WEEK ONE: TEACHING AND LEARNING

CONCEPTS OF TEACHING, LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION

EDUCATION

Is a process of acquiring and developing knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values to increase,
adjust and enrich self and society? It is holistic development that moulds an individual towards
desirable goals through personal awakening. The acquisition takes place through formal,
informal and non-formal learning. An educated person is one whose interaction with others is
socially acceptable and useful. Therefore education can be perceived as both process and
product.

As a product is the sum total of what has been learnt and expressed in terms of abilities,
attitudes and other behavior of positive values to the society. It refers to terminal state of
attainment of necessary knowledge, skills attitudes and values, which enables one to live
comfortably and securely in the environment. Plato defines education in this regard as “turning
the eye of the soul from darkness to light” (i.e. leading a person from a dark cave of ignorance
into limelight of knowledge.

As a process: Drawing out and developing qualities considered potential in the individual for the
good of individual and society. Process of leading a learner from where they are to where they
ought to be i.e molding of individual towards desirable goals or a personal awakening to what
they already potentially are

TEACHING
Is a process of stimulating, directing, guiding and encouraging someone how to do something
either through talking, explaining, showing, illustrating and demonstrating, or persuading?
Something is either content, facts, skills or processes. Teaching as a process is referred to as a
system.

In this context the teacher means someone involved in teaching. Teaching has a series of steps
which a teacher has to go through for effective teaching to take place. For example;

a) Consultation of the syllabus

b) Choice of topics to teach
c) Interpretation of the objectives
d) Selection of the teaching methods
e) Selection of resources materials and planning for the lesson
f) Actual classroom presentation of the lesson an
g) Assignment at the end of term or year

For teaching to take place, there must be harmony among the above (various) components
involved.
The teacher should be motivated to teach and adequately equipped with the necessary knowledge
and skills (content).

1
The learners on the other hand, should be interested to learn and the environment should be
conducive to teaching and learning.

From the above explanation it is noted that:-

- A teacher teaches learners.

- A teacher is assumed to have information or message or skills that are passed onto the
learners.

For teaching to occur, there must be a learner, content and the teacher as a facilitator of the
learning process (with intentions or objectives). Learners are taught by the teacher but also
acquire information from other sources such as books. In teaching/Learning situation, resources
are very useful.
LEARNING

Psychologists define learning as a permanent change or modification of behavior or response as a

result of some form of experience.

Key processes;
 changes that take place in the mind of the learner

 Natural outcome of the individual that attempts to meet the needs of his/her basic normal
needs

 The learner has to interact with the environment

The “Change”

Implies that the learner goes out of a learning situation as a different person from the one he/she
was before learning. Continuum before –after instruction

1. Not change in physical characteristics e.g bigger or stronger

2. Change in intellectual and emotional functioning for example new form of experience,
the individual reasons in new perspective or becomes aware of complexity of particular
problem and as a result interacts in a more socially accepted way with others in the
environment.
3. Change in behavior as a result of some form of experience.

A person’s behavior can deviate from normal because of the effects such as drugs or fatigue
however, ’experience‘ as used in learning means that the individual will for example have been
helped to :
 Realize that a particular activity can be carried out in a variety of ways
 Realize that it is possible to arrive at a solution to a particular problem, by adopting a new
method.

2
  See the other side of an argument
 For example, appreciate the beauty of a poem, piece of music or a work of art

The focus for this discussion is therefore on a positive change in behavior as a result of learning

For example a child who has been violent or withdrawn due to drug abuse and has stopped the
habit as a result of the effective counseling, will interact in a friendly manner with other
people .This friendly relationship is a positive change in behavior.

