UNIVERSITE DE TUNIS

INSTITUT SUPERIEUR DE GESTION

MEMOIRE DE MASTER RECHERCHE SPECIALITE GESTION

MARKETING

The cognitive and the affective country image impact on consumer

intention to watch a movie at the cinema:

The moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer

xenocentrism

Syrine Chaabane
SOUS LA DIRECTION DE:

Mme Fatma Smaoui Maitre de conférences, ISG TUNIS

ANNÉE UNIVERSITAIRE 2020/ 2021

1
 Dedication

I am dedicating this academic research to my beloved ones who mean the world to me. First,
this dissertation is lovingly dedicated to my parents and my sister for always believing in me,
for their undying support to help me peruse my dreams, and for their unconditional love.

I need to express my appreciation and deep gratitude to my whole family; my aunts, my

uncles and my cousins for always supporting me.

Loving thanks to my precious friends for filling up my life with heartfelt caring and support
over the many years of our friendship.

Special thanks must also go to my friend and learning partner Aicha, who accompanied me on
this journey as we kept encouraging each other in our hardest times when facing huge
challenges.

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 Acknowledgement

First, I would like to express my sincere gratefulness and gratitude to my advisor Mrs Fatma
Smaoui, without whom I never would have gotten this far, for being very patient, for caring
about my work and especially for being there to answer my questions and give me advice
whenever I needed it.

I would like to thank Mr Hechmi Najjar for being there to answer all my questions whenever
I needed.

I would like to extend my deep gratitude to all the members of the jury for generously
offering their time and for their interest put into the examination of this dissertation.

I would also like to thank all my professors from the Higher Institute of Management of Tunis
as well as my professors from Faculty of Economic Sciences and Management of Sousse for
making a difference in our lives.

Thank you all from the bottom of my heart.

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 Summary

General introduction..................................................................................................................... 6
Part I: Literature review: The country of origin in cultural and creative products context..................11
Chapter 1: Country of origin (COO) and consumer’s intention behavior ...........................................12
Section 1: Country of origin effect.................................................................................................12
Section 2: Cognitive and affective country image ...........................................................................17
Section 3: Product image ..............................................................................................................26
Chapter 2: Cultural-creative industries ..........................................................................................28
Section 1: Cultural and creative industries and movies ...................................................................28
Section 2: Cultural and creative industry in Tunisia.........................................................................34
Chapter 3: COO effect and the moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism xenocentrism:
Conceptual model development ...................................................................................................39
Section 1: Consumer xenocentrism ...............................................................................................39
Section 2: Consumer Ethnocentrism ..............................................................................................44
Section 3: Studying the causal links between country of origin image, product image, and the
intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema: Hypotheses development ...................48
Section 4: Research’s conceptual models.......................................................................................55
Part II: Methodology and results ...................................................................................................56
Chapter 1: Methodology, data collection and data processing ........................................................57
Section 1: Research objectives and operational framework ............................................................57
Section 2: Preliminary exploratory study .......................................................................................58
Section 3: Data collection methods and survey administration........................................................76
Section4: measurement scales ......................................................................................................78
Section5: Sample selection method...............................................................................................80
Section6: Data analysis processing ................................................................................................82
Chapter 2: Analyses and results ....................................................................................................86
Section1: Measurement scale validation (PCA)...............................................................................86
Section2: Confirmatory factorial analysis .......................................................................................93
Section 3: Preliminary study results............................................................................................. 103
Section4: Structural analyses and the testing of the structural model............................................ 109
Section5: Verifying the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer
xenocentrism............................................................................................................................. 119
Section6: Findings and discussion................................................................................................ 124
Conclusion................................................................................................................................. 133

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General conclusion..................................................................................................................... 134
Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 138
Appendix 1: Questionnaire (English version) ................................................................................ 154
Appendix 2: The questionnaire (French version):.......................................................................... 159

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 General introduction
Cinema is a performing art referred to as the “seventh art”; an expression that was invented by
the Italian writer Ricciotto Canudo in 1919. More than a revolutionary invention, cinema has
never ceased to inspire dreams, to shock us with realities and fantasies, and to shake our every
single emotion. In fact, movies can inspire us in various and several ways; they make us
laugh, cry, love, and think. And even more, they remind us who we are, why we are alive and
what’s worth living for.

