Earthworm density and biomass in a traditionally managed village landscape

in Garhwal Himalaya, India

Tunira Bhadauria1*, Pradeep Kumar1 and K.G. Saxena2
1
Department of Zoology, Feroze Gandhi College, Raebareli - 229001, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
School of Environmental Sciences, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi 110069
*Corresponding author. Email: tunira@gmail.com
Abstract
Scientific knowledge of belowground biodiversity in the Himalaya, a biodiversity hotspot, is
scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate density and biomass of earthworm populations
and soil properties in moderately degraded natural forests (MDNF), highly degraded natural
forests (HDNF), rehabilitated forest land (RFL), traditional pure crop system (TPCS), traditional
agroforestry system (TAS), abandoned agricultural land (AAL) and rehabilitated agricultural
land (RAL) in a village landscape in Central Himalayan region of India. Of the 8 species present
in the landscape, Amynthas alexandri and Metaphire anomala were the most widely distributed
taxa, while Bimastos parvus and Perionyx excavatus were confined to MDNF. TPCS and TAFS
harboured the same species. AAL had only one (endogeics) and RAL all the three functional
groups (endogeics, epigeics and anecics). The study shows that (i) a change in land use pattern a
substantial increase in earthworm density/biomass but not in species richness, (ii) TPCS/TAFS
and MDNF host equal number of species but different species composition, with the former
having much larger abundance than the latter, conversion of TPCS to AAL and of MDNF to
HDNF cause drastic reduction in species richness. and rehabilitation (change from AAL to RAL
and HDNF to RFL) only partly recuperates earthworm fauna over a period of 20 years,
heterogeneous landscapes with agriculture-forest mixed land uses are likely to support greater
species richness than homogeneous agriculture/forest ones..

Introduction

Himalaya is a vast and diverse mountain system. Agro-forestry land use covering (20%) of
geographical area of Indian Himalayas is distributed as patches in the matrix of forest covering
(52%) area. Forest based tree- crop live stock integrated farming is the predominant traditional
land use in central Himalayas (Semwal et al. 2002). Hill agriculture appears to be a key threat to
soil biodiversity and ecosystem service due to huge amount of biomass extraction to sustain live
stock and produce manure for managing soil fertility and also in terms of direct loss of forest
cover due to agriculture land use (Maikhuri et al., 2001). This problem has been further
accentuated by extensive deforestation and unsustainable land use causing extensive degradation
of the mountains. The interacting functions of soil organisms and the effects of human activities
in managing land for agriculture and forestry affect soil health and quality. Soil faunal
biodiversity is an important resource for environmental monitoring and natural resource
management, changes in the variety and abundance of organisms in response to ecosystem
disturbance, degradation and rehabilitation provide important management information (Barros
et al., 2004). Soil management options can have dramatic effects upon soil invertebrate
communities (Barros et al., 2003; Decae¨ns et al., 2004). Earthworm communities are the result
of both interactions between species and sensitivity to ecological factors (Briones, et al., 1995;
Capowiecz, 2000) Presence or absence of ground vegetation and changes in its composition are
known to affect the composition of earthworm communities (Babel et al., 1992). This is the first
systematic study where work is focused primarily on the ecological impact, the extent, causes
and consequences of varying land degradation and subsequent rehabilitation strategies on
earthworm fauna in Central Himalayas. Alterations in the vegetation cover change the soil
microclimate condition. Therefore present study also aims to analyse how these changes affected
the functional guild of the earthworms. Soil fauna vary through time as they have seasonal
rhythms mainly regulated by temperature and moisture and thus constitute one of the important
factors of changes in the species assemblage structure (Jime´nez et al., 1998, Rossi and
Blanchart, 2005). Consequently, the ways land-use changes occur as well as its impact on
biomass and density of earthworms have been examined across the sampling sites.