The learner’s encounter with a new experience involves his/her interaction with other people for
example by way of listening to a talk and act, by asking and answering questions or perhaps by
arguing with people (observing)

Hence the definition of learning:

As a process by which an individual acquires and retains knowledge, skills, values, attitudes,
experiences etc which cannot be attributed to natural growth and development?
INSTRUCTION

The intersect between teaching and learning, therefore involves process of setting the conditions
of learning. Setting Conditions;

 One or more people may set the conditions of learning

 The instructors may or may not be physically present

 Instruction is not necessarily presenting a lecture

 Normally conducted in the schooling system

Relationship between teaching, learning and Instruction

 Teaching is supposed to promote learning

 Incidental learning helps in teaching as it provides the necessary fundamental experiences

for the learners and thus makes the teacher’s task easier by building on prior knowledge

 Teaching involves some amount of learning by the teacher

 Both are processes which are continuous in nature. The learner can sometimes to be
teacher and vice verse as she/he influences the teacher’s behaviors

 The intersect between learning and teaching forms instruction

FACTORS AFFECTING TEACHING AND LEARNING

a) Teacher related factors

3
 i Subject knowledge
A teacher who has subject masterly can only play a decisive role in leading the journey of
teaching and learning process.
How effectively the task of teaching and learning will be carried out then depend merely on the
scholarly nature and masterly over the subject matter demonstrated by the teacher in the class
and work situations.
ii Knowledge of learners
This is a broad category that incorporates knowledge of the cognitive, social and emotional
development of learners.
It includes an understanding of how students learn at a given developmental level, awareness that
learners have individual needs and abilities and an understanding that instruction should be
tailored to meet each learner’s needs.
iii Teaching skills
A teacher may know his subject well but for sharing, communicating and interacting various
experiences related to the learning of the subject he needs specific teaching skills.
The proficiency and deficiency possessed by a teacher in this regard are quite responsible for
turning the teacher learning process a big success or failure.
iv Friendliness and approachability
Because its teachers job to help students learn, they must be easy to approach.
Students will have questions which cannot be answered if the teacher is not friendly and easy to
talk to.
If students think of their teacher as their enemy they certainly will not learn much.
The best teachers are the most open, welcoming and easy to approach.
A good teacher possesses good listening skills and takes time out their busy schedule to solve all
kinds of problems their students present.
v Personality and behavior
A teacher as a leader has to lead his students in teaching/learning process through the magnetic
influence and incredible impression left on the minds of the students on the basis of his
personality traits and behavior.
He is a role model for his students.
His actions, behavior patterns and personality traits carry a great meaning to his students for
being imitated and brought into practice.
vi Discipline
A great teacher has effective discipline skills and can promote positive behaviors and change in
the classroom.
Without discipline learning cannot be accomplished.
b) Learner related factors
i. Learner physical and mental health
A simple headache can play havoc with the process and product of learning.
A tense, emotionally and mentally disturbed learner cannot be expected to show satisfactory
results in learning.

4
 ii. Basic potential of the learner
The results of achieved by the learner through teaching/learning task depend heavily on his basic
potential to undergo such learning. Such potential may consist of the following things:
 Learner’s innate abilities and capabilities of learning a concept.

 Learner’s basic potential in terms of general intelligence and specific knowledge,

understanding and skills related to a particular learning area.

 Learner’s basic interests, aptitudes and attitudes related to the learning of particular area.
iii. The level of aspiration and achievement motivation
Learning is greatly influenced by the level of aspiration and the nature of achievement
motivation possessed by the learner.
The teacher has to maintain the level of aspiration and achievement motivation to a reasonable
level neither too high causing frustration for non achievement not too low as not to try for the
things he is quite capable.
In this way, ones level of aspiration and achievement motivation works significantly towards
gains in learning.
iv. Goals in life
The philosophy and immediate as well as ultimate goals of ones life affect the process and
product of learning.
His mode and ways of looking towards the things, his inclination towards learning in a particular
area and patience and persistence maintained for continuing his learning despite the heavy odds
all depend on his goals and philosophy of life.
v. Readiness and will power
No power on earth can make a learner to learn if he is not ready to learn.
Contrarily, if he has will to learn then automatically, he will himself find the way of its effective
learning.
c) Support materials
The availability and use of the study materials, audios and videos increases the effectiveness of
the teaching and learning. These materials support the students and teachers in achieving the
learning outcomes.
d) Instructional facilities
These include the classrooms, laboratories, seminar rooms and other spaces used principally for
the purpose of delivering formal instruction to students.
Their availability ensures effective teaching and if these are not available in adequate numbers as
per the number of students, then the students will not be able to learn properly.
e) Learning environment
This refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts, and cultures in which students learn.
The term also encompasses the culture of the school or class-its presiding ethos and
characteristics including how individuals interact with and treat one another-as well as the ways
in which teachers may organize an educational setting to facilitate learning.

