CE 6108 - Lec 8c

Structural Analysis for Lateral Loads
CE-6108
Lecture 8c
A R Bhuiyan
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Wind Load
2.4 .1 General
Buildings and other structures, including the Main Wind‐Force Resisting
System (MWFRS) and all components and cladding thereof, shall be
designed and constructed to resist wind loads as specified herein.
The design wind loads for buildings and other structures, including the
MWFRS and component and cladding elements thereof, shall be determined
using one of the following procedures:
a) Method 1: Simplified Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.2 for buildings and structures
meeting the requirements specified therein;
b) Method 2: Analytical Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.3 for buildings and structures
meeting the requirements specified therein;
c) Method 3: Wind Tunnel Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.16.
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Wind Load
Minimum Design Wind Loading

The design wind load, determined by any one of the procedures specified in
Sec 2.4.1, shall be not less than specified in this Section.
Main Wind‐Force Resisting System: The net wind pressure to be used in the
design of the MWFRS for an enclosed or partially enclosed building or other
structure shall not be less than 0.5 kN/m2 acting in either direction normal to
the surface.
.
Components and Cladding: The design wind pressure for components
and cladding of buildings shall not be less than a net pressure of 0.5
kN/m2 acting in either direction normal to the surface.
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Wind Load
2.4.3.1 Method 2: Analytical Procedure

1) The building or other structure is a regular‐shaped building or structure
as defined in Sec 2.1.3.
2) The building or other structure does not have response characteristics

making it subject to across‐wind loading, vortex shedding, instability
due to galloping or flutter; or does not have a site location for which
channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions
warrant special consideration.
The provisions of this Section take into consideration the load magnification effect caused by
gusts in resonance with along‐wind vibrations of flexible buildings or other structures.
Buildings or other structures not meeting the requirements of Sec 2.4.2, or having unusual
shapes or response characteristics shall be designed using recognized literature
documenting such wind load effects or shall use the wind tunnel procedure specified in
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Sec 2.4.16.
Wind Load
2.4.3.4 Design Procedure

1) The basic wind speed V and wind directionality factor Kd shall be
determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.4.
2) An importance factor I shall be determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.5.
3) An exposure category or exposure categories and velocity pressure

exposure coefficient Kz or Kh’, as applicable, shall be determined for each
wind direction in accordance with Sec 2.4.6.
4) A topographic factor Kzt shall be determined in accordance with Sec

2.4.7.
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Wind Load

5) A gust effect factor G or Gf, as applicable, shall be determined in
accordance with Sec 2.4.8.
6) An enclosure classification shall be determined in accordance with Sec

2.4.9.
7) Internal pressure coefficient GCpi shall be determined in accordance with

Sec 2.4.10.1.
8) External pressure coefficients Cp or GCpf, or force coefficients Cf, as

applicable, shall be determined in accordance with Sections 2.4.10.2 or
2.4.10.3, respectively.
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Wind Load

9) Velocity pressure qz or qh, as applicable, shall be determined in
accordance with Sec 2.4.9.5.
10) Design wind load P or F shall be determined in accordance with Sec

2.4.11.
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Wind Load
2.4.4 Basic Wind Speed

a) The basic wind speed, V used in the determination of design wind loads
on buildings and other structures shall be as given in Figure 6.2.1 except
as provided in Sec 2.4.4.1.
b) The wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction.
2.4.4.3 Wind directionality factor

The wind directionality factor, Kd shall be determined from Table 6.2.12. This
factor shall only be applied when used in conjunction with load combinations
specified in this Chapter.
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Wind Load
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Wind Load
2.4.5 Importance Factor

An importance factor, I for the building or other structure shall be determined
from Table 6.2.9 based on building and structure categories listed in Sec
1.2.4.
2.4.6 Exposure
For each wind direction considered, the upwind exposure category shall be
based on ground surface roughness that is determined from natural
topography, vegetation, and constructed facilities.
2.4.6.2 Surface roughness categories
Surface Roughness A: Urban and suburban areas, wooded areas, or
other terrain with numerous closely spaced obstructions having the size of
single‐family dwellings or larger.
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Wind Load
2.4.6.2 Surface roughness categories

