appeals while ignoring some of the science. Therefore, this text is also meant to serve
as a general primer in all things nuclear for the general public. Very little science and
math background is assumed, only some knowledge of algebra and general chemistry.
The more extensive chapters on fission nuclear reactors are also designed to help those
who will soon be entering the nuclear workforce. The nuclear power industry in United
States has been static for almost 30 years but now seems on the verge of renaissance.
Nuclear power now appears to a more environmentally benign source of electricity, and
a significant number of new plants may be constructed in the near future. Workers at
these plants will need a fundamental understanding of nuclear science as well as a basic
idea of how the plant works. This text can serve has a primer for these workers.
Finally, this text can also be of use to scientists making a career start or move to
the growing nuclear industry or to the National Laboratory system. I began 13 years
of work at Los Alamos and Oak Ridge National Laboratories in 1988. At that point,
I was thoroughly trained as a synthetic inorganic chemist and was largely ignorant of
nuclear science. Some of my motivation in writing this text is to provide scientists in
similar situations an easier way to better understand their new surroundings.
The term nuclear science is used rather deliberately in the title and throughout
the text. It is meant to encompass the physics, mathematics, chemistry, and biology
related to nuclear transformations and all forms of ionizing radiation. Fundamentally,
nuclear processes are within the realm of physics, but it can also be argued that all
the disciplines mentioned above play an important role in understanding the uses of
these processes and the resulting ionizing radiation in today’s world.
xv
xvi Preface to the First Edition
When this text was initially proposed, some of the reviewers rightly questioned
whether my background was appropriate. After all, much of it could be characterized
as synthetic inorganic chemistry and crystallography—there’s not a lot of hard-core
nuclear work there. In my defense, I would point out that I did pay attention when my
National Laboratory colleagues “went nuclear.” After 13 years at Los Alamos and
Oak Ridge, some of it rubs off. I would also argue that a book that wishes to bring
nuclear science to a broader audience must be written by someone who originally
comes from outside the field and can still see it from an external perspective. My
successful experiences teaching nuclear science to those who have a limited math
and science background suggests that I might be a good choice to write this book.
Ultimately, it will be the readers who decide if I have been successful in this effort.
This book draws heavily on those that have proceeded it, especially Ehmann
and Vance’s Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry, and Choppin, Rydberg, and
Liljenzin’s Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry. It is not meant as a replacement
to either, as they are both much more detailed; rather it is a contemporary resource
for those wishing to learn a little bit of nuclear science. For those who wish to explore
nuclear science beyond this text, a complete listing can be found in the bibliography.
I had often considered writing this textbook over the past five years of teaching
nuclear chemistry and physics at the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse. It did not
become a reality until Lance Wobus of Taylor & Francis asked to meet with me at a
meeting of the American Chemical Society about a year and a half ago. I am very grate-
ful to Lance for seeking me out and for his constant support during the writing process.
This is easily the most ambitious writing project I have undertaken, and it would
not have been possible without the assistance and encouragement of many others.
First, I must acknowledge my predecessor in my current position at the University of
Wisconsin–La Crosse, Willie Nieckarz. Based on his background in the nuclear navy, he
pioneered our nuclear science programs. My nuclear chemistry course remains strongly
based on his materials. I also acknowledge my students who have never been reluctant to
question me beyond the limits of my knowledge and for their critical reading of earlier
drafts of this text. I would especially like to single out former students Stephanie Rice,
Rachel Borgen, and Jim Ironside for their extensive suggestions and help preparing the
solutions manual and figures. I must also thank my colleagues in the Departments of
Chemistry and Physics at the University of Wisconsin–La Crosse, for without their sup-
port and encouragement, this book would not have been written. I would also like to
acknowledge my former colleagues and teachers who took their time to introduce me to
nuclear science. Without them, I would not have been hired into the wonderful job I now
enjoy. Finally, I need to thank my family. Not only have they endured my many absences
while preparing this text, but my father (William Bryan Sr., formerly an engineer who
worked on the nuclear rocket program NERVA) and son (Lars Bryan, currently a sopho-
more studying mathematics at the University of Wisconsin—Madison) have read much
of the text and provided numerous helpful suggestions. It is rare that three family genera-
tions have the opportunity to work together on a project like this.
Jeff C. Bryan
University of Wisconsin
La Crosse, Wisconsin
10 Introduction to Nuclear Science
TABLE 1.1
Stable Nuclides
Z N #Stable
Even Even 159
Even Odd 53
Odd Even 50
Odd Odd 4
Z and N are odd, there are only four. These four oddballs are 21 H1, 63 Li3, 105 B5, and 147 N 7 .
It seems that odd numbers for both Z and N generally means a nuclide is unstable. Why
do these exceptions exist? It’s related to the fact that they all have a low number of pro-
tons (low Z). A more detailed explanation will have to wait until Chapter 5. For now, we
know that even is good and odd is bad, but why? Apparently, protons and neutrons like
to pair up with others of their kind, and when they do, they are more stable. Therefore, an
odd/odd nuclide can become even/even by converting a proton to a neutron or a neutron
to a proton, so some type of beta decay looks likely for odd/odd nuclides.
Why does Figure 1.4 stop at Z = 82? Beyond element 82 (Pb), there are no stable
nuclides. They are simply too big for the very short-ranged strong force to hold the
nucleus together against the tremendous Coulomb repulsion of all those protons.
Nuclides this large tend to undergo alpha decay, as this lowers both Z and N.
Finally, close examination of Figure 1.4 reveals that some dots seem to lie just
outside of the belt of stability. Apparently, there are some stable nuclides with bad
N/Z ratios. All the rationalizations (bad N/Z, odd/odd, too big) we’ve seen so far are
different ways to understand instability. How can we rationalize unusual stability?
We’ll need more information first. Are there other instances where unusual stability
is observed? Yes, certain elements seem to have an unusually large number of stable
isotopes. Most elements only have one, two, or three stable isotopes, but lead has
four, nickel has five, calcium has six, and tin has 10. There is something special about
certain numbers of protons or neutrons. Detailed analysis reveals that the numbers
2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, and 126 seem to impart special stability to nuclides that contain
these numbers of protons and/or neutrons. Because of this characteristic, they are
sometimes referred to as magic numbers.
Far from having supernatural qualities, these numbers have a great analogy in
chemistry. Students of chemistry (and some others) know that chemical stability is
imparted on those elements occupying the far-right column of the periodic table,
the so-called noble gases. This stability comes from exactly filling their valence
shells with electrons. In chemistry, these numbers would be 2, 8, 18, and 32. They
are not referred to as “magic,” but they could be. Applying this analogy to num-
bers of nucleons, we could say that nuclei with magic numbers of nucleons have
complete, or filled, nuclear shells and, therefore, exhibit extra stability. Therefore
nucleons, just like electrons, are filling some sort of pattern of energy levels. When
a level is filled, the nucleus gives a sigh, as it suddenly feels more stable.
Table 1.2 lists all stable nuclides containing magic numbers of nucleons. Note that
a few have magic numbers of both protons and neutrons. These nuclides are referred
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VI.