2007/2/16

page 92

CHAPTER 1 First-Order Differential Equations

Example 1.10.1 Consider the intial-valuc problem

Use Luler's mcthod wth ta h 0 | n d (bi h 0.05 obam an appOMaion to

1 l iNen that the e\act oluton to the inital-aluc roble IN

compac the cOrs in the two aproxmtions to vD

In this prohlem wc have

=0.

(a) Setting h = 0T in (| 102) yields

Hence.
+0.l(so-) = 0.5+0.I(0.5 0) = 0.5S.
=
V2 = + 0 - ) = 0.55 4 0,|(0.5S - 0,)= 0.595.
upproximations listed in Table LI01,
Continuing in this manner, we generale the
places.
where we have roundcd the calculations to six decimal

Exat Solution Absolute Error

0.1 0.55 0.5474 |4 0.002585

02 0.595 0S89299 0.00570I
0.3 0.6345 0.625070 0.009430
04 ).66795 06540)88 0.013862
0.675639 0.019106
0.5 0.694745
0,714219 0.688941 0025278
7 0.7 0.72564| 0.693124 0.0325 18
0.687229 0.040976
0.8 0.728205
0.9 0,721026 0.670198 0.050828
L0 0.7031 29 0.640859 0.062270

The results of applving Euler's method with lh= 0| othe initial-valuc problem
in Exanple 1.10,1.
of the
We have also listed the values of the cxact solutiun and the absolute value
0,703129, with an absolute
error. In this case, the approximation to y) is V =
crTOr of
Ix)- yol = 0.062270. (LI0.3)

(b) When h= 005. Euler's method gives

n= 0, I,.... 19,

listed
which generates the approximations given in Tahle 1.10.2, wherc we have
only every other intermediate approximation. We sce that the upproximation to
v() is
V0= (),67335
 1.10
Numerical Solution to First-Order Differential Equations
and that the absolute error in this
approXimation is
|y() V20|= 0.032492.

Exact Solution Absolute Error

0.54875 0.547414 0.001335
4 0.2 0.592247 0.589299 0.002948
0.3 0.629952 0.625070 0.004881
8 0.4 0.661272 0.654088 0.007185
10 0.5 0.685553 0.675639 0.009913
12 0.6 0.702072 0.68894| 0.01313I
14 0.7 0.710034 0.693124 0.016910
I6 ).8 0.708563 0.687229 0.021333
18 0.9 0.696690 0.670198 0.026492
20 1.0 0.686525 0.640859 0.032492

The results ot applyng Eulers method with = 0.05 to the initial-value

problen in Exanple I 10 |

0.7

8
).65

0.6

).55

04 06 (0,8

Eicure 1.10.2: The exact Nolution o the initial-value problem considered in Example lL10|
and the two approximations obtained using Euler's mcthod.
Comparing this with (1.10.3), we see that the smaller step size has led to a better
approximation. In fact, it has al1most halved the error at ytl ). In Figure I.10.2 we have
ploted the exact solution and che Euler approximations just obtained.

In the preccding example we saw that halving the step size had the effect of essen
lially halving the error. However. even then the accuracy was not as good as we probably
would havc liked. Of course we could just kcep dccreasing the step sizc (provided we
did not take h to be so small that round-oft errors started to play a role) to increase the
accuracy. but then the number of steps we would have to take would make the calcula
tions very cumbersome. A better approach is to derive methods that have a higher order
uf accuracy. We will consider two such methods.
R1 First-Order Differential Equations

The method that we consider here is an exanple of what is called a predictor-corrector

method. The idea is to use the fornmula from Euler's method to obtain a tirst approxima
tion to the solution y(,, ). We denote this approxination by so that

by once more applying Euler's

We now improve (or "correct') this approximation
solution curves through
method. But this time, we lse the average of the slopes of the
(X,. V ) and (a, +i. V.). This gives

1, we can interpret the odificd Euler

As illustrated in Figure 1.103 or the case n =
approximalions as arising Irom tirsl steppin o the point

