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Order and Artifice in
Hume's Political Philosophy
FREDERICK G. WHELAN

Order and Artifice in

Hume's Political Philosophy

PRINCETON UNIVERSITY PRESS

PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY
Copyright O 1985 by Princeton University Press
Published by Princeton University Press,
41 William Street, Princeton, New Jersey 08540
In the United Kingdom:
Princeton University Press, Guildford, Surrey
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
will be found on the last printed page of this book
ISBN 0-691-06617-5
This book has been composed in Linotron Sabon
Clothbound editions of Princeton University Press books
are printed on acid-free paper, and binding materials
are chosen for strength and durability
Printed in the United States of America
by Princeton University Press
Princeton, New Jersey

Princeton Legacy Library edition 2017

Paperback ISBN: 978-0-691-61173-0
Hardcover ISBN: 978-0-691-65393-8
for Peggy
CONTENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE IX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xi

CHAPTER i. Introduction

CHAPTER I I . Philosophical Foundations 32

1. Some Premises of Hume's Philosophy 32
2. Knowledge, Belief, and Fictions of the
Imagination 40
3. The Skeptical Crisis and Its Outcome 60
4. Aspects of Hume's Naturalism 67

CHAPTER III. Hume's Science of Human Nature 82

1. The Study of Human Nature 82
2. Principles of the Imagination 96
3. The Social Context of the Understanding 117
4. Passion, Volition, and Reasonableness 136
5. Hume's Analysis of Particular Passions 147
6. The Social Dimension 160

CHAPTER IV. The Political Theory of Artifice 189

1. The Setting of Hume's Political Philosophy 189
2. Principles of Hume's Moral Philosophy 196
3. Natural and Artificial Virtue 218
4. Artificial Virtue and Human Nature 250

CHAPTER V. Skepticism and Politics 294

1. The Scientific Enterprise in Perspective 294
2. Naturalism, Conservatism, and Philosophic
Detachment 304
viii — Contents

3. Artifice, Order, and Political Moderation 329

4. "A Government of Laws" and An Approach to
Change 348

INDEX 375
BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTE

THERE is at present no standard edition of Hume's writings; a new

edition forthcoming from Princeton University Press is intended to fill
this need. References in this book to Hume's major works are to the
following editions:
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. Edited by Norman Kemp
Smith. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1947. Cited as Dialogues.
Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding and Concerning the
Principles of Morals. Edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge. Third edition by
P. H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975. Cited as Enquiries
(I) and Enquiries (n), respectively.
The History of England from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the
Abdication of James the Second, 1688. 6 vols. Boston: Phillips, Samp­
son, 1849. Cited as History of England.
The Philosophical Works. Edited by Thomas Hill Green and Thomas
Hodge Grose. 4 vols. London: Longmans, Green, 1882; reprinted
1964. Cited as Works. (Volumes 3 and 4 of this edition, which contain
Hume's essays, correspond to the two volume edition of Hume, Essays
Moral, Political, and Literary, edited by Green and Grose [London:
Longmans, Green, 1898].)
A Treatise of Human Nature. Edited by L. A. Selby-Bigge. Second
edition by P. H. Nidditch. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978. Cited as
Treatise or in the text as (T. —).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

THIS book had its origin in a doctoral dissertation submitted to the

Department of Government at Harvard University in 1976. My great­
est debt of gratitude is to my principal teacher and dissertation adviser,
Professor Judith N. Shklar, whose good advice and assistance have
continued over the years. I also learned a great deal about political
theory from Professors Samuel H. Beer, Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr., and
Michael Walzer, some small parts of which are reflected in this book.
My work at Harvard was supported by a Graduate Prize Fellowship,
teaching fellowships, and a resident tutorship in South House, which
provided a pleasant environment for research and writing.
In the years since I joined the Political Science Department at the
University of Pittsburgh I have received new insights into political
theory from my senior colleague, Professor John W. Chapman, who
has been a constant source of encouragement as I brought my "Hume
book" to completion. I also appreciate the helpful attitude shown by
my department chairmen, Professors Robert S. Walters and Morris S.
Ogul, during this period. I would like to thank Professor Annette C.
Baier of the University of Pittsburgh Philosophy Department, who
read and commented on the manuscript and invited me to participate
in her Hume seminar.
I presented an early version of the main argument of this book at
a conference on the Scottish Enlightenment at the Society for the
Humanities, Cornell University, in October 1976.1 was invited by the
editors of Nomos (the Yearbook of the American Society for Political
and Legal Philosophy), J. Roland Pennock and John W. Chapman, to
develop my thoughts on Hume's theory of property; the results of this
effort, which go beyond the scope of this book, are contained in my
article, "Property as Artifice: Hume and Blackstone," in Property:
Nomos xxii, ed. Pennock and Chapman (New York: New York Uni­
versity Press, 1980).
Work on this book was supported during the summer of 1978 by
a Faculty Research Grant from the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Uni­
versity of Pittsburgh. The typing of the manuscript was assisted fi­
nancially by a grant from the University of Pittsburgh and was ably
executed by Kendall Stanley and Melanie Katilius. I am indebted to
Patricia Davis and Cathie Brettschneider for editorial assistance.
xii — Acknowledgments