Description of study site

The study was carried out at Banswara village located at 1200m above mean sea level in
Chamoli district, Garhwal (latitude 30° 27’ N and 79°5’E). The climate is typical monsoon,
monthly minimum and maximum temperature varying in the range of 6-21°C and 18-35°C,
respectively, with an average annual rainfall of 1700mm received during the monsoon period of
July to September. The soil is sandy loam to loamy sand in texture, derived from felspathic
quartz schists ,quartz muscovite schists and quartz chlorite schist (Rao and Pati 1980), .To study
the impact of changed land use practices on earthworms, following land uses were identified in
the village Banswara viz., moderately degraded natural forests (MDNF), highly degraded natural
forests (HDNF), rehabilitated forest land (RFL), traditional pure crop system (TPCS), traditional
agroforestry system (TAS), abandoned agricultural land (AAL) and rehabilitated agricultural
land (RAL) in a village landscape in Central Himalayan region of India(Table 1)

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Soil sampling

In each land use type a plot of 40 × 50 m2 was demarcated for earthworms and for soil sampling.
Three composite soil samples were prepared in each experimental plot. Six 25 cm × 25 cm × 30
cm deep soil monoliths were randomly sampled from each replicate plot at regular bimonthly
intervals. Each monolith was subdivided into 0-10, 10-20, and 20-30 cm blocks, the soil samples
were air dried and sieved through a 2-mm sieve (Okalebo et al. 1993). Soil temperatures were
recorded weekly, the values presented here are mean monthly values for 0-10 cm depth. Soil
moisture was recorded every month ,the values presented here are mean monthly values for 0-10
cm depth and are expressed as % oven dry weight at 105C. Bulk density was estimated
following methods outlined by Okalebo et al., (1993). The analysis of soil texture was done
using a hydrometer method (Bouyoucos 1951), soil pH was measured as 1: 2.5 (soil: water)
solution, and organic C through the Walkey-Black method (1934). Soil N was analyzed using the
semi-micro Kjeldahl method following the procedures described in Anderson and Ingram (1993).

Soil fauna sampling

Earthworms were sampled using the soil biology and fertility methodology (Anderson and
Ingram 1993). On each site in a plot of 40 m × 50 m earthworms were collected at regular
bimonthly intervals over a period of 12 months ( June 2008 to June 2009). Earthworms were
collected from 10 sampling points 5 m apart along a transect with a random origin, they were
extracted by hand sorting after digging up to 30 cm deep around a 25 cm × 25 cm area at each
sampling point to get a soil monolith. These soil monoliths were divided into three layers (0-10,
10-20, 20-30 cm) and earthworms were extracted from each layer, they were then washed and
preserved in 5% formalin for further identification (Anderson and Ingram 1993).

Statistical analysis of the data

Statistical analysis was done following the biostatistical methods described in Zar (1974).
 a) Significant differences in physicochemical characteristics of the soil across different
sampling sites were carried out using one-way ANOVA.

b) Variations in total density and biomass of earthworm species were tested using the non-
parametric Kruskal-Wallis test of variance and New Mann Keul’s multiple range test.

c) Diversity index was calculated as Simpsons Index of Diversity

d) The correlation between soil parameters such as temperature, moisture and organic matter
and earthworm species was calculated as a simple correlation coefficient (r). Sample
standard error was calculated as the standard error of the Mean (±S E).

Soil Characteristics

Soil clay (%) was significantly higher (F0.05,6,14=8.2,) in MDNF and RAL as compared to other
sites. Except for RFL soil pH was mildly acidic in all other land use types. AAL and DFL had
higher bulk density as compared to other land use types under study. Soil organic C
(F0.05,6,14=32.9) and Nitrogen (F0.05,6,14=151) varied significantly between different sites, organic
C was significantly higher (q 0.05,21,7=21.34) in (TAS), as compared to all other sites . Total
nitrogen was significantly higher (q 0.05,21,6=33.17) in TPCS as compared to all other sites..

Selected attributes of sampled earthworm species across different land use types

A total of eight species belonging to four families were recorded from land use types under
study. All the earthworm species recorded across different land use types were both peregrine
endemic or peregrine exotic to the region, none of these were endemic to Garhwal Himalayas,
the selected attributes and the place of origin of sampled earthworm species is shown in the
Table 3.