(aj. v{a )
Modificd Euler
approvimation atA

(x, + h/2. y, + h((k Va)2)

Exact solution Euler approximalion
to the IVP al.r N

(Ki. ) P
Tangent linc to solution
hi2
cur ve throuph , . v )

method.
Tiguri.102: Derivation of the first step in the modificd Euler

2
,) and then stepping from P
along the tangent line to the solution curve through (x,,
slopc is f(x,. y).
lo (I,+|. yn+) along thc linc through P whoscapproximating
the modified Euler method for the solution to the initial
In summary,
valuc problem
y'= f(x. y). y(xo) = 0

al thc points +| =) + nh (n = 0, 1,...) is

Yn+t = n + }h|f(n. y») + f(unt+l. Vit].

whcrc

Y+1 =V, + hf (x,, yn). n= 0, l,....

approximation to the
Example 1.10.2 Apply the modified Euler Imethod with h = 0.|to determine an
solution to the initial-value protblem
y=y- A. v(0) =
 sO the approuialion s
appromalon Is Iikely to be.
awav frOm 0, the worse the

iqure 10 2: Graph of cos and its tangent line at

Quadrat c Approx mations

funcion.
lo get a more accurate approximation, we use a quadratic function instead of'a linear

Example ? Findthe quadratic approximation to y() CO% for.ear 0.

Solution To ensure that the quadratic, P,(r), is a good approximation to y(r) = cOS atr=0, we require
that cosJ and the quadratic have the same value, the same slope, and the same second derivative at
J=0. That is, we require P(0) =g(0). P(0) ='(0). and P0) = g"0). We take the quadratic
polynomial
P:(r) = Ca+Cu + Cyr.
and determine o. Ci. and C2. Since
P(r) =Cu+Cir + C,r and gr) = COs
P(r) = C + 22r g'()= - sin.

P'r) = 2C 'r)= - cOs J.

we have
Co= P:(0) =g(0) =cos(|= 1 SO

siu 0 = 0 C0
C= P0) o'0) =
2) P"(0)- y"(0) -(US() -1. -

Consequently. the quadratic approximation is

cOs P(r)- 1+0 for . near 0.

2 2

than the linear

Figure I0.3 suggests that the quadratic approximation cos s P:() is better
of the two approximations.
approximation Ust ' r ) for r near 0. Let's compare he accuracy0.921 and ,(0. 1) 0.920,
I for all . At 0.1. we have cos(0.1)
Recall that )
so the quadralic approxinmation is a signilicant improvement over the lincar approximation. The
0.08.
magnitude of the error is about 0.00I instead of
 the fourth derivative
can magine asim1lar caleulation starting with D). using
Tou
which would give

and so on. Using factorial notation, we write these expressions as

C fii0)
3 1!

Writing fn for the th derivative of f. we have. for any positive integer n

So we detine the hTnlor upprovimulion at

Taylor Polynomialof DegreeT Approximating j(æ) for near 0

We call FA{)theTaylo polymomal ddegeo nCenteted at =0,0Fthe Thyior polynomial

about

Example Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree 7approxinating the function f(r) =sin r for r near 0.
Compare the value of the Taylor approximation with the true value of fat n/3.
Solution We have
givng
f'r) (OS.r

f"(r)- - sill
f"(r) = -Osr
f0) = (0
(OS

SIl.

f'()--05. -1.
'Recall that k! = k(A - 1)2. 1. In addition, 1! 1, and 0! 1.
450 Chapter Ten APPROXIMATING FUNCTIONS

Using these values,we see that the Taylor polynomial approximation of degree 7is
r

sin! P-(r) =0+ 1r+ 0 7!

for near 0
3 + 5! 7

are the same.