Cinema cannot be reduced to a scenario, a camera, a director, and actors. It is about a whole
world where reality, fantasy, and magic intermingle to transport spectators in a strange
universe where they probably have never imagined they could access.

What a dreamy introduction about cinema! Isn’t it? Well, nowadays, in a world of numbers, a
world of economy, a world of industries, and a world of globalization, that dreamy cinema is
necessarily connected to industry. Thereafter, nowadays we don’t talk about Art only, but
also, we talk about a whole cultural and creative industry, and specifically, cinema industry.

Previous Marketing research studies have mainly focused on factors affecting the box-office
performance of motion pictures, and films rating scores. Among these factors, star power, that
includes the fame of creative directors, writers and actors, is frequently referenced (Bagella
and Becchetti, 1999). Admittedly, star power is one of the factors that impact the most Box-
office performance. However, empirical evidence with respect to the impact of star power is
elusive, since in 1999, De Vany and Walls found that only 19 stars had a significant impact on
movies success. In addition to star power, marketing researchers investigated the role of
production budgets in determining a movie’s success (Curtin and Vanderhoef 2015).
Nevertheless, it’s not rare for low-budget movies to financially succeed; such was the case of
“JAW” (Directed by Steven Spielberg). Also, some marketing researchers focused on the
effect of awards in determining a movie’s success (Feng and Feng, 2017; Lee, 2009; Nelson,
Donihue, Waldman, and Wheaton, 2001). Besides these factors, marketing researchers studied
movies attributes that impact on the purchase intention of a movie ticket (Gazley et al, 2011);
such us genre, country of origin, symbolism, information strategies ( eg. word of mouth) and
promotional strategies (Gazely et al, 2011; Liu, 2006). However, to the best of our
knowledge, far are the researches that investigated the impact that a country’s image may
have on consumers intentions to watch movies from that country. In fact, previous research

6
has determined the significant impact that could have the country of origin have on
consumers’ behaviors and choices in general (e.g. Li et al, 1994; Verlegh and Steencamp,
1999; Barbarossa et al, 2018).

Today, Tunisia has about 19 cinemas, including two multiplexes of about 8 rooms, opened by
the international channel Pathé. Movies Screenings has also taken place in cultural centers,
such as the city of culture in Tunis. This increasing in movies theatres in Tunisia has leaded to
a renaissance of the cinematographic industry in Tunisia, and has also revived the national
cinema. Following a google search1 , we distinguished a significant emergence of Tunisian
audiovisual production companies since 2011, namely; Artworks production (2016),
International Pixel production (2016), Sana Parachute production (2014), Ulysson (2014),
CTV production (2018), SVP Tunisia (2014), Iris Prod (2018), and many other companies.

Despite the limited resources and the week notoriety on the international level, we noticed an
important interest towards Tunisian movies these recent years 2 . For example, “Dachra”
(2018), the first horror Tunisian movie, had a real success with more than 100 000 admissions
in two weeks only. Also, the film “Regarde moi” (2018), produced by Najib Bel Kadhi,
exceeded 125 000 admissions in Tunisian cinemas. Other movies such as “Fleur d’Alep” by
Ridha Béhi, “Hedi, a wind of freedom” by Mohamed Ben Attia and “Jaida” by Selma Baccar,
released after 2011, have also been very successful. This tendency became more and more
present since the 2011’s Tunisian revolution, where there has been a significant back to
Tunisian-made products, and also, an emergence of new campaigns that encourage the local
consumption such as “Be tounsi” and “#619”. Through these different facts, we observe that
since 2011, there has been a greater identification of Tunisians with the Tunisian product
reflecting probably their search of Tunisian identity (Touzani et al, 2016). Conversely, some
research studies have shown that consumers belonging to emerging countries tend to prefer
foreign products compared to local ones (e.g. Touzani et al, 2015; Balabanis et al, 2016;
Diamantopoulos et al, 2018).

1
https://www.google.com/search?safe=active&tbs=lf:1,lf_ui:2&tbm=lcl&sxsrf=ALeKk00uG3_DiiytWWbVhIpF7fdg12wZrg:1614955365764&q=agence+de+prod

uction+audiovisuelle+tunisie&rflfq=1&num=10&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjDoJ3HsZnvAhUBCewKHapFBOIQjGp6BAgDEF8&biw=1366&bih=657#rlfi=hd:;si:;mv:[[36.9
08932199999995,10.211915699999999],[36.801216499999995,10.1406143]]

2
https://www.lemonde.fr/afrique/article/2019/04/04/depuis -la-revolution-de-2011-le-cinema-tunisien-renait_5445844_3212.html

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This ambiguity raises questions about the Tunisian consumer’s behavior towards Tunisian and
foreign movies: to what extent the country of origin of a movie may impact their intention to
watch that movie.