Effect of land use patterns on earthworm species richness

Earthworm species richness did not vary significantly between the (MDNF, (TAS), and (TPCS),
but in AAL and (HDNF), number of species present was in lower number; however
rehabilitation of these ecosystems led to increase in species number in RAL and RFL (Table 4).
Changes in earthworm species composition across different land use types
Three peregrine exotic Amynthas alexandri, Bimastos parvus, Metaphire anamola and two
peregrine native species Lennogaster pussilus, Perionyx excavatus were present in the (MDNF),
.Conversion of the forest to agro ecosystems led to the change in the community structure with
the loss of exotics Bimastos parvus and natives Lennogaster pussilus, Perionyx excavatus in
(TAS) and (TPCS), but decolonization by exotic Metaphire birmanica, Octochaetona beatrix
and natives Drawida nepalensis occurred here. M. anamola, M.birmanica and D nepalensis were
present in (AAL), however rehabilitation of degraded ecosystems (RAL) resulted in loss of M.
birmanica, but L. pussilus and A. alexandri, recolonised this site. Only exotic A. alexandri, and
M. birmanica were present in (HDNF), but A. alexandri, M.anamola and M.birmanica .were
present in RFL(Fig 1).

Total density and biomass of earthworm species across different land use types

Total density (F0.05,6,14=228.24) and biomass (F0.05,6,14=403.78) of earthworms varied

significantly between different land use types, due to changes in land use practices. Conversion
of forest to agroecosystem resulted in significantly higher density (q,0.05,14,7=122.73) and biomass
(q,0.05,14,7=109 values )in (TAS) and minimum in (HDNF). Rehabilitation of degraded
ecosystems resulted in increased density (q,0.05,14,4=114) and biomass of
earthworms(q,0.05,14,4=112) in( RAL) and ( RFL) density (q,0.05,14,2=118.73 ) biomass
(q,0.05,14,2=109) when compared to AAL and DFL. (Table 5).

Functional guild changes in earthworm communities

Functional guild diversity varied under different land use types. All the three functional
catagories were present in (RAL). In (TPCS),, (TAS), (HDNF) and (RFL) epigeics were absent,
where as in AAL only endogeic species were present. Endogeic earthworm species were
significantly more abundant (F0.05,2,6=58.54) and also had higher biomass values(F0.05,2,6 =42.63 )
at (TAS), compared to all other sites (Fig.2a ,b) .

Endemic and exotics earthworm species

The density (F 0.05,6,14=461) and biomass (F 0.05,6,14=147) of exotic peregrine earthworm species
varied significantly between different sites. The density (q 0.05,12,7=212.21) as well as biomass (q
0.05,12,7=103) of exotic species was significantly higher in (TAS) followed by (TPCS)q
0.05,12,6=102 ), and did not vary significantly between RAL, HDNF and AAL. The biomass values
of exotic species also did not vary significantly between MDNF and RFL. The density (F,
0.05,6,14=211) and biomass (F 0.05,6,14=248) of endemic peregrine species also varied significantly
between different sites. The density (q 0.05,12,7=4.95 ) and biomass (q 0.05,12,7=115.26) of endemic
species was significantly higher in (TAS) as compared to other sites. The biomass values of
endemic species did not vary significantly between MDNF and AAL ( Fig 3a,b).

.Diversity Index for earthworm communities between different land use types

The Simpsons diversity index within the earthworm communities under different land use types
was lowest in AAL and maximum in MDNF. The diversity index was similar between MDNF
and RAL. Within the agro ecosystem the diversity index was lower in TPCS compared to TAS
but rehabilitation of degraded ecosystem led to improved diversity index in RAL and RFL.

Correlation coefficient for earthworm communities between different land use types

A significant correlation coefficient was observed between earthworm population and soil
moisture and temperature. A. alexandri, B. parvus, L. pussilus M. anamola, and M .birmanica
were positively correlated to soil moisture (P<0.01) and temperature (P<0.05). P.excavatus and
D nepalensis was positively correlated to moisture (P<0.01) but did not show any correlation to
soil temperature.. O.beatrix showed positive correlation to soil temperature (P<0.01) but it did
not show any relation to soil moisture.