Surface Roughness B: Open terrain with scattered obstructions having
heights generally less than 9.1 m. This category includes flat open country,
grasslands, and all water surfaces in cyclone prone regions.
Surface Roughness C: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces

outside cyclone prone regions. This category includes smooth mud flats
and salt flats.
2.4.6 Exposure Category
Exposure A: Exposure A shall apply where the ground surface roughness
condition, as defined by Surface Roughness A, prevails in the upwind
direction for a distance of at least 792 m or 20 times the height of the
building, whichever is greater.
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Wind Load
2.4.6 Exposure Category

Exposure B: Exposure B shall apply for all cases where Exposures A or C
do not apply.
Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply where the ground surface roughness,
as defined by Surface Roughness C, prevails in the upwind direction for a
distance greater than 1,524 m or 20 times the building height, whichever is
greater. Exposure C shall extend into downwind areas of Surface
Roughness A or B for a distance of 200 m or 20 times the height of the
building, whichever is greater.
2.4.6.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient

Based on the exposure category determined in Sec 2.4.6.3, a velocity
pressure exposure coefficient Kz or Kh, as applicable, shall be determined
from Table 6.2.11.
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Wind Load
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Wind Load
2.4.7 Topographic Effects

2.4.7.1 Wind speed‐up over hills, ridges, and escarpments
Wind speed‐up effects at isolated hills, ridges, and escarpments constituting
abrupt changes in the general topography located in any exposure category
shall be included in the design when buildings and other site conditions
and locations of structures meet all of the following conditions:
(i) The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed upwind by other
similar topographic features of comparable height for 100 times the height of
the topographic feature (100 H) or 3.22 km, whichever is less. This distance
shall be measured horizontally from the point at which the height H of the hill,
ridge, or escarpment is determined.
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Wind Load

2.4.7.1 Wind speed‐up over hills, ridges, and escarpments
(ii) The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of upwind terrain
features within a 3.22 km radius in any quadrant by a factor of two or more.
(iii) The structure is located as shown in Figure 6.2.4 in the upper one‐half of
a hill or ridge or near the crest of an escarpment.
(iv) H/Lh >=0.2
(v) H is greater than or equal to 4.5 m for Exposures B and C and 18.3 m for
Exposure A.
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Wind Load
Figure 6.2.4 Topographic factor, Kzt -

Method 2 CE-6108 75
Wind Load
2.4.8 Gust Factor

2.4.8.1 Rigid structures
For rigid structures as defined in Sec 2.1.3, the gust‐effect factor shall be
taken as 0.85 or calculated by the formula:
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Wind Load
2.4.8.2 Flexible or Dynamically Sensitive Structures

For flexible or dynamically sensitive structures as defined in Sec 2.1.3
(natural period greater than 1.0 second), the gust‐effect factor shall be
calculated by
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Wind Load
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Wind Load
2.4.9 Enclosure Classifications

For the purpose of determining internal pressure coefficients, all buildings
shall be classified as enclosed, partially enclosed, or open as defined in
Sec 2.1.3.
1. Open Building:
2. Partially Enclosed Building:
3. Enclosed Building: If conditions (1) and (2) do not fulfill.

where,
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Wind Load
2.4.10.1 Internal pressure coefficients

Internal pressure coefficients, GCpi shall be determined from Figure
6.2.5 based on building enclosure classifications determined from Sec
2.4.9.
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Wind Load
2.4.10.2 External pressure coefficients

Main Wind‐Force Resisting Systems: External pressure coefficients for
MWFRSs Cp are given in Figures 6.2.6 to 6.2.8.
The pressure coefficient values and gust‐effect factor shall not be separated.
2.4.9.5 Velocity pressure
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Wind Load
2.4.11 Design Wind Loads on

Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings
a) Sign Convention: Positive
pressure acts toward the surface
and negative pressure acts away
from the surface.
b) Critical Load Condition: Values

of external and internal pressures
shall be combined algebraically to
determine the most critical load.
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Wind Load
2.4.11 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially Enclosed

Buildings
c) Tributary Areas Greater than 65 m2: Component and cladding elements
with tributary areas greater than 65 m2 shall be permitted to be designed
using the provisions for MWFRSs.
2.4.11.2 Main wind‐force resisting systems
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Wind Load
2.4.11.2 Main wind‐force resisting systems
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Wind Load
2.4.11.3 Design wind load cases
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2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.
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2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.
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3. Dynamic Procedure Accurate values for the

gust factor Cg, the
exposure factor, Ce, and
the pressure coefficient
Cp are needed for wind
load calculation.
The dynamic gust
response factor is defined
as the ratio of peak
loading to mean loading:
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3. Wind Induced Building Motion