Notice that since fN) (0) ), the seventh and eighth Taylor approximations to sinr
In Figure 10.4 we show the graphs of the sine function and the approximating polynomial of
as we look at values
degree 7 for r near 0. They are indistinguishable where r is close to 0. However,
the accuracy of this
of r farther away from Oin either direction, the two graphs move apart. To check
V'3/2 0.8660251
approximation numerically, we see how well it approximates sin{n/3)

P(r)

P:(a)

P(), for near 0

Fiqure 10.4: Graph of sin r and its seventh degree Taylor polynonial,

we obtain P;(a/3) =
When we substitute a/3 =1.0171976...into the polynomial approximation,
0.8660213.... which is extremely accurate-to about four parts in a million.

0.
Example 4 Graph the Taylor polynomial of degree 8 approximating glr)= cos r for .r near
example. giving
Solution We find the coefficients of the Tay lor polynomial by the method of' the preccding
COsJ Pr) = | +

2!

for a larger interval of r-values than

Figure I0.5 shows that Ps (r) is close to the cosine function
Example 2 on page 447.
the quadratic approximation P,(r) = 1-r2 in

Pr)
P()

(OS

P(r) P(r)
 Notice that since f(0)= 0, the seventh and eighth Taylor approximations to sin r are the same.
In Figure I04 we show the graphs of the sine function and the approximating polynomial of
degree 7 for r near 0. They are indistinguishable where r is close to 0. However, as we look at values
of r farther away from Oin either direction, the two graphs move apart. To check the accuracy of this
approximation numerically, we see how well it approximates sin(n /3) v3/2 0.8660251

P-(r)

P:(r)

Figure 10.4: Graph of sinr and its seventh degree Taylor polynomial, P(r), for near 0

When we substitute n/3 1.0171976 into the polynomial approximation, we obtain P(n/3) =
0.s660213....which is extremely accurateoabout four parts in a million.

Example4VGraph the Taylor polynomial of degree Sapproximating g(r) =rosr for r near 0.
Solution We find the coeflicients of' the Tay lor poly nomial by the method of the preceding example. giving

of .r-values than
Figure 10.5 shows that P(r) is close to the cosine function for a larger interval
the quadratic approximation P(r) = l- 2in Example 2 on page 447.

P) P(r)
COS
COS t

-1

P(r) P:(r)

Fiqure 10.5: P{r) approximates cOs sbetter than P:(r) for r near (

= e.
Example 5 Construct the Taylor polynomial of degree 10 about r = 0for the function f()
 f as r mOves away
which approximates the change in
The f') )ternn is acorrection term
from o
IS set up as u plus corTection
at
Similarly. the Taylor polynomial trt centeredwriting the polynomial in powers of (r- )
tems which are zero for r This is achieved by
Instead of powers of

fr)
polvnomial D, r and the orgnal function
If we require derivatves of the approNINaung atJ
n Taylor approxmations
to agree at , We get the following result for the

f()for r near s
Taylor Polynomial of Degree nAppr0ximating

2
a t o r the Iuylor poly
We all P ) the Taytur polyomta ut degree n centered
Homialahout

same way that we did for a 0. (See

You can derive the formula lor these coeticients in the
Problem 28, page 454.)

In for r near 1.
Example 7 LConstruct the Taylor polynomial of degree 4 upproximating the function flr)
Solution We have
I SO f ) -In{l) - 0
f')=
f"(r) = -1/r2 f"() =
f" (r) = 2/r* f"()= 2
f(r) = -6/.r*. f})= -6.
The Taylor polynomial is therefore
(r- +2-1 -6le-1):
Inr P(r) =0+ (r- I) - 2! 3! 4!
(r- 1)* (r- 1)
for r near I.
2 3

Graphs of ln rand several of its Taylor polynomials are shown in Figure 10.7. Notice that
P{z) stays reasonably close to In for r near I, but bends away as r gets farther from I. Also.
note that the laylor polynomials are defined lor r < 0, but In s is not.
 y=+ 0<4

shown in Figure 3 is the part of the parabola in Example 1that starts at the point (0, ) and
ends at the point (8, 5). The arrowhead indicales the direction in which the curve is traced
as r increases from 0 to 4.
In general, the curve with parametric equations
y= g) atS b

has initial point ( f(a). gla)) and terminal point (fb). g(b)).