Several studies have focused on the role of a given product’s perceived country of origin in
impacting consumers’ attitudes towards purchasing products from that country (e.g. Roth and
Romeo, 1992; Peterson and Jolibert, 1995; Verlegh, 2007; Wang et al, 2012).

In fact, the country of origin (COO) is considered to be a significant determinant of consumer

choice behavior, since it has a significant impact on consumer product evaluation (Schooler,
1965). In marketing research, the country of origin concept has been a central issue in the
international marketing research literature for some 50 years (Pharr, 2005; Usunier, 2006;
Magnusson et al., 2011). However, some studies have focused on the different factors that
lead consumers to prefer products from certain countries (Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009).
For example, consumers may favorably evaluate products from a given country because they
have a positive perception towards that country. It is the concept of "Country of origin image"
(COI) and it is defined as the beliefs that consumers hold towards a given country (Martin and
Eroglu, 1993).

Based on literature, COI consists of two different components namely cognition and affect
(Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009). The cognitive component is about the beliefs held about a
given country while the affective component captures consumers’ emotional responses to a
given country. Despite this, a review of literature has revealed a lack in operationalizing the
affective country image, since most of these researches focused on the country cognition only
(Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009; Li et al, 2014). Research shows that the cognitive country
image and the affective country image do not always have the same effect on purchase
intention. We believe in this study that the affective component is as important as the
cognitive component, especially since our main product is “movie”, a product that has a
strong experiential nature and that has emotional appeals. In fact, when confronting
experiential or hedonic products, consumers tend to rely on non-rational factors (Imagery,
emotions, symbolism, etc.) to evaluate these products (Batra et al., 2000; Hirschman and
Holbrook, 1982).

In international marketing research, authors have focused on some consumer traits that could
influence consumers’ behaviors towards domestic and local products. The consumer
ethnocentrism was one of the most examined constructs in this context. This construct

8
captures the beliefs of consumers regarding the ethical and normative acceptability of
purchasing foreign-made products (Shimp and Sharma, 1987), which makes it a pro-ingroup
and anti-outgroup construct (Zeugner-Roth, Zabkar, & Diamantopoulos, 2015). On the other
hand, and at the opposite, previous research has found that in the case of developing
countries, consumer's express preference for foreign products (Touzani et al, 2015;
Diamantopoulos et al, 2018). Some researchers suggested a construct that captures the
preference for foreign products, which is the xenocentrism (Muller et al., 2009). It is defined
as “the belief that what is foreign is best, that our own lifestyle, products or ideas are inferior
to those of others” (Eshleman, Cashion, & Basirico, 1993, p. 109)”,and it captures outgroup
favoritism as well as ingroup derogation. In Tunisia, a developing country, and a country that
has been colonized by France (1881-1956), people may tend to have xenocentric tendencies.

In this research we try to respond to the following research question "how does country of
origin impact intention to watch a domestic / foreign movie at the cinema? And how do
ethnocentrism and xenocentrism influence this relationship?”

We will adopt a quantitative approach based on a questionnaire survey with a sample of

movies viewers. Our approach is part of a hypothetico-deductive epistemology. Thus, we will
develop a conceptual model and its different hypotheses based on the literature, and on a
qualitative pre-survey of Tunisian movies and series viewers, in order to achieve our
objectives that are:

 Study the impact of the country of image on the intention to watch a Tunisian/foreign
movie at the cinema through both the cognitive and the affective components.
 Study the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer
xenocentrism on the impact of the country image on the intention to watch a
Tunisian/foreign movie at the cinema.

This paper will be structured as follow: Part I reviews the literature related to our study. It
first outlines the country of origin effect and provides specific details concerning consumer
intention behavior’s antecedents, namely the cognitive country image, the affective country
image, and the product image, and the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the
consumer xenocentrism on those links. In the first chapter, we are going to introduce the
cognitive country image, the affective country image, and the product image, and present a
literature review for each one of them. In the second chapter, we will introduce and review the
cultural and creative industry and movies in marketing research, and we will present the

9
Tunisian cultural and creative industry’s situation. Finally in the third chapter, we will
introduce and review the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer xenocentrism as well as
their moderating role on the links between consumer’s intention behavior toward local/foreign
movies at the cinema and its antecedents, and we will present our conceptual model and the
different hypotheses.