The maximum lateral deflection is generally estimated in a direction parallel to
wind (along-wind direction),
The maximum acceleration leading to possible human perception of motion or

even discomfort may occur in a direction perpendicular to the wind
(across-wind direction).
Across-wind accelerations are likely to exceed along-wind accelerations if the

building is slender about both axes, with the aspect ratio W (B)D(L)/H less
than one-third, where W(B) and D (L) are the across-wind and along-wind
plan dimensions and H is the height of the building.
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Based on wind-tunnel studies, NBCC gives two expressions for determining
the across- and along-wind accelerations.
The dynamic gust response factor
Cg is defined as the ratio of peak
loading to mean loading:
For the maximum displacement Δ, as a rough guess for preliminary

evaluations, it can be assumed to be equal to H/450, the drift index
normally used in wind design of tall buildings.
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where
aD is the acceleration in the along-wind direction; g is the acceleration due
to gravity = 9.81 m/s2; gp is the a statistical peak factor for the loading
effect; K is a factor related to surface roughness coefficient of terrain and K
= 0.08 for exposure A, K = 0.10 for exposure B, K = 0.14 for exposure C; s
is a size reduction factor obtained from Figure 4.29 as a function of W/H
and reduced frequency n0H/VH; F is the gust energy ratio at the natural
frequency of the structure obtained from Figure 4.30 as a function of wave
number n0/VH; Ce or CeH is the exposure factor from Figure 4.27; Cg is the
gust factor; βD is the critical damping ratio in the along-wind direction; D is
the building depth parallel to wind, m; ρB is the mass density of building,
kg/m3 ; n0 is the natural frequency of vibration Hz; nD is the natural
frequency of vibration along wind direction Hz; nw is the natural frequency of
vibration along across wind direction Hz;
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VH is the mean wind speed at the top
V is the basic wind speed , m/s;

CCH is the exposure factor from Figure 4.27.
The value of ar of the building in m/s2:
β is the critical damping ratio, with

commonly used values of 0.01 for steel,
0.015 for composite, and 0.02 for cast-in
place concrete buildings.
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4. Example-1: Building Information B

Say, a 50-story concrete tube building in a coastal area.
• Basic wind speed V = 80 m/s.
• Terrain: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces outside cyclone prone regions L
open water front.
• Plan dimensions: 40 × 60 m; Windward length L (D)=60 m; Across-wind length, B(W)= 40m.
• Building height: 152 m.
• Building lateral system: perimeter tube with exterior columns typically spaced at 6 m.
• Building period (as calculated by approximate equation given in BNBC 2020) = 4.29 s.
• The building is regular, as defined in BNBC 2020. It does not have unusual geometric irregularities.
• It does not have response characteristics that would subject the building to across-wind loading,
vortex shedding, or instability due to galloping or flutter. The building does not have a site location for
which channeling effects or buffeting in the wake of upwind obstructions warrant special consideration.
• Damping factor: 1.5% of critical.
• Topographic factor Kzt = 1.0.
• The building wind importance factor, I, as mandated by the governing authority: I = 1.15.
• The building is considered enclosed.
Required: Wind Pressure for Design of MWRFs
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4. Example-1:
1) Velocity pressure qz = 0.000613KzKztKdV2I; (kN/m2), V in m/s;
2) Basic wind speed, v = 80 m/s (Figure 6.2.1);
3) Exposure= C (Surface Roughness C);
4) Roof height h = 152 m;
5) Exposure coefficient Kz = From Table 6.2.11;
6) Topography factor Kzt = 1.00 (Sec 2.4.7.2);
7) Directionality factor Kd = 0.85 (Table 6.2.12);
8)10/30/2021
Importance factor I = 1.15 (Given)CE-6108
Table 6.2.9; 95
4. Example-1:
9)Velocity pressure, qz = 3.835Kz kN/m2.
10) Internal pressure coefficient (GCpi) = ±0.18 (Figure 6.2.5, Enclosed

building);
11) Gust effect factor Gf = 1.185 (Sec.2.4.8.2);
12) Pressures for MWFRS P = qGCp – qi (GCpi) (Equation 6.2.11);
13) Wall external pressure coefficients Cp (Figure 6.2.6)