Sanford G. Thatcher, Assistant Director of Princeton University

Press, supported this project during a rather lengthy review process
and endeavored to keep up my spirits, for which I am grateful. I would
also like to express my thanks to three of the Press's readers, Professors
Isaac Kramnick, David Fate Norton, and (for a portion of the work)
Barry Stroud, for their helpful comments, their encouragement of im­
provements, and, finally, their favorable judgments on the manuscript.
It is gratifying to observe the growth in scholarly attention to Hume's
political theory; this development is an aspect of the general upsurge
of interest in Hume's philosophy over the past decade. This book was
written before the two most noteworthy recent contributions, Jona­
than Harrison's Hume's Theory of Justice (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1981) and David Miller's Philosophy and Ideology in Hume's Political
Thought (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981), came into my hands. I
have added references to these works in connection with a few points
of particular interest, but the interpretation of Hume that I offer here
was conceived independently of them.
This book is dedicated to my wife, Peggy, for her indispensable
support and encouragement over the years.
Order and Artifice in
Hume's Political Philosophy
CHAPTER I

Introduction

THE main elements of Hume's political philosophy constitute an in­

tegral part of his philosophical system as a whole, of which the first
and principal presentation is his Treatise of Human Nature·, much of
the interest and cogency of his doctrines regarding society and gov­
ernment arises from the links between them and his other philosophical
positions. This is accordingly a study of Hume's political thought that
attempts to set its main themes in the larger context of his philosophy
of mind, human nature, and ethics.
Hume's philosophy is usually regarded as skeptical, as indeed he
himself characterizes it. It begins with epistemological investigations,
the conclusions of which frequently highlight the limitations of the
human rational faculty, and the skepticism that is developed here
provides a foundation for the whole. The relation between Hume's
epistemological doctrines and his political philosophy is therefore a
central theme of this study. Neither religious faith nor moral values,
and not even scientific reasoning (based as it is on inductive inference),
appears to Hume to be susceptible of a purely rational justification,
although Hume never doubts the value or utility of at least the latter
two. These are all rather matters of more or less deeply seated belief,
or in some cases artifices or conventions that we adopt and maintain
because we find them to be, on the whole, useful. The status that both
science and morality receive in Hume's system, however, seems to be
less secure than many (perhaps especially in Hume's day) have sup­
posed, and such skepticism may appear to undercut political and moral
commitments and theoretical convictions of all kinds.
The negative or critical aspects of Hume's skepticism, however,
although conspicuous and important, are far from being the whole of
his philosophical achievement. His larger explorations of "human na­
ture," and subsequently of history as the cumulative manifestation of
human nature, are undertaken in order to discover and exhibit the
foundations (such as they may be) of our cognitive and moral life.
And although this enterprise is interrupted by skeptical doubts and
the digressions they occasion, nevertheless it reveals in the end the
operation of faculties and processes (such as feeling and custom) that
compensate, in a manner that Hume finds to be largely satisfactory
for human purposes, for the weakness of reason. I am especially con-
4 — Introduction