Part II is associated to methodology and results. On one hand, it treats the methodological
approach, the data collecting and the data processing, and on the other hand, it discusses
results. It will present how our variables are measured and whether hypotheses are confirmed
or disconfirmed. In this empirical part, we will provide recommendations for both managerial
and academic purposes.

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 Part I: Literature review: The
country of origin in cultural and
creative products context

11
 Chapter 1: Country of origin (COO) and consumer’s intention
behavior

In this chapter we are going to introduce the country of origin through a literature review.
Also, we are going to examine the cognitive country image and the affective country image
separately. And finally, we will present the country image through the literature.

Section 1: Country of origin effect

In the first section, we will present a literature review of the country of origin. To do so, we
will start by a general presentation of the country of origin. Second, we will investigate the
country of origin effect.

1. Country of origin (COO)

In 1992, Roth and Romeo defined the country of origin (COO) as the general consumer’s
perception about products belonging to a particular country, based on the image of that
country’s production and marketing characteristics. COO is also referring to the favorable or
unfavorable impact that a product from a particular country may have on consumer’s
perceptions and behaviors (Elliot and Cameron, 1994).

On the other hand, and according to Zafar et al (2004), COO refers to information belonging
to where a product or service is made, in other words, it refers to “the made in”. Samiee
(2007) suggested that COO refers to the country where the firm is associated. Additionally,
Munjal (2014) admitted that COO represents the “motherland of a product”, in other words, it
refers to the country where a product has been developed or in which a product belongs.

In 2017, Herz and Diamantopoulos defined the COO (country of origin) as “the country
where the corporate headquarters of the company marketing the product or brand is located.”
However these researchers admit that a product may not automatically be produced in that
country since the existing of multinational sourcing, they suppose that the product is
identified to that country.

Since Schooler’s COO study (1965), various studies have been conducted in order to interpret
the COO’s impact on the evaluation of several products and services (Verlegh and

12
Steenkamp, 1999; Bhaskaran and Sukumaran, 2007; Costa et al, 2016; Thogersen et al, 2019).
The COO varied from developed countries to developing countries.

The different studies that have been conducted in developed countries showed that individuals
belonging to these countries had preferences for their local products more than products
coming from developing countries (Wang and Lamb, 1983; Jaffe and Martinez, 1995).

In return, COO studies that were conducted in emerging countries revealed that consumers
belonging to these countries prefer products from developed countries while assuming that
foreign products from developed countries are of a better quality, comparing to their local
products (Wang et al, 2012; Touzani, Smaoui and Labidi, 2015).

In general, consumers tend to prefer their domestic products in countries where xenophobia,
consumer ethnocentrism, nationalism, and conservatism are wildly present (Heslop and
Papadopoulos, 1993; Siamagka et al, 2015). On the other hand, in countries where there is a
strong xenocentrism, consumers tend to prefer foreign products (Diamantopoulos et al, 2018;
Balabanis et al, 2016; Balabanis et al, 2019). Thus, it is important to identify the COO effect
on product evaluation.

2. Country of origin effect

The country of origin effect research has begun since the 1960’s. In 1965, Schooler found, as
a result of his COO effect research, that the attitude towards people from a given country is a
factor that causes preconceptions about products coming from that country. Since then,
hundreds of COO effect studies have been published, and this phenomenon has become one
of the most analyzed phenomena in international marketing and consumer behavior fields.

In fact, consumers use the COO label of imported products to simplify the process of
determining the product’s quality (Cox, 1962). It has been demonstrated that COO labels is
perceived by consumers from different countries as a consistent information cue (Han, 1989).

COO effects have been defined as any positive or negative pressure that the product’s country
may have on consumer’s evaluation and preferences decision process (Samiee, 1994). COO
effects may sometimes be formed from consumers’ orientations and practices when they are
aware of the country, political attitude or ethnocentric predispositions (Elliott, 2006). In
general, the COO effect is referred to the impact that an opinion about a given country have

13
on a consumer’s evaluation of products or brands coming from that country (Nebenzahl et al,
1997).

According to Diamantopoulos and Roth (2011), the COO effect signifies any influence on an
evaluation or a behavior following COO information. In fact, consumers tend to positively
evaluate brands combined with a favorable COO.