Wind normal to 40 m wall L/B = 1.50 Wind normal to 60 m wall L/B = 0.67
Windward wall Cp = 0.8 Windward wall Cp = 0.8
Leeward wall Cp = −0.365 for L/B = 1.50 Leeward wall Cp = −0.5 for L/B = 0.67
Side wall Cp = −0.7 Side wall Cp = −0.7
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4. Example-1:
Table 6.2.11 WW + LW+ WW- LW- Total design Pressure
p=
p=qzGfCp-qi( qzGfCp-qi(G p=qhGfCp-qi( T.
Height Kz qz GCpi) qh p=qhGfCp-qi(GCpi) Cpi) GCpi) Com-1 Com-2 Com-3 Com-4 ressure
m kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
152.00 1.89 7.25 5.57 7.25 -4.41 8.18 -1.80 1.15 3.76 3.76 6.37 6.37
136.76 1.86 7.13 5.46 7.25 -4.41 8.07 -1.80 1.04 3.65 3.65 6.26 6.26
121.52 1.82 6.98 5.31 7.25 -4.41 7.92 -1.80 0.90 3.51 3.51 6.12 6.12
106.28 1.78 6.83 5.17 7.25 -4.41 7.78 -1.80 0.75 3.36 3.36 5.97 5.97
91.04 1.73 6.63 4.99 7.25 -4.41 7.59 -1.80 0.57 3.18 3.18 5.79 5.79
75.80 1.68 6.44 4.80 7.25 -4.41 7.41 -1.80 0.39 3.00 3.00 5.61 5.61
60.56 1.61 6.17 4.55 7.25 -4.41 7.16 -1.80 0.13 2.74 2.74 5.35 5.35
54.46 1.58 6.06 4.44 7.25 -4.41 7.05 -1.80 0.03 2.64 2.64 5.24 5.24
48.36 1.55 5.94 4.33 7.25 -4.41 6.94 -1.80 -0.08 2.53 2.53 5.14 5.14
42.27 1.52 5.83 4.22 7.25 -4.41 6.83 -1.80 -0.19 2.42 2.42 5.03 5.03
36.17 1.48 5.68 4.08 7.25 -4.41 6.69 -1.80 -0.34 2.27 2.27 4.88 4.88
30.07 1.43 5.48 3.89 7.25 -4.41 6.50 -1.80 -0.52 2.09 2.09 4.70 4.70
27.02 1.40 5.37 3.79 7.25 -4.41 6.39 -1.80 -0.63 1.98 1.98 4.59 4.59
23.97 1.38 5.29 3.71 7.25 -4.41 6.32 -1.80 -0.70 1.91 1.91 4.52 4.52
20.93 1.34 5.14 3.57 7.25 -4.41 6.18 -1.80 -0.85 1.76 1.76 4.37 4.37
17.88 1.31 5.02 3.46 7.25 -4.41 6.07 -1.80 -0.96 1.65 1.65 4.26 4.26
14.83 1.27 4.87 3.31 7.25 -4.41 5.92 -1.80 -1.10 1.51 1.51 4.12 4.12
11.78 1.22 4.68 3.13 7.25 -4.41 5.74 -1.80 -1.28 1.33 1.33 3.94 3.94
8.73 1.16 4.45 2.91 7.25 -4.41 5.52 -1.80 -1.50 1.11 1.11 3.72 3.72
7.21 1.12 4.30 2.77 7.25 -4.41 5.38 -1.80 -1.65 0.96 0.96 3.57 3.57
5.68 1.08 4.14 2.62 7.25 -4.41 5.23 -1.80 -1.79 0.82 0.82 3.43 3.43
4.60 1.03 3.95 2.44 7.25 -4.41 5.05 -1.80 -1.97 0.64 0.64 3.24 3.24
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5. Example-2:
Calculate the dynamic gust factor, Cg for the Building shown in Example-1
1. Basic wind V=80 m/s,
2. Exposure factor CeH=1.4 (from Figure 4.27)
3. Mean wind velocity at top of the building
4. Mean wind velocity at top of the building. VH= 94.66 m/s
5. Aspect ratio W/H= 40/152=0.263, (W=40m and D=60 m)
6. Wave number n0/VH =0.233/94.67=0.00246
7.10/30/2021
n0H/VH=0.00246x152=0.374 CE-6108 98
5. Example-2:
Calculate the dynamic gust factor for the Building shown in Example-1
8. Surface roughness coefficient, K = 0.14 for Exposure C
9. Background turbulence factor B = 0.70 (Figure 4.28 for W/H = 0.263)
10. Size reduction factor, s = 0.25 (from Figure 4.29 for W/H = 0.263 and
n0H/VH=0.374)
11. Gust energy factor F = 0.40 (from Figure 4.30 for n0/VH =0.00246 )
12. βD is the damping ratio =0.015
13. σ/μ=0.86 σ/μ=