5
Effectiveness of the teaching also depends upon the learning environment. If the teacher and the
learner are comfortable in the surrounding environment then the learning will be effective; else
both the teacher and the student will be distracted leading to ineffective learning.

f) Institution
Effectiveness of teaching is also affected by the policies framed by the institutions.
These policies can give autonomy to the teacher or can control the classroom activity. If the
teacher feels extremely controlled, then his performance will suffer. On the other hand,
autonomy to teachers to choose teaching methods and classroom activities will bring an element
of flexibility.

Relationship between Goals, Aims and Objectives

a) Goals of Education
• A goal is defined as the purpose toward which an endeavor is directed
• It is the result of achievement toward which effort is directed
• In education, goals are statements of purpose with some outcome in mind
• They are broad, general statements about what is to be learned
• They tend to be long range and are somewhat removed from what is ordinarily considered
immediate classroom activities.
• Goals are general guidelines that explain what you want to achieve in your course
• Goals seek to answer the question: what will be learnt?
• Hence goals can focus on content, skills or context for what a “vision document” is trying to
achieve.
• They are usually long term and represent national vision and philosophy
• The Kenya national goals of education are:
1) Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity
• Kenya`s people belong to different ethnic groups, races and religions but these differences
need not divide them.
• They must be able to live and interact as Kenyans
• It is a paramount duty of education to help the youth acquire this sense of nationhood by
removing conflicts and by promoting positive attitudes of mutual respect which enable
them to live together in harmony, and foster patriotism in order to make a positive
contribution to the life of the nation.
2. Promote social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national development

6
 – Social needs: Prepare children for the changes in attitudes and relationships which are
necessary for the smooth process of a rapidly developing modern economy
– Economic needs: Produce citizens with skills, knowledge, expertise and personal qualities
that are required to support a growing economy.
– Technological and industrial needs: Provide the learners with the necessary skills and
attitudes for industrial development.
3. Promote individual development and self-fulfillment
– Education should provide opportunities for the fullest development of individual talents
and personality. It should help its recipients to develop their potential interests and abilities.
A vital aspect of individual development is character building.
4. Promote sound moral and religious values
– Education should provide for the development of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will
enhance acquisition of sound moral values and help children to grow up into self-
disciplined, self-reliant and integrated citizens.
5. Promote social equality and Responsibility
– Education should promote social equality and foster a sense of social responsibility within
an education system which provides equal education opportunities for all.
– It should give all learners varied and challenging opportunities for collective activities and
corporate social services irrespective of gender, ability or geographical environment..
6. Promote respect for and development of Kenya's rich and varied cultures
– Education should instill in the youth of Kenya an understanding of past and present cultures
and their valid place in the contemporary society.
– The learners should be able to blend the best of traditional values with the changed
requirements that must follow rapid development in order to build a stable and modern
society.
7. Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitude towards other nations
– Kenya is part of the international community. It is part of the complicated and interdependent
network of people and nations. Education should therefore lead the youth of the country to
accept membership in this international community with all the obligations and responsibilities,
rights and benefits that this membership entails
8. Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental protection

7
 – Education should inculcate in the youth the value for good health in order to avoid
indulging in activities that will lead to physical or mental ill health.
– It should foster positive attitudes towards environmental development and conservation.
– It should lead the youth to appreciate the need for a healthy environment.
b) Aims of Education
• An aim is an expression of a long term purpose, usually over the course of one or more years
• Educational aims are general statements of what is hoped to be achieved by a course or
subject.
• They are general statements that provide shape and directions to the more specific actions
designed to achieve some product or behavior.
They provide guidelines for the educational or training processes.
Since aims are general and vague (infinite/indeterminate) they are usually used at the
higher level in the curriculum development. They are normally used in the introductory phase of
a course syllabus. Aims have the following purposes in that they:
– Assist to conceive the broad outcome of the course before moving on the specifics
– Provide the emphasis or key areas of the course
– Provide a basis for justifying the objectives
– Give a direction to the selection of teaching methods and resource.
• In general, curriculum aims are statements that describe expected life and /work outcomes
based on some scheme borrowed from philosophy
• Curriculum aims also vary in degree of specificity from one course to another
• Some aims are set knowing that it will be achieved by each learner
c) Educational/Instructional objectives
• Educational objectives are the foundation upon which teachers can build lessons and
assessments that you can use to prove that you meet your overall course or lesson goals
(Orenstein, 1995).
• As teachers develop a learning item, a course, a lesson or a learning activity, they have to
determine what they want the learners to acquire or learn and how they will know that they have
learned.