VEXAMPLE 2 What curve is represented by the following parametric equations?

X= COS y= sin t 0<< 27
(coS I. sin )
SOLUTION If we plot points, it appears that the curve is a circle. We can confirm this
=0 impression by eliminating Observe that
a.0
x +y' cos't + sin't =1
I=2
Thus the point (x. y) moves on the unit circle x' +y=1. Notice that in this example
the parameter t can be interpreted as the angle (in radians) shown in Figure 4. As t
increases from 0 to 27, the point (x. y)= (cos t, sin ) moves once around the circle in
the counterclockwise direction starting from the point (1, 0).
MPLE3 What curve is represented by the given parametric equations?
X= sin 2r y= cos 2 0<ts 2

SOLUTION Again we have

xt = sin' 2 + cos'2=1
(0. 1)
so the parametric equations again represent the unit circle +y'= 1. But as
0
increases from 0 to 27, the point (x, y)= (sin 2t, cos 2) starts at (0, 1) and moves twice
around the circle in the clockwise direction as indicated in Figure 5.

Examples 2 and 3 show that different sets of parametric equations can represent the same
curve. Thus we distinguish between a curve, which is a set of points, and a parametric curve,
in which the points are traced in a particular way.

EXAMPLE4 Find parametric equations for the circle with center (h, k) and radius r.
sOLUTION If we take the equations of the unit circle in Example 2 and multiply the
expressions for xand yby r, we get x= rcos t, y= rin t. You can verify that these
equations represent a circle with radius r and center the origin traced counterclockwise.
We now shift h units in the x-direction and k units in the y-direction and obtain para

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R10 PARAMETAIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

6) with center (h. k) and radius r:

metric equations of the circle (Figure
y=k+ rsin 0<< 27
X=ht rcos

(h, k)

FIGURE 6
h+rcos t, y= k+rsint 0

(1. 1)
VEXANES Sketch the curve with parametric equations x= sin . y= sin".
SOLUTION Observe that y= (sin )2 = t and so the point (x,y) moves on the parabola
y= *. But note also that, since -l < sin (<l, we have -1< x I, so the para
metric equations represent only the part of the parabola for which -1 <x< 1. Since
sin t is periodic, the point (x, v) = (sin t, sin') moves back and forth infinitely often
along the parabola from (-1, 1) to (1, 1). (See Figure 7)

0.1A gives an animation of the

een motion along a parametric
- gl) and motion along the
as functions of z Clicking on cx=
os
efamily of parametric curves

Cos br y= csin dt

b - c d = 1 and click
vill see how the graphs of
sin (relate to the circle in
choose a= b= c= 1.
ee graphs as in Figure 8. By
te or moving the rslider to
see from the color coding hovw
graphs of x= cos tand
sponds to motion along the para
ch is called a Lissajous fiqure.

FIGURE 8 r= cos y= sin 2r y= sin 2r

Graphing Devices
Most graphing calculators and computer graphing programs can be used to graph curves
defined by parametric equations. In fact, it's instructive to watch a parametric curve being
drawn by a graphing calculator because the points are plotted in order as the correspondtn
parameter values increase.

dunlicated. in whole or in part Due to electronsc nghts, some thrd party content may be suppressed from the eBook andie
eLamng Al Rghe Reserved May not be copiedc,o
that ary suppressed content does not materially affec oegradoalcsR ictere righe oremove additioalcoetet at any time ifsbsequent righsrestt)
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS ANb POLAR COORDINATES