Discussion

Consequences of deforestation arise from site degradation leading to strong modification of soil
properties this in turn can significantly affect both incidence and abundance of soil macro fauna.
Earthworm communities are more directly altered by these changes (Delamini and Haynes,
2004). Endemic and exotic species coexisted in the study area following deforestation and
intensive cultivation. That native species dominate the undisturbed sites and disturbance and
degradations leads to invasion by the exotic species (Callahan and Brail, 1999) holds true in our
study. The sites under study represented the degraded areas as none of the species reported from
the present experimental plots were endemic to the region, all the species are either peregrine
exotic or peregrine endemic to the area as many of the endemic species of this region probably
exterminated during the last Quaternary Glaciation (Julka and Paliwal, 2005). The elimination of
old secondary forest and its replacement with agroecosystem also led to changed species
composition due to altered habitat with peregrine exotic M.birmanica, O. beatrix and peregrine
natives D nepalensis replacing peregrine exotics B.parvus, and natives L. pussilus and P.
excavates in TAS and in TPCS similar results have also been shown through the studies of
Myers and Knoll, (2001). Extreme degradation of agriculture ecosystems due to faulty land
management practices probably led to the loss of peregrine exotics A. alaxandrii, M.anamola and
O. beatrix, in AAL as has also been shown through the studies of Delamini and Haynes (2004) in
land use types in Northern Kwazulu Natal South Africa. The disappearance of peregrine exotics
A. alaxandri and peregrine natives L. pussilus in RAL could probably be related to changed
vegetation and edaphic conditions in RAL as has also been reported by Fragoso and Fernandez
(1994) for earthworm communities in disturbed natural systems of tropical east Mexico and
rehabilitation of RAL through various trees and crops probably led to invasion of peregrine
exotic M.birmanica and M.anamola in these area. Higher level of degradation leading to
replacement of MDNF to degraded forest land led to loss of exotic B.parvus, M.anamola and
natives L. pussilus, P. excavatus . Resistance to invasion by endemic species in HDNF and RFL
could be a function of physical and chemical characteristics of the site (Hendrix et al. 2006), and
the unsuitability of the habitat probably impeded the invasion by the endemic species in the
ecosystems under study (Hendrix and Bohlen 2002). The absence of original species
composition in RAL and RFL as compared to MDNF even after a period of 15 - 20 years suggest
that this is probably still the secondary successional stage over a time scale of 15 years (Folgarail
et al. 2003). Land-use alteration generally results in changes of vegetation and these changes
have a significant effect on soil macrofauna (Pauli et al., 2010). Study done by Delamini and
Haynes (2004) showed most land uses supported between five and seven species. But the
number of species present at our sites was lower ranging between 2-5. The statement that
earthworm populations in cultivated lands are generally lower than those found in undisturbed
habitats (Curry et al., 2003) does not hold true in our studies, the traditional agriculture probably
have a positive effect on earthworms through improved food supply as a result of recycling of
crop residues, and organic manure added to the soil resulting in loosening of soil to an extent that
facilitates burrowing by earthworms (Lagerlof et al., 2002).. With lower bulk density and higher
carbon percentage, coupled with reduced disturbance this effect was more prominent in TAS. In
RAL the supplemental irrigation and organic manure along with the planted trees following
traditional farming practices favored the increase in total earthworm density as well as biomass.
In the present study the numerical abundance of earthworms in MDNF is lower compared to
similar land use type from Kumoan Himalayas. Besides variation in ecological characteristics
probably the land use history of the ecosystems contributes to this variation, the subtemperate
climate in the study area and the relatively lower inputs of organic matter apparently provide
poor conditions for earthworm populations to flourish. As a result total numbers were very low
ranging from 8 to 348 m-2 as compared to high ranging from 250 to 2400 m-2 in Northern
Kwazulu Natal South Africa Delamini and Haynes (2004). Earthworm biomass showed broadly
similar trends with land use to those for abundance.
Interactions between species and sensitivity to ecological factors , presence or absence of and
changes in ground vegetation composition are known to affect the composition of earthworm
communities through changes in the distribution and the quality of litter, soil climate, and water
availability. The presence of litter layer and lower perturbation pressure probably explains the
numerical dominance of L. pussilus in the MDNF and the higher biomass of A. alexandri could
be due to the larger size of the earthworm. B parvus, L. pussilus and P. excavatus are litter-
associated taxa which were more directly affected by MDNF clearance and the resulting
decrease in available litter, thus explaining their disappearance in the changed ecosystems,
however improved soil moisture and temperature as well as input of organic matter in RAL
could probably be favorable factor for decolonization and dominance of L. pussilus. A. alexandri
has wider ecological amplitude occurring under all land use types. Major determinants of
earthworm communities structure in an agro ecosystem are the quantity and quality of organic
matter added, soil type and the perturbation pressure (Fraser,1994) .With better adaptation and
tolerance to various disturbances during agro forestry practices D. nepalensis was confined only
to agroecosystems and was numerically dominant during cropping in TPCS in TAS and also in
AAL. The increased population density of A. alexandri, D. nepalensis and M. anamola in TAS
as compared to TPCS is likely due to amelioration of the surface soil temperature and moisture
by litter, and tree leaf biomass incorporated into the soil. The lower biomass of A. alexandri in
RFL may be due to species specific competition between M. anamola and A. alexandri as both
occupy the same niche. Most changes in the distribution of earthworm species are explained by
microclimate variations in soils thus low soil water content, high soil temperature, and incident
radiation probably resulted in the decline in abundance and biomass of M. birmanica in AAL and
HDNF as has also been shown through the studies of Sileshi and Mafongoya, (2006) in the land
use systems in eastern Zambia however improvement of soil conditions through the
rehabilitation of forested land led to recurrence of this species. The traditional farming practices
under rain fed conditions probably favored the population of O. beatrix species and thus explains
its presence in agro ecosystem only.