8
 • Educational objectives are also referred to as: learning objectives, outcomes, terminal
objectives, enabling objectives, performance objectives, competencies, instructional objectives
or behavioural objectives.
• Instructional objectives are short but clear statements about the specific outcomes we expect
from children
• They are specific, measureable, short term, observable learner behaviours.
• They are the outcomes that children exhibit as a result of the experiences they receive from
the curriculum and hence, are immediate and specific outcomes of instruction.
• They are tools to ensure children reach the set goals.
Components of Learning Objectives
How to Set Clear Learning Objectives
Once you have set the goals and scope of a corporate training program, it is important to define
specific information, attitudes, knowledge and skills to be attained by the participants in the
program. These form the basis for the objective the training program. To set clear learning
objective, it is important to understand what objectives are made up of.
Components of Learning Objectives
Learning objectives are known to be made up of a number of components. The most known
components are those identified by an educational theorist Robert Marger. The major
components are audience, condition, standards and behavior. Robert Merger (1962) proposed
ABCD Model of writing instructional objectives. These components entail:
1. Audience:
Learning objectives should always specify the audience they are intended to serve. Usually, the
audiences are participants in a given training program. For example in the phrase “learners will
be able,” the learners are the audience. Although there may be different groups of participants in
a training program such as learners, instructors, supervisors and facilitators, the objective should
describe the exact intended audience. This helps in making the objectives measurable.
2. Behavior
Behaviors are observable actions that are supposed to be accomplished by the end of a training
session or program, and should be demonstrated during the program. To write a clear learning
objective, it is important to carefully choose the most appropriate word that describes the
behavior displayed by the participants in the program after the training is done. The action verb

9
that forms part of your objective should be able to fully describe the specific behavior that is
expected from a participant after undergoing a training program.

Examples of action verbs that you might use include ‘explain’, ‘identify’, ‘analyze’, ‘list’,
‘code’, and ‘present’ among others. These verbs are the most important part of any learning
objective. This is because they identify what has achieved by the end of the training program,
and presumably what they are ready to perform moving forward. It is therefore important to
avoid general verbs such as ‘know’ and ‘understand’ as they may not be measurable and thus
present a lot of problems when it comes to assessing the effectiveness of training program. For
instance, it is better to have an objective that says, “Learners will be able to list important
markets for electronic products,” rather than “learners will know the important markets for
electronic products.”
3. Standard?Degree:
Learning objectives should identify to what standards a given skill or knowledge must be
achieved by the learner. In other words, the standards used in objectives give the proficiency to
which the training will elicit in the learners. It is, therefore, important for you to give the
specifics of how a learner will be able to perform a given task in terms of quality and quantity
after undergoing a given training program. For example in the objective, “…the learners should
be able to identify 95% of errors…” the phrase ‘95% of errors’ is the standard.
4. Condition:
A condition in an objective specifies the conditions under which given tasks should be
performed. These are the actual conditions a given task should take place. The conditions may
include time and place. An example of a condition in an objective is “after this program the
learners should be able to take less than five minutes in successfully predicting the performance
of a given stock,” here the phrase “less than five minutes” represents the condition.
An Example of an illustrated Learning Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student should be able to correctly solve linear equations in one unknown.