EYAMPLE1 A
curve Cis defined by the parametric equations x= ty= - 3.
(a) 'Show that Chas two langents at the point (3, 0) and find their equations.
(b) Find the points on Cwhere thetangent is horizontal or vertical.
(c) Determine where the curve is concave upward or
(d) Sketch the curve.
downward.
SOLUTION
(a) Notice that y = Â- 3t= (e-3) = 0 when t =0 or t=
t/3. Therefore the
point (3, 0) on Carises from two values of the parameter, = /3
indicates that C crosses itself at (3, 0). Since andt=-/3. This

dy dy/ dt 3-3
dx

the slope of the tangent when

dx/dt 2t
--)
tions of the tangents at (3, 0) are
t/3 is dy/ dx =6/(2/3) = +/3, so the equa

y= /3 (*- 3) and
y=-/3 (x-3)
y=V3u-3) (b) Chas a horizontal tangent
when dy/ dx = 0, that is, when dy/dt = 0and
Since dy dt -3 -3, this happens when t = 1, that is, t = t1. The dx/ dt # 0.
points on Care (1, -2) and (1, 2). Chas a coresponding
t=0. (Note that dy/ dt #0 there.) The vertical tangent when dx/dt= 2t= 0, that is,
(c) To determine concavity we corresponding point on Cis (0,0).
(3, 0) calculate the second derivative:
dy
1+
dy dt dx 2 3(² + 1)
dx d 2 4
dt
y=-3u-3) Thus the curve is concave upward when t>0and
concave downward when te0
(d) Using the information from parts (b) and (c), we
sketch C in Figure 1
V EXAMPLE 2
(a) Find the tangent to the cycloid x= r(0- sin 6). y=
where = T/3. (See Example 7 in Section 10.1.)
r(l- cos 0) at the point
(b) At what points is the tangent horizontal? When is it vertical?
SOLUTION
(a) The slope of the tangent line is
 X=COS I y= sint 0<< 27
then dx/ dt = -sin t and dy/ dt = cos , so Theorem 5 gives

2
dy
+
dt dt -Vsin't + cos²r dt = dt =2T

as expected. If, on he other hand, we use the representation given in Example 3in Sec
tion 10.1,
X= sin 2 y= cos 2t 0<t< 2

then dx/dt = 2 cos 2t, dy/dt= -2 sin 2t, and the integral in Theorem 5 gives
dx2 dy
dt =V4 cos? 2r +t 4sin?2/ dt ="2
Jo
dt = 4
dt

increases
O Notice that the integral gives twice the arc length of the circle because as t
when find
from 0 to 27, the point (sin 2 t, cos 2) traverses the circle twice. In general,
representation, we have to be careful to
ing the length of a curve Cfrom a parametric a to B.
ensure that Cis traversed only once as t increases from
- sin 0),.
CEXAMPLE 5 Find the length of one arch of the cycloid x= r(0
y=(l - cos 0).
From Example 3 we see that one arch is described by the parameter interval
SOLUTION
0<0< 21. Since
dx = rl - cos 0) and dy r sin 0
do

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be suppressed from the eBook
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c may rights restnctions require it
duplicated, in whole or in part Due to Lo remove add1tional content at any time if subsequent
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ovetéllledingeefdd|
ly affect the
Joes not materially:
EHAPTER 10 PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES

we have
dx dy
do
d

VU - cos 0) + 'sino do

- Vl -2 cos @+t cos'0 sin 0) d0

of Example 5 says that the length of
fa cyclord is eight times the radius of
ating circle (see Fiqure 5) This was first r, V2(1 - cos 0) d0
658 by Sir Christopher Wren, who
me the architect of St Paul's Cathedtal
0 = 2x, which
To evaluate this integral we use the identity sin'x =(|- cos 2x) with
gives 1 - cos 2 sin'(0/2). Since 0< 0s2, we have 0<0/2 < and so
L=8r sin(0/2) >0. Therefore

J2(1 cos 0) = /4 sin(0/2) - 2 sin(0/2) = 2 sin(0/2)

2r and so L= 2r| sin(0/2) d0 2rl-2 cos(0/2)"
2r12 + 2] =8r
5

Surface Area
adapt Formula 8.2.5 to oblain a formula for
In the same way as for arc length, we can x= f(). y= g()., a <i< B.
surface area. If the curve given by the parametric equations
and g) >0, then the area of the
continuous
is rotated about the x-axis, where f. g' are
resulting surface is given by

6 s-l2r() dt

ds and S= (2x ds (Formulas 8.2.7 and 8.2.8)

The general symbolic formulas S=(2Ty use
are still valid, but for parametric curves we
2
dx dy
+ dt
ds = dt dt

of a sphere of radius r is 4mr.