Functional Guild

The conversion of MDNF to agro ecosystems led to a shift in functional categories from epigeic
dominated species community to endogiec and anecic dominated composition, as has also been
shown through studies of Fragoso and Lavelle (1992) where the loss of the surface litter layer
when rain forest is converted to agricultural use resulted in a dramatic decrease in the number of
epigeic and anecic species and increase in numbers by endogeics species. The epigeics were
more directly affected by forest clearance and the resulting decrease in available litter leading to
their loss in all the experimental plots except in RAL where with the deposition of litter the
epiges recurred. P.excavates and B.parvus species cannot therefore survive in areas with less
plant cover and litter availability and thus can be said to be bioindicator of land use that leads to
these conditions. The increase in above ground litter input in TAS created microhabitat in the
below canopy promoting the colonization of both endogeics and anecic species. Further the
experimental studies in the rehabilitated plots by Butt et al., (2004) have shown anecics to be
slow colonizers in the reclaimed sites and this could probably explain their lower density in the
RAL and RFL. being had their predominance of endogeics in the TAS ,TPCS, AAL and RAL,
was because probably these habitats offered favorable base resource to the species which
migrated from the surrounding plots to colonize and establish themselves in the new habitats
(Pizl 2001; Winsome et al., 2006). Dominance of endogeics in the disturbed habitats has also
been shown through the studies of Blanchart and Julka (1997) and Bhadauria and Ramakrishnan
(2005). As a consequence, while epigeics does not significantly alter the soil surface, casts
produced by endogeics highly modify soil surface properties.
Diversity index

As reported in our studies conversion of MDNF to other land use types resulted in lower
species diversity, similar result were also obtained through the studies of (Rombke and
Verhaagh, 1992) where conversion of forests to pastures resulted in decline of earthworm species
diversity. Improved diversity index of the earthworm community in RAL and RFL could
probably be related to a shift in organic input from a below ground pattern in AAL and HDNF to
an above and below ground input in RAL and RFL (Zou, and Gonz!alez, 1997).The lower
overall vegetation diversity in AAL probably corresponded to a very low diversification of the
organic resources and this can explain a lower diversity of earthworms here as low resource
diversity leads to impoverished species diversity (Blanchart and Julka, 1997).