Component of a leaning objective Name of the component

The student Audience
Correctly Standard/Degree

10
Solve linear equation Behavior
By the end of the lesson Condition
How to make Your Learning Objectives SMART
Clear learning objectives should be SMART (specific, measurable, action-oriented realistic and
Time-bound). Once you have developed your learning objectives, it is important to check and
ensure that they are all SMART. Here is how to ensure that your corporate learning objectives
are SMART.
 Specific
Go through your objectives and ensure that they clearly describe the attitudes, skills and
knowledge that the learner is expected to demonstrate after undergoing a given training program.
 Measurable
Check your objectives to ensure that the achievement of the objective can actually be measured
by an assessment strategy such as observation, test items or problem-solving exercises. It is
important for objectives to be measurable otherwise it would be difficult to assess the success of
the training program.
 Action-oriented
Ensure that your objectives are action oriented. They should all have an action verb that
demonstrates the skills. Knowledge and attitudes to be acquired
 Realistic
Your objectives should be reasonable. Ensure that they are all reflect reasonable expectations in
terms of the attitudes knowledge and skills to be acquired within the given time frame and
training scope.
 Time-bound
The learning objectives should have a time limit. This is usually done by using the phrase “by the
end of this training”. This can be done by any other means, but the time frame must be specified.
Example of a SMART learning objective
By the end of this program (time-bound), all participants will be able to describe (action-
oriented) four major factors (specific, measurable, reasonable) that affect foreign markets for
electronics.
DOMAINS OF INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

11
 There are three main domains of learning and all teachers should know about them and use
them to construct lessons. These domains of learning are the cognitive (thinking), the affective
(social/emotional/feeling), and the psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic) domain, and each one of
these has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a classification. All of
the taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed from the simplest to more complex
levels.
a) Cognitive or Thinking Domain
This domain has undergone revision. The newer version has a number of strong advantages that
make it a better choice for planning instruction today. One of the major changes that occurred
between the old and the newer updated version is that the two highest forms of cognition have
been reversed. In the older version the listing from simple to most complex functions was
ordered as knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In
the newer version the steps change to verbs and are arranged as knowing, understanding,
applying, analyzing, evaluating, and the last and highest function, creating.
Taxonomies of the Cognitive Domain
Bloom’s Taxonomy 1956 Anderson and Krathwohl’s Taxonomy 2001
1. Knowledge: Remembering or retrieving previously learned 1. Remembering: Recognizing or recalling knowledge from
material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: memory. Remembering is when memory is used to produce
or retrieve definitions, facts, or lists, or to recite previously
know identifydefine recallrecord name learned information.
relate list memorize repeat recognize acquire

2. Comprehension: The ability to grasp or construct meaning 2. Understanding: Constructing meaning from different
from material. Examples of verbs that relate to this function are: types of functions be they written or graphic messages, or
activities like interpreting, exemplifying, classifying,
restate locate reportidentify discussillustrate interpret summarizing, inferring, comparing, or explaining.
recognize explaindescribe discussdraw represent
express review infer differentiate
conclude

3. Application: The ability to use learned material, or to 3. Applying: Carrying out or using a procedure through
implement material in new and concrete situations. Examples of executing, or implementing. Applying relates to or refers to

12
verbs that relate to this function are: situations where learned material is used through products
like models, presentations, interviews or simulations.
apply relateorganize employpractice calculate
develop translaterestructure interpretshow exhibit
use operate demonstrate illustrate dramatize

4. Analysis: The ability to break down or distinguish the parts 4. Analyzing: Breaking materials or concepts into parts,
of material into its components so that its organizational determining how the parts relate to one another or how they
structure may be better understood. Examples of verbs that relate interrelate, or how the parts relate to an overall structure or
to this function are: purpose. Mental actions included in this function are
differentiating, organizing, and attributing, as well as being
analyze comparedifferentiate contrastexperiment able to distinguish between the components or parts. When
probe inquireinvestigate detectscrutinize discover one is analyzing, he/she can illustrate this mental function by
examine contrastsurvey classifyinspect dissect creating spreadsheets, surveys, charts, or diagrams, or graphic
categorize deduce discriminate representations.
separate