cerned with the manner in which Hume's skeptical analyses both of

the mind and (in a more restricted sense) of morals give way to positive
doctrines that I believe may best be grasped under the general headings
of order and artifice: the order that we create or impose on our cog­
nitive and moral worlds through habitual adherence to the rules that
are constitutive of mental and social artifices. Although the character
of the distinctively political philosophy that Hume develops in this
framework is my main concern, this is a question that requires a rather
broad consideration of his philosophy as a whole.
Hume's political views are usually studied in the two dozen essays
that he devotes to explicitly political subjects. Therefore it may seem
an unusual feature of this study of his political philosophy that it
concentrates on the Treatise, referring to the essays and the History
mainly for concrete illustrations of points made there, and moreover
that it draws substantially on all three books of the former work;
some preliminary comments on the standing of Hume's multifarious
writings may therefore be in order. In his lifetime Hume achieved fame
and fortune principally as the author of the widely read History of
England, the most famous sections of which established his reputation
as a "Tory," and as an essayist on diverse topics, many of them
political. His first work, however, the Treatise, was largely ignored,
not receiving a second edition until the nineteenth century. Discour­
aged by this failure, and attributing it more to the manner than to the
matter, Hume recast much of its substance as the more polished En­
quiries on human understanding and morals, and he repudiated the
Treatise as a juvenile and flawed work,1
This judgment has not been accepted by posterity, however, and
today the Treatise is the work on which Hume's reputation as a phi­
losopher (currently very high) chiefly depends. This revised assessment
corresponds to the modern view of Hume as predominantly a philos­
opher rather than a historian, and in particular as the most acute
epistemologist and logician in the empiricist tradition—the poser of
the problems that Kant set out to solve in his own way and the inspirer
of logical positivism. Hume the philosopher has also retained a prom­
inent place in the history of British ethical thought—and as a precursor
of modern ethical analysis—as a contributor both to utilitarianism
and to the tenacious "moral sense" or psychological current in moral
1 Hume, Works, vol. 3, pp. 37-38; the repudiation is of the Treatise's "expression"

more than of its "reasoning." Cf. also Hume, "My Own Life," Works, vol. 3, pp. 2-
3. In this study I draw on the two Enquiries, like the essays and History, primarily to
corroborate and enlarge upon the arguments of the Treatise; certain differences in
doctrine are present, however, and will be discussed below.
16 — Introduction

Hume never repudiates or denies the validity (by purely rationalistic

criteria) of the extreme doubts; these constitute only a moment in his
philosophy as a whole, however, which in the Treatise as well as in
the Enquiry moves beyond epistemological puzzles to positive, prac­
tical doctrines with respect to both sound reasoning and moral value.
Hume's dismissal of Pyrrhonism in the Enquiry manifests a clear rhe­
torical intention: Hume joins in the commonplace disparagement of
a label associated with what common sense regards as absurd excesses
of skepticism in order to defend all the more effectively under a dif­
ferent name a viable and moderate form of skepticism that he regards
as both "durable and useful."14
Hume's philosophical skepticism expresses itself vis-a-vis all three
types of possible knowledge that he enumerates at the end of the first
Enquiry. His arguments regarding "abstract" or demonstrative rea­
soning, of the sort contained most notably in mathematics, are not of
concern in this study; although Hume says that this is a "more perfect
species of knowledge" than the others, he does suggest some difficulties
with claims of certain knowledge even in this area.15
Of greater concern are claims of knowledge respecting "matters of
fact and existence"—factual knowledge of the world, both physical
and moral, or knowledge concerning natural and human objects, of
the sort that makes up the empirical sciences. Skepticism expresses
itself here in Hume's failure to find a rational ground or validation
either for our belief in stable and continuing objects existing inde­
pendently of our perceptions or for our belief in necessary and regular
causation, on which depends all inferential reasoning from present
observations to past, future, or general cases. These doubts call into
question our ability to apprehend anything beyond the flux of our
immediate perceptions16 or to make the accurate causal judgments
14 Hume, Enquiries (i), p. 161. Cicero's adherence to Academic skepticism guaranteed

the respectability of this philosophical tradition. For the contemporary assessment of

the two schools, see Diderot's article, "Scepticisme et sceptiques," Encyclopedie, vol.
14, p. 757. James Noxon, Hume's Philosophical Development (Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1973), p. 12, notes that Hume is not so explicit about calling himself a skeptic
in the Enquiries; but Noxon disregards possible rhetorical motives that may be present
in this, a popular and thus a carefully written book.
15 Hume, Enquiries (i), pp. 163, 155-57; Treatise, pp. 71, 180-81.

16 It is axiomatic for Hume that we apprehend only our perceptions, and that these

appear to us as distinct and separable existences, without any perceptible or necessary

connections among them. He does not dwell on the metaphysical conceptions that might
be implied by these doctrines, but compare the following: "Nothing in the world is
perpetual; Every thing, however seemingly firm, is in continual flux and change; The
world itself gives symptoms of frailty and dissolution." "Of the Immortality of the
Soul," Works, vol. 4, p. 404.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
„Jawel, Raffles!” herhaalde Marholm en keerde zich tot Baxter.

