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Apostles of The Alps Mountaineering and Nation Building in Germany and Austria 1860 1939 1st Edition Tait Keller
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Apostles of the Alps
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Apostles
of the Alps
Mountaineering and Nation Building in
Germany and Austria, 1860–1939
tait keller
The University of North Carolina Press Chapel Hill
Publication of this book was supported in part by
a subvention from Rhodes College and with the assistance
of the Authors Fund of the University of North Carolina Press.
The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and
durability of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity
of the Council on Library Resources.
Acknowledgments xi
Note on Citations and Translation xv
Abbreviations Used in the Text xvii
Introduction Disenchanted Mountains 1
5 Forbidden Heights
Lost Mountains and the Violence of Alpine Anti-Semitism 121
6 Mechanical Mountains
Movies and Motors Remake the Alps 152
7 Fascist Landscapes
Nature Lovers and Nazi Desperadoes on the Alpine Frontier 183
3. Berlin’s Winterfest 33
My debts are great. These few poor sentences that I offer are meager com-
pensation when measured against all that people have done for me, and
all that I have been given so that I might write this book. Red drenches the
ledger of my life. Yet my gratitude and joy accrued are greater still and all
the richer for the depth of what I owe.
First and foremost I thank my mentors. Roger Chickering suggested
this topic to me and then suffered through numerous drafts of highly
questionable quality. Though his famous blue fountain pen must have
run dry—repeatedly—while correcting my prose, his encouragement and
care never did. Under his rigorous tutelage and gentle guidance I have
matured in ways that I hope make him proud. John McNeill has been just
as important to me as I launched into the pools of the profession and
then found myself in heavy water. I should have drowned but for John
helping me to navigate the rapids with their hidden boulders, big waves,
and sudden falls. I am fortunate indeed to have him as a guide. Tom Zeller
never failed to provide reassurance and boost my confidence, especially
when I needed it most. His enthusiasm for this project and thoughtful
suggestions as it developed carried me through to its end. While wan-
dering around a rummage sale, the late Richard Stites happened upon a
copy of The White Tower. He bought it on the spot and wrote a kind note in
it for me. When I see that book on my shelf I remember his jovial, gener-
ous spirit and consider myself lucky to have known him. Celia Applegate
holds a special place for me for first inspiring me to study history when I
was her undergraduate student. Without her support I could never have
followed my aspirations. Now my friend, always my mentor, she is my
model of the scholar and teacher that I strive to be.
This book would not have seen the light of day were it not for Chuck
Grench’s unflagging support from the start. I could not have asked for
a more understanding, thoughtful, and encouraging editor. I am deeply
grateful to Julie Bush for the care she took in editing my manuscript.
Grants from the German Academic Exchange Service, the Austrian Aca-
demic Exchange Service, Georgetown University, and Rhodes College
allowed me to conduct research in Europe. Funds from the Department
xi
of History at Rhodes enabled me to hire my gifted student Olivia Muehl-
berger to proofread the German phrases in the manuscript. The interli-
brary loan departments at Georgetown and Rhodes aided me immensely,
as did the staffs at the other libraries and archives where I conducted
research. In particular I would like to thank the archivists at the Bavarian
Main State Archive, Ulrike Feistmantl at the Salzburg State Archive, and
Valerie Thoni at the International Climbing and Mountaineering Feder-
ation headquarters in Bern, who were all exceptionally generous with
their time and expertise. The staff members at the German Alpine Asso-
ciation in Munich and at the Austrian Alpine Association in Innsbruck
far exceeded my expectations. I cannot think of more welcoming places
to conduct research than those libraries and archives. Martin Achrainer,
Monika Gärtner, and Veronika Raich in Innsbruck and Klara Esters, Car-
men Fischer, Ulrike Gehrig, Friederike Kaiser, Renate Lebmeier, the late
Johannes Merk, and Stefan Ritter in Munich assisted me in countless
ways.
Colleagues and friends have offered guidance, provided support, and
read portions of the manuscript. Tim Huebner, Jeff Jackson, Charles
McKinney, and Robert Saxe gave invaluable feedback on various drafts.
David Blackbourn, Alison Frank Johnson, Tom Lekan, Christof Mauch,
Scott Moranda, John Alexander Williams, and Jeff Wilson coached me along
the way and offered outstanding models of environmental history. Moun-
taineering scholars and Alpine experts Marco Armiero, Mark Carey, Wilko
Graf von Hardenberg, and Kerwin Klein helped me greatly to develop my
ideas. Shelley Baranowski, Martin Geyer, Dagmar Günther, and Richard
Kuisel made time to discuss the project with me. Christine Mueller and
William Tudor leased to me their apartment in Vienna, which proved to
be the perfect space to write a book. I thank Nannette Gills and Heather
Walter for helping me manage all the logistics of finishing the manuscript
and sending it off. Änni and Martin Gruner, Jan-Philipp Müller, Stephanie
Naumann, Jörg Rohaus, Rich Stevenson and Anita VanBarneveld, and Ted
Wiederhold made my stays in Germany feel like being home, and I cher-
ish those friendships. I extend heartfelt thanks to my Georgetown cohort
of Gregory Baldi, Gregory Caplan, Elizabeth Drummond, Marc Landry,
Kevin Martin, Seth Rotramel, Chris Vukicevich, and Andrew Wackerfuss
for their much-needed moral support, as well as to Andrew Denning and
Brian Feltman, my German Studies comrades. Kristine Alexander caught
mistakes with her careful eyes while lifting my spirits with her infec-
tious laughter. Words will fail to convey all that Alex Merrow and Simone
xii Acknowledgments
Ameskamp, my big brother and super sis, have done for me. They have
carried me through so many times.