EXAMPLF 6 Show that the surface area
the semicircle
SOLUTION The sphere is obtained by rotating
X=rCos y=rsin t

Formula 6, we get
about the xaxis. Therefore, from
S=2r sin -rsin )² +(rcos 0 dt
dt=2rsin rd
- 2Trsin tysin?r +cos²)
oo 4mr
- 2mrsin t dt = 2mr(-cos
Chaptes)
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not be coped canned or duplicaied,
cgaeGtaRon whole or
L0Cencsoel eunng All Righs Resenvod May ot materally affet the ovtal
suppressed content does
wiew has doemed thal any
 EQUATIONS AND POLAR COORDINATES for the arca Aof
10 PARAMETRIC that the formula
plausible (and can in fact be proved)
It therefore appearsis
the polar region

Formula 3 is often writlen as

similarity between Formulas Iand 4.

with the understanding that r = f(0). Note the to think of the area as being swept out by a
When we apply Formula 3 or 4 it is helpful ends with angle b.
rotating ray through Othat starts with angle a and
four-leaved rose r= cos 20.
VBAWFind the area enclosed by one loop of the
in Section 10.3. Notice
SOLUTIO The curve r =cos 20 was sketched in Example 8
by a ray that rotates
from Figure 4 that the region enclosed by the right loop is swept out
from 0 = /4 to 0= n/4. Therefore Formula 4 gives

a/4
cos?20 do
A= d0-cos' 20 d0 1
A= 1+ cos 40) do -l0 + sin 40
out
VEXAMPLE2 Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r= 3 sin 0 and
side the cardioidr= 1+ sin .

SOLUTION The cardioid (see Example 7 in Section 10.3) and the circle are sketched in
r=3 sin 0
Figure 5 and the desired region is shaded. The values of a and b in Fomula 4 are deter
mined by finding the points of intersection of the two curves. They intersect when
3sin 0 | + sin 0, which gives sin 0=, so 0= T/6, 5n/6. The desired area can be
found by subtracting the area inside the cardioid between 0 = n/6 and 0 = 5n/6 from
the area inside the circle from /6 to 5n/6. Thus

r=|t sin 0 A
=} (3 sin 9) do - + sin 0)' do
Since the region is symmetric about the vertical axis 0 = /2, we can write

9sino e- ( 1 + 2sin 0 +sin'0) dO

8 sin'0 - 1- 2 sin 0) do
-(3 - 4 cos 20 - 2sin 0) dO
=30- 2 sin 20 + 2 cos e

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 sin"0 = 1, we haVe
so, using cos0 +
sino
cos sin0 +
dO
dr cos'0
dr
sin'0 + 2r: sin 0 cos 0 +
do

-( as
we can use Theorem
10.2.5 to write the arc length
Assuming that f is continuous,

equation r= f(O), a < 0<b, is

Therefore the length of acurve with polar

-Ne()
=|+ sin 0.
V EXAMPIE4 Find the length of the cardioid r
SOLUTION The cardioid is shown in Figure &. (We sketched it in Example 7 in
interval0<0=Zm, so
Section 10.3.) Its full length is given by the parameter
Formula 5 gives
do= V +sin 0) + cos-0 de
dr

-e dO

- 2+ 2sin 6 do

We could evaluate this integral by multiplying and dividing the integrand

by
system. In any event, we find that the
V22 sin 0, or we could use a computer algebra
length of the cardioid is L = 8.

cises
ea of the region that is bounded by the given curve 5-8 Find the area of the shaded region.
6.
-pecified sector. 5.

n/2 <0<T
0<0< n/6
20, r 0. 0 < 0< T/2

n/6<0< n/3 r=|t cos 0

calculator or computer required 1. Homework Hints avallable at stewartcalculus.com

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