„Hij heeft u hier binnengebracht en u ook weer uit uw weinig

benijdenswaardige positie bevrijd. Zijn bedoeling was het, dat gij door
eigen aanschouwing de misdaden van dr. Braddon zoudt leeren
kennen.”

„En dat was, bij God, meer dan tijd,” sprak de inspecteur van politie
Baxter. „Deze mensch daar”—hij wees op den verpletterden
geneesheer-directeur—„is erger dan de gevreesde Jack the Ripper.”

Hij trad op den in zijn stoel sidderenden dr. Braddon toe, liet zijn hand
zwaar op diens schouder vallen, en sprak:

„In naam van de Engelsche wet neem ik u gevangen, dr. Braddon! en

beschuldig u van moord en zeer veel andere misdaden, waarmede ik het
gerecht in kennis zal stellen.”

Allereerst werd dr. Braddon zwaar geboeid uit de inrichting geleid,

daarop volgde de hoofdverpleger en eindelijk het geheele personeel.

De gevangenwagens boden niet voldoende plaats voor alle

gevangenen.

Spoedig daarop traden doktoren uit de ziekenhuizen het

krankzinnigengesticht binnen, om de verpleging der patiënten over te
nemen.

Afschuwelijke vertrekken werden gevonden, waarin zich de

ongelukkigen jarenlang moesten ophouden.

„Deze misdaden zijn zwaarder en verdienen grootere [31]straf,” sprak de

inspecteur van politie Baxter tot Marholm, „dan die van dieven en
moordenaars.”

Het Londensche publiek geraakte in koortsachtige opgewondenheid,

toen de couranten de eerste berichten brachten over den inval der
detectives in het krankzinnigengesticht en de gevangenneming van den
gekkendokter.

Duizenden vloeken werden uitgebraakt tegen dr. Braddon, maar ook

werd er hartelijk gelachen, toen het publiek uit de nieuwsbladen vernam,
hoe het nieuwste meesterstuk van John Raffles ook nu weer schitterend
was gelukt.

Lord Guildhall was gevlucht en had zijn onrechtmatig verkregen

vermogen, overeenkomstig den wensch van Raffles, aan de stad
Londen vermaakt.

Bijna iedere dag van onderzoek bracht nieuwe misdaden uit het
krankzinnigengesticht aan het licht en steeds weer was het die eene
naam, waarvan de geheele pers met lof gewaagde—de naam van den
genialen meesterdief John Raffles!

[Inhoud]

Het volgende deel (No. 27) zal bevatten:

LETTER R. 100. [32]

[Inhoud]

Verrassend! Boeiend!
 In den Roman-Boekhandel voorheen A.
EICHLER te Amsterdam verschijnt in 14-
daagsche afleveringen:

BUFFALO BILL,
Amerika’s grootste Meester-verkenner.

Elke aflevering bevat een afgerond verhaal.

Buffalo Bill vertelt daarin op eenvoudige, doch pakkende,

aandoenlijke wijze van zijn avonturen met struikroovers,
roodhuiden, bandieten, enz.

SPANNENDE LECTUUR, VOL

SENSATIE-WEKKENDE TOONEELTJES.

ELKE AFLEVERING KOST SLECHTS 10

CENT [33]

[Inhoud]

Belooning: 1000 pond sterling.

Wie kent Wie heeft

 hem? hem
gezien?

Dat vraagt
men in Dat vraagt
Scotland heel Londen!
Yard!

Lord Lister genaamd John C. Raffles, de

geniaalste aller dieven

brengt alle gemoederen in beweging, is de schrik van woekeraars en

geldschieters; ontrooft hun door zijn listen hunne bezittingen, waarmede
hij belaagde onschuld beschermt en behoeftigen ondersteunt.

Man van eer in alle opzichten

spant hij wet en gerecht menigen strik en heeft steeds de voorvechters

van edele levensbeschouwing op zijn hand, nl. allen, die ervan overtuigd
zijn, dat:

Ongestraft veel misstanden, door de wet beschermd,

blijven voortwoekeren.
Men leze, hoe alles in het werk wordt gesteld, Lord Lister, genaamd
John C. Raffles, den geniaalsten aller dieven, te vatten!