5. Synthesis: The ability to put parts together to form a coherent 5. Evaluating: Making judgments based on criteria and
or unique new whole. In the revised version of Bloom’sstandards through checking and critiquing. Critiques,
synthesis becomes creating and becomes the last and most recommendations, and reports are some of the products that
complex cognitive function. Examples of verbs that relate to the can be created to demonstrate the processes of evaluation. In
synthesis function are: the newer taxonomy, evaluating comes before creating as it
is often a necessary part of the precursory behavior before
compose produceplan inventpropose develop one creates something.
design assembleformulate collect setarrange construct
create prepareup generalizeorganize originate
predict modify tell document combinederive write propose
relate

6. Evaluation: The ability to judge, check, and even critique the 6. Creating: Putting elements together to form a coherent or
value of material for a given purpose. This function goes to #5 in functional whole; reorganizing elements into a new pattern or
the revised version of Bloom’s. Examples of verbs that relate to structure through generating, planning, or
evaluation are: producing. Creating requires users to put parts together in a

13
 new way, or synthesize parts into something new and
judge assessargue decide choosevalidate consider different thus creating a new form or product. This process is
compare evaluaterate select estimate appraise value the most difficult mental function in the new taxonomy.
conclude measure criticize infer
deduce

Table 1.1 – (Wilson, L.O. 2001) – Bloom vs. Anderson/Krathwohl revisions

b) The Affective or Feeling Domain:

Like cognitive objectives, affective objectives can also be divided into a hierarchy (according to
Krathwohl). This area is concerned with feelings or emotions (and social/emotional learning and
skills). Again, the taxonomy is arranged from simpler feelings to those that are more complex.
This domain was first described in 1964 and as noted before is attributed to David Krathwohl as
the primary author.
1. Receiving
This refers to the learner’s sensitivity to the existence of stimuli – awareness, willingness to
receive, or selected attention.
feel sense capture pursue attend
experience perceive
2. Responding
This refers to the learners’ active attention to stimuli and his/her motivation to learn –
acquiescence, willing responses, or feelings of satisfaction.
conform allow contribute enjoy
cooperate satisfy
3. Valuing
This refers to the learner’s beliefs and attitudes of worth – acceptance, preference, or
commitment. An acceptance, preference, or commitment to a value.
believe seek justify respect search persuade
4. Organization
This refers to the learner’s internalization of values and beliefs involving (1) the
conceptualization of values; and (2) the organization of a value system. As values or beliefs
become internalized, the leaner organizes them according to priority.

14
examine clarify systematize create integrate
5. Characterization – the Internalization of values
This refers to the learner’s highest of internalization and relates to behavior that reflects (1) a
generalized set of values; and (2) a characterization or a philosophy about life. At this level the
learner is capable of practicing and acting on their values or beliefs.
internalize review conclude resolve judge
c) The Psychomotor or Kinesthetic Domain
Psychomotor objectives are those specific to discreet physical functions, reflex actions and
interpretive movements. Traditionally, these types of objectives are concerned with the
physically encoding of information, with movement and/or with activities where the gross and
fine muscles are used for expressing or interpreting information or concepts. This area also refers
to natural, autonomic responses or reflexes.
1. Reflex movements
Objectives at this level include reflexes that involve one segmental or reflexes of the spine and
movements that may involve more than one segmented portion of the spine as intersegmental
reflexes (e.g., involuntary muscle contraction). These movements are involuntary being either
present at birth or emerging through maturation.
2. Fundamental movements
Objectives in this area refer to skills or movements or behaviors related to walking, running,
jumping, pushing, pulling and manipulating. They are often components for more complex
actions.
3. Perceptual abilities
Objectives in this area should address skills related to kinesthetic (bodily movements), visual,
auditory, tactile (touch), or coordination abilities as they are related to the ability to take in
information from the environment and react.
4. Physical abilities
Objectives in this area should be related to endurance, flexibility, agility, strength, reaction-
response time or dexterity.
5. Skilled movements
Objectives in this area refer to skills and movements that must be learned for games, sports,
dances, performances, or for the arts.

15
6. Nondiscursive communication
Objectives in this area refer to expressive movements through posture, gestures, facial
expressions, and/or creative movements like those in mime or ballet. These movements refer to
interpretative movements that communicate meaning without the aid of verbal commands or
help.

16