Verlegh and Steenkamp (1999) associated the COO effects to overall characteristics of the
COO, in other words, they associated it to the economic development level and technological
advancement of a given country. These effects should be higher and more significant in
countries with strong brands, as suggested by Diamantopoulos, Schlegelmilch, and
Palihawadana (2011).

It was suggested that the “made-in” concept should be added the marketing mix elements,
since the product’s COO has a wide influence on its acceptability from consumers (Dichter,
1962). Meta-analytical testimony (Verlegh and Steenkamp, 1999) suggests that the COO
effect is stronger and more significant when comparing products from countries with different
levels of economy, whereas, this effect appears to be decreasing.

Based on a deductive approach, Jun and Choi examined COO effects on non-prescription
drugs, using “country brand attitude” concept. Their study’s findings were principally about
how COO effects depend on the product category and about how COO one of the most
important cues of a product. Indeed, COO was found to be a factor that may widely affect the
product image and purchase intention. Nevertheless, the COO effect is not always strong and
significant; its effect depends also on different factors that may moderate it.

3. Country of origin effect on domestic industry

The development and the sustainability of domestic manufacturers in an open market depend
on the consumer’s level of acceptance of products produced in that country. Since free
markets offer a diversity of imported products and services, domestic manufacturers are
struggling. In fact, these manufacturers are challenging products and brands that have already
achieved a certain success and maintained an important position worldwide.

The growth of the domestic manufacturing sector is thus hampered by the fact that consumers
perceive products from more and developed countries more favorably than domestic products
(Papadopoulos et al, 1990). As a result, the COO may have a negative effect on domestic

14
goods since it leads consumers to choose foreign products and thence discourage domestic
industry.

Since they belong to a developing country, Tunisian consumers are likely to implement a
cognitive simplification heuristic while choosing to consume domestic versus foreign
products. For instance, Tunisian cinema theatres offer different movies from different
countries in addition to Tunisian movies. The influences affecting Tunisian’s movie choice at
the cinema, as far as COO is concerned have not yet neem studied. This study was then
carried to fill the gap in the existing literature.

4. Country of origin effect in emerging countries

Beyond the particular case of movies, the several studies examining the COO effect in
emerging countries revealed that consumers in these countries have preferences of and higher
positive attitudes towards products belonging to foreign countries (Hamzaoui-Essoussi and
Merunka, 2007; Kaynak et al, 2000; Zhang, 1996).

Consumers belonging to emerging countries tend to perceive imported Western products as

more upstanding and of a better quality. This perception may be the result of several factors
such as the foreign country’s economic and technological advancement, and innovativeness;
the attractive Western lifestyle spread through movies and media; and the social desirability
of these products (Belk et al., 2003; Kumara and Canhua, 2010).

However, the COO effect in emerging countries may be explained through other factors of
more cognitive aspect, such as the weaknesses of the informational environment in these
countries or the consumer’s weak experience with foreign products, especially when these
products are complex and expensive (Batra, 1997; Swoboda et al., 2012; Zhang, 1996).

5. Country of origin studies and Africa

In Africa, COO studies have been conducted in a variety of countries to examine its impact on
consumer’s decision making process.

In 2009, Opoku and Akorli investigated consumer’s attitude towards domestic and foreign
products in Ghana, and their study revealed that the country of origin is important and even
more important and significant than other product elements such as price. Compared to
imported products, the “made in Ghana” products were perceived to have a lower quality.

15
Additionally, while observing the COO effect on consumer’s attitude towards “buy local”
campaigns, Mitgwe and Chikweche (2008) revealed that consumers have preferences for
foreign brands and products more than domestic brands and products.

In 2015, Smaoui et al examined the COO effect on consumer’s choice of drugs in emerging
countries. Their results confirmed the COO effect in emerging countries and the evaluation of
OTC drugs originating in Western counties was higher than the evaluation of domestic drugs.

6. Country of origin effects and cultural products

D’Astous et al (2007) suggest that cultural products, which are deep-rooted in the beliefs,
behaviors and identity of a society, lay out by nature, precious understanding of the
complicated preferences and perceptions that consumers set up with reference to the COO.

In fact, cultural products are considered to be high-involvement products that elicit both
cognitive and affective reactions which lead consumers to use message cures instead of using
simple heuristics (Voss and Cova, 2006). Moreover, the intangible and complex nature of
cultural products makes it more difficult to determine the quality comparing to tangible
products which causes a high variance in consumer perceptions and beliefs.