[Inhoud]

Vertaling:
WARRANT OF
ARREST. Bevel tot aanhouding.

Be it known unto all men by these Wij verzoeken de aanhouding van

presents that we hereby charge and den man, wiens beschrijving hier
warrant the apprehension of the man volgt:
described as under:

DESCRIPTION: Beschrijving:

Name: Lord Edward Naam: Lord Edward

Lister, alias John Lister, genaamd
C. Raffles. John C. Raffles.
Age: 32 to 35 years. Leeftijd: 32–35 jaar.
Height: 5 feet nine inches. Lengte: ongeveer 1,76
Weight: 176 pounds. meter.
Figure: Tall. Gewicht: 80 kilo.
C o m p l e x i o n : Dark. Gestalte: slank.
Hair: Black. G e l a a t s k l e u r : donker.
Beard: A slight Haar: zwart.
moustache. Baardgroei: kleine snor.
Eyes: Black. Oogen: zwart.
Language: English, French, Spreekt Engelsch,
German, Russian, Fransch,
etc. Duitsch,
Russisch enz.
enz.

S p e c i a l n o t e s : The man poses Bijzondere kenteekenen:

as a gentleman of great distinction. Het optreden van den man kenmerkt
Adopts a new role every other day. zich door bijzonder goede manieren.
Wears an eyeglass. Always Telkens een ander uiterlijk. Draagt
een monocle. Is in gezelschap van
accompanied by a young man— een jongeman, wiens naam
name unknown. onbekend.

Charged with robbery. Moet worden aangehouden als dief.

Voor zijn aanhouding betalen wij een
A reward of 1000 pounds sterling will prijs van 1000 pond sterling.
be paid for the arrest of this man.

Headquarters—Scotland Yard. Het Hoofdbureau van Politie

Scotland Yard.
L o n d o n , 1st October 1908.
L o n d e n , 1. Oktober 1908.
Police Inspector,
H o r n y. Inspecteur van Politie
(get.) H o r n y .

[Inhoud]

Roman-Boekhandel voorheen A. Eichler

Singel 236—Amsterdam.
 Inhoudsopgave

I. HET KRIJGSPLAN VAN RAFFLES. 1

II. RAFFLES BIJ DEN KONING DER GEKKEN. 5
III. TWEE HEEREN DIENEN. 8
IV. IN HET KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT. 11
V. RAFFLES IN HET GESTICHT. 16
VI. DE INVAL IN HET KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT. 27
 Colofon
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De oorspronkelijke Duitse titel is: Polizeiinspektor Baxter im Irrenhause.

Metadata

Titel: Lord Lister No. 26: Inspecteur Baxter in het

krankzinnigengesticht
Auteur: Theo von Blankensee [Pseudoniem van Info ↗️
Mathias Blank (1881–1928)]
Auteur: Kurt Matull (1872–1930?) Info ↗️
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bestand:
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Trefwoorden: Detective and mystery stories -- Periodicals
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Verbeteringen

De volgende verbeteringen zijn aangebracht in de tekst:

Bladzijde Bron Verbetering Bewerkingsafstand

1, 33 [Niet in bron] . 1
2 , [Verwijderd] 1
2 teruggesturd teruggestuurd 1
2 onder langs onderlangs 1
Passim. [Niet in bron] „ 1
3, 3 millionair millionnair 1
3 milioenen millioenen 1
7 Zij Zijn 1
7, 14 adsistent assistent 1
7, 14, 14,
22 [Niet in bron] ” 1
9 sousterrain souterrain 1
11 KRANKZINNIGEN
GESTICHT KRANKZINNIGENGESTICHT 1
13, 18 ’ ” 1
14, 14 [Niet in bron] „„ 2
16 afschuwd afschuw 1
17 verlpegers verplegers 2
18 Bailay Bailey 1
18 ? . 1
19 toegeeigend toegeëigend 1/0
22 hijde hijgde 1
23 nu nu nu 3
24 overschillige onverschillige 1
24 ” [Verwijderd] 1
27, 27,
27 telephoon telefoon 2
27 telephoneerde telefoneerde 2
28 patient patiënt 1/0
28 telephoonhoorn telefoonhoorn 2
29 [Niet in bron] , 1
30 Jacq Jack 1
33 Sinclair Raffles 7
33 Scotland-Yard Scotland Yard 1
33 Inspekteur Inspecteur 1
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LORD LISTER
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