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5. Example-2:
Calculate the dynamic gust factor for the Building shown in Example-1
14. Average fluctuation rate ν = 0.223 cy/sec ν=
16. Peak factor, gp= 3.65 (from Figure 4.31 for ν = 0.223)
17. Gust factor, Cg = 4.13
18. Dynamic wind force =qzxCg
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6. Example-3:
Calculate the building accelerations in both across-wind (aw) and along-wind
(aD) directions for the Building shown in Example-1
1. Building frequency nW = nD = 0.223 Hz
2. Damping coefficient βW = βD = 0.015
3. Building density ρB = 195 kg/m3
4. ar= 84.05 m/s2
5. aw= 3.49 m/s2
6. aD=0.524 m/s2
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Structural Analysis for Lateral Loads

c) Method 3: Wind Tunnel Procedure as specified in Sec 2.4.16.

Minimum Design Wind Loading

2.4.3.1 Method 2: Analytical Procedure

2) The building or other structure does not have response characteristics

2.4.3.4 Design Procedure

2) An importance factor I shall be determined in accordance with Sec 2.4.5.

3) An exposure category or exposure categories and velocity pressure

4) A topographic factor Kzt shall be determined in accordance with Sec

2.4.3.4 Design Procedure

6) An enclosure classification shall be determined in accordance with Sec

7) Internal pressure coefficient GCpi shall be determined in accordance with

8) External pressure coefficients Cp or GCpf, or force coefficients Cf, as

2.4.3.4 Design Procedure

10) Design wind load P or F shall be determined in accordance with Sec

2.4.4 Basic Wind Speed

b) The wind shall be assumed to come from any horizontal direction.

2.4.4.3 Wind directionality factor

2.4.5 Importance Factor

2.4.6.2 Surface roughness categories

Surface Roughness C: Flat, unobstructed areas and water surfaces

2.4.6 Exposure Category

2.4.6.6 Velocity pressure exposure coefficient

2.4.7 Topographic Effects

2.4.7 Topographic Effects

(iv) H/Lh >=0.2

2.4.7 Topographic Effects

Figure 6.2.4 Topographic factor, Kzt -

2.4.8 Gust Factor

2.4.8.2 Flexible or Dynamically Sensitive Structures

2.4.9 Enclosure Classifications

2. Partially Enclosed Building:

3. Enclosed Building: If conditions (1) and (2) do not fulfill.

2.4.10.1 Internal pressure coefficients

2.4.10.2 External pressure coefficients

2.4.9.5 Velocity pressure

2.4.11 Design Wind Loads on

b) Critical Load Condition: Values

2.4.11 Design Wind Loads on Enclosed and Partially Enclosed

2.4.11.2 Main wind‐force resisting systems

2.4.11.3 Design wind load cases

2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.

2.4.11.4 Components and cladding.

3. Dynamic Procedure Accurate values for the

3. Wind Induced Building Motion

The maximum acceleration leading to possible human perception of motion or

Across-wind accelerations are likely to exceed along-wind accelerations if the

3. Wind Induced Building Motion

For the maximum displacement Δ, as a rough guess for preliminary

3. Wind Induced Building Motion

3. Wind Induced Building Motion

3. Wind Induced Building Motion

V is the basic wind speed , m/s;

The value of ar of the building in m/s2:

β is the critical damping ratio, with

4. Example-1: Building Information B

Required: Wind Pressure for Design of MWRFs

2) Basic wind speed, v = 80 m/s (Figure 6.2.1);