Sacrifices are a part of every book project; sadness, too. I thank Cath-
erine Taylor for giving all that she could; this book would not have been
finished without her. Without the help of dear friends and family, I might
not have recovered from the losses incurred while writing. In Memphis,
Jennifer and Paul Sciubba, Tony Ludlow, and Betsy Mandel-Carley took
care of me. Sohini Chowdhury, Hilary and Jon Davis, Katherine Jacobs,
Sherilyn Klueber, Irene and Steve Lachance, Sarah Low and Mark White,
Andrew Mitchell, and Gregg Roberts and Gale Segarra Roberts saved
me from utter isolation with their open arms. Terry and Bonnie and the
girls—Maria, Julieanna, and Isabella—lovingly teased me about hurrying
up and finishing. Finally, this book is dedicated to the two nearest my
heart.
Acknowledgments xiii
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Note on Citations and Translation
During the gestation of this book, the German Alpine Association, the
Austrian Alpine Association, and the Alpine Association of South Tyrol
overhauled and merged their archival collections. In 2006, the clubs
opened the Alpine Historical Archive with materials located in Munich,
Innsbruck, and Bolzano. As part of the restructuring, the German Alpine
Association reordered its holdings, assigned all new file signatures, and
created an electronic database with improved finding aids. When I first
conducted research at the German Alpine Association’s archive in 2001,
reams of documents were simply bundled into bins for each chapter (for
example, Berlin Karton). These papers now have specific file numbers.
Where possible, I have indicated the updated file signature in the cita-
tions. When unavailable, I have listed the corresponding bin. Unless oth-
erwise noted, all translations are my own.
xv
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forged a resilient American spirit. In some ways Manifest Destiny paral-
leled the German Drang nach Osten (drive to the East); both provided foun-
dational myths. Turner maintained that American civilization “followed
the arteries made by geology” with the frontier becoming “interwoven
into the complex mazes of modern commercial lines.” Civilizing “savage
lands” led to the emergence of a single nation rather than to “a collection
of isolated states.” He compared the process to the “steady growth of a
complex nervous system for the originally simple, inert continent.” Sim-
ilar to the American belief in Manifest Destiny, conquering mountains
served as a baseline for measuring the world, a medium for historical
progress.21
Borderland studies, traditionally, have focused on ethnic, linguistic,
and political boundaries. An environmental perspective complicates
those approaches. This book will show that not only were the dynam-
ics of cooperation and conflict different in the mountains from what we
find in the East, but also mass tourism brought extensive change to the
Alps. To make the borderlands into the German heartland, a new land-
scape emerged. Tourism and environmental engineering in the Alps
serve as our waypoints to navigate the tumultuous struggles on the bor-
derlands outlined above. The mountains became central to moderniza-
tion projects, but not the sort of state-led schemes that James Scott has
described. Several historians have demonstrated how tourism became a
way for nonstate actors to actively lay claim and give meaning to border-
land space. Leisure activities could connect these places to larger com-
munities or promote particular social or political agendas.22 Rather than
simplifying and reorganizing the natural world to make the terrain more
“legible” from above, as was the case with much modern statecraft, the
outdoor organizations used tourism to counterbalance the weight of the
state and make the mountains accessible from below.
Mass tourism in the Alps was the conduit that connected the periph-
ery to the center. Organized tourism first emerged in the mid-nineteenth
century when Thomas Cook, committed teetotaler, part-time preacher,
occasional cabinetmaker, and amateur publisher from the English Mid-
lands, first began planning group excursions for his temperance soci-
ety. Similar business enterprises offering package tours emerged across
Europe.23 For people who preferred to strike out on their own, a new
series of travel guidebooks directed their way. Karl Baedeker’s popular
travel guides commanded the market. Based in Coblenz, he and his sons
built their family-owned firm into a veritable publishing empire over the
8 Introduction
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Tähtöselleni.
Tähtöseni arinahani,
toiveheni päivin, öin,
tuika halki pilven tumman,
valoasi ikävöin!
Samponi.
Syystunnelma.
Ma vuoren harjalle nousen, kas, merellä myrskyää, ja aalto
rantahan roiskuu ja tuima on tuulispää!
Ja ma katson, ja kaikkialla
rajumyrsky se raivoten soi, —
ja mun rintani etsii rauhaa,
vaan ei sitä löytää voi.
Muistojen mailta.
1.
Maan povesta pulpahti puronen.
2.
Tyhjä sija.
Näin tuossa ennen tuskaa, ja kärsimystä näin,
näin huolta, ponnistusta omaisten, ystäväin.
Sairas soittaja.
Niin syvästi särki se äidin mieltä, kun koti oli kolkko ja autio,
kun äidin ylpeys, ilo, turva maan mustassa mullassa makasi
jo.
Turhaan.
Manan morsian.
I.
II.
Paimentytön kevätlaulu.
Tuliluulialei.
Ikävissä.
Paimenpojan laulu.
Kotilahteen suotaessa.
Kotilahden mökistä
jo nousee sininen savu
ja kotilahden rannalta
jo tuoksuu tuores havu.
Mistä kyynel!
Leppäkerttu ja tuomenterttu.
Ja tuoresna tuoksui se tuomenterttu ja leikkivä oli se
leppäkerttu.
Kansani tapaan.
Järven jäällä.
Köyhän koti.
Heilini.
Kevätkylmissä.
Kalevaisten karkelo.