Acknowledgement

The research was financially supported by TSBF - SARNET programme. Thanks are due to Dr
JM Julka (Emeritus Scientist) of Zoological Survey of India, Govt. of India for taxonomic
identification of the earthworm species. The authors acknowledge the help extended by the co-
ordination unit based at JNU New Delhi for providing the necessary literature.

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 Table 1. Selected attributes of land use/cover types differentiated in Bhiri-Banswara village landscape in Central
Himalaya, India.

Salient historical Present vegetation Surface cover

features and appearance
Moderately Community land, no logging done in last 200yrs 15–25 m high Quercus Herbaceous vegetation
degraded natural Restricted grazing leucotrichophora with thick leaf litter layer
forest (MDNF) trees on 25–30◦ natural and
slopes; 350 trees ha−1,
Traditional pure Private land More than 200-year-old farm land 4–7 m-wide and 1–2 m- Annual food crop cover
crop system Restricted grazing over 10–15 days of fallow high terraces devoid of trees During November-mid-May
(TPCS) period and
June-mid-October
Traditional Private land with Multipurpose trees selectively 4–7 m-wide and 1–2 m- Annual food crop cover
agroforestry protected high terraces with170 trees During November-mid-May
system (TAFS) over the last 20–30 years when shortage of ha−1 and June-mid-October
forest resources was felt by some households.
Restricted grazing over10–15 days of fallow
period
Abandoned Community land A group of families out- Herbaceous vegetation on Herbaceous vegetation
agricultural land migrated damaged terraces grasses, discontinuous
(AAL) during 1970s and their land became open < 0.5 cm thick
common litter layer ,
land. Open grazing all through the year

Rehabilitated Community land Abandoned agricultural land Multipurpose trees with cardamom/turmeric crop
agricultural until treatment began in 1992land Protected average tree height of 15– cover and a discontinuous
land (RAL) from grazing 20 m <0.5 cm thick leaf litter
layer
Highly degraded Government land Forest patches logged at least 1–2 m tall herbaceous Herbaceous vegetation
natural forest before 50 years followed by unrestricted forest vegetation with isolated dominated by grasses,
(HDNF) resource uses Open grazing all through the year stunted trees (<5 m tall discontinuous <0.5 cm thick
litter layer

Rehabilitated Community land Highly degraded natural Multipurpose trees with Herbaceous vegetation
forest land (RFL forest until average tree height of 10– dominated by
treatment began in 1992 . Restricted grazing 15 m dicotyledonous
after trees gained a height of 5 m species and continuous
0.5–1.0 cm thick leaf litter
layer
through out the
year
Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of soil in different land use types in Bhiri-Banswara village landscape in
Central Himalaya, India. Values for any variable with different superscript letters are significantly different within
columns)

Land use/cover Bulk density pH Organic carbon Total nitrogen

(g cm−3) (g kg−1) (g kg−1)

Moderately degraded natural forest (MDNF) 1.11a 6.1ab 12.6b 1.2b

Traditional pure crop system (TPCS) 1.10a 6.2b 13.2b 1.2b

Traditional agroforestry system (TAFS) 1.04a 6.4b 18.1d 1.4b

Abandoned agricultural land (AAL) 1.31b 6.4b 8.6a 0.8a

Rehabilitated agricultural land (RAL) 1.12a 6.3b 15.0c 1.4b

Highly degraded natural forest (HDNF) 1.32b 6.2b 8.3a 0.7a

Rehabilitated forest land (RFL) 1.14a 5.8a 12.4b 1.7c

Table 3.Selected attributes of earthworm species occurring in Bhiri-Banswara village landscape in Garhwal
Himalaya, India.

Species and author Family Biogeographic origin Ecological category

Amynthas alexandri (Beddard, 1901) Megascolecidae Exotic peregrine Endogeic

Bimastos parvus (Eisen, 1874) Lumbricidae Exotic peregrine Epigeic

Drawida nepalensis (Michaelsen, 1907) Moniligastridae Native peregrine Anecic

Lennogaster pusillus (Stephenson, 1920) Octochaetidae Native peregrine Epigeic

Metaphire anomala (Michaelsen, 1907) Megascolecidae Exotic peregrine Endogeic

Metaphire birmanica (Rosa, 1988) Megascolecidae Exotic peregrine Endogeic/anecic

Octochaetona beatrix (Beddard, 1902) Octochaetidae Native peregrine Endogeic

Perionyx excavatus (Perrier, 1972) Megascolecidae Native peregrine Epigeic

Table 4. Earthworm species richness in Bhiri-Banswara village landscape in Garhwal Himalaya, India.

Land use/cover Species richness

Moderately degraded natural forest (MDNF) 6
Traditional pure crop system (TPCS) 5
Traditional agroforestry system (TAFS) 5
Abandoned agricultural land (AAL) 3
Rehabilitated agricultural land (RAL) 4
Highly degraded natural forest (HDNF) 2
Rehabilitated forest land (RFL) 4
 Fig.1 Distribution pattern of earthworm species in different land use types in Bhiri-Banswara village landscape,
Central Himalaya, India.

Moderately degraded natural forest (MDNF) Traditional pure crop system (TPCS)

Exotic: Amynthas alexandri, Bimastos parvus Exotic: Amynthas alexandri , Metaphire anomala,
Metaphire anomala Metaphire birmanica
Native: Lennogaster pusilla , Perionyx excavatus , N ative: Drawida nepalensis, Octochaetona beatrix
Metaphire birmanica

Abandoned agricultural land(AAL)

Exotic: Amynthas alexandri , Metaphire anomala

Native: Drawida nepalensis

Highly degraded natural forests (HDNF) Traditional agroforestry system (TAFS)

Exotic: Amynthas alexandri, Metaphire Exotic: Amynthas alexandri , Metaphire anomala

birmanica Metaphire birmanica

Native: None Native: Drawida nepalensis , Octochaetona beatrix

Rehabilitated forest land (RFL)

Exotic: Amynthas alexandri,Metaphire anomala

,Metaphire birmanica Rehabilitated agricultural land (RAL)

Native: none Exotic: Metaphire anomala ,Metaphire birmanica

Native: Drawida nepalensis ,Lennogaste pusilla

Table 5. Earthworm species abundance and biomass(in brackets) in different land use types in Bhiri-Banswara
village landscape in Garhwal Himalaya, India. MDNF, Moderately degraded natural forests; TPCS, Traditional pure
crop system TAS, Traditional agroforestry system; AAL, Abandoned agricultural land; RAL Rehabilitated
agricultural land; HDNF, Highly degraded natural forest; RFL, Rehabilitated forest

MDNF TPCS TAS AAl RAL HDNF RFL

Species

16±1 12±0.8 42±1.8 0 6±0.3 4±0.3 10±0.8

Amynthas
alexandri (32) (24) (84) 0 (5.4) (8.8) (18.4)

0
7±0.2 0 0 0 0 0
Bimastos 0
parvus (3.15) 0 0 0 0 0

118±10 142±10 16±1 11±1

Drawida 0 0 0
nepalensis (213.586) (257.02) (15.2) (8.8)

32±2.4 31±2.1
Lennogaster 0 0 0 0 0
pusilla (2.8) (3.06)

26±1.4 15±1 63±3.8 3±0.12 4±0.18 9±0.5

Metaphire 0
anomala (26) (25.53) (102.42) (6.69) (8.1) (24.3)

22±1.5 109±12 7±0.4 3±0.2 9±0.3

Metaphire 0 0
birmanica (44) (218) (15.4) (6.6) (19.8)

96±7 2±0.1
Octochaetona 0 0 0 0 0
beatrix (96) (2)

16±0.8
Perionyx 0 0 0 0 0 0
excavatus (10.43)