A strong level of variance causes the consumer’s uncertainty and increases their perceived
risks of these products (Erdem et al., 2006). COO, as a product image attribute, becomes
important in determining consumer’s beliefs, preferences and brand equity (Baughn and
Yaprak, 1993; Kotler and Gertner, 2002; Lefkoff-Hagius and Mason, 1993; Papadopoulos and
Heslop, 1993; Verlegh and Steenkamp, 1999).

Other than quality, the country of country of origin relates cultural and creative products to
the national identity, which gives rise to emotional and symbolic responses (Fournier, 1998;
Maheswaran and Chen, 2006; Papadopoulos et al., 1990; Verlegh and Steenkamp, 1999).

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Section 2: Cognitive and affective country image

In this section we will first present the country image in general, and second, we will focus on
the cognitive country image and the affective country image that represent our two
explanatory variables.

1. The country image

Based on the previous literature, we admit that country image researches are dated back to
1930s and 1940s (Klingberg, 1941; Katz & Braly, 1933), focusing basically on the different
perceptions of nations and national stereotypes.

Nowadays, and given the rising development of the international economy, consumers are
exposed to a diversity of domestic and foreign products and brands. From the 1960s, there
was an increase of interest regarding “country of origin” as a concept (e.g. Schooler, 1965),
and this topic has become one of the most popular ones in international marketing research.
Despite this, and based on the literature, country image still does not have a universal
definition. Country image (CI), country of origin image and product-country image (PCI)
(Gertner and Kotler, 2004; Lee and Lockshin, 2012; Papadopoulos and Heslop, 2014) seem to
be three closely associated terms.

In 2009, Roth and Diamantopoulos conceptualized country image by categorizing it into three
concepts. First, these authors used “country image” as the first concept to present the overall
image of a country. In fact, country image was considered as the overall and the general
concept, which includes diverse components compromising economy, politics, technology,
culture, traditions and history (Allred et al., 1999; Bannister and Saunders, 1978; Desborde,
1990). While these factors refer principally to cognitive beliefs about a given country,
Askegaard and Ger (1998) and Verlegh (2001) are part of the few researchers who considered
country image as a construct that involves both the cognitive and the affective beliefs towards
countries.

Despite the fact that image theory assumes that national images are presented through both
cognitive and affective structures (e.g., Boulding, 1956, 1959), the majority of COI
definitions focused principally on the cognitive component while neglecting the affective one
(table 1). In our study, and following the image theory, we believe that COI can be better
understood and measured through both the cognitive and the affective components.

17
The second concept is called product-country image (PCI), and it emphasizes the countries as
the origins of products or services. Zhang et al (2016) admit that this concept is the most
approved definition of country image in the international business domain. According to the
definition proposed by Li et al (1997, p116) (see table 2), we understand first that country
image and product image are two distinctive concepts, and second, that the image of a given
country has an impact on product belonging to that country.

As stated by Bilkey and Nes (1982), country image refers to the overall perceived quality of
products based principally on the product’s country of origin. Nadeau et al (2008) noticed that
PCI corresponds to perceptions and beliefs towards countries relying on where some products
and brands are manufactured. Unlike the previous concepts, the last concept is related to the
specific product, and it is called product image (PI). We will treat this concept in the third
section.

Based on the various definitions presented in this section, our research will consider country
image as “The sum of beliefs and impressions people holds about places” (Kotler et al., 1993,
p. 141) and as “A mental network of affective and cognitive associations connected to the
country” (Verlegh, 2001, p. 25). Through le literature review, we distinguished that the
majority of country image surveys were based on attitude theory, but most of the scholars
neglected the affective component and focused only on consumer’s stereotypes and
perceptions of countries which corresponds to the cognitive component (Roth and
Diamantopoulos, 2009). In return, few country image studies implemented affective
evaluations (see, Laroche et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2012; Alvarez and Campo, 2014).

In the next sub-sections, we will deal with the cognitive CI and the affective CI, two
components that form the overall image maintained by a person towards a given country.
First, we will conceptualize the cognitive CI, and second, we will present the affective CI,
since these two concepts represent the explanatory variables in our conceptual model.

18
 Table 1: Review of Key definitions of country image

Definitions on (overall) country image (CoI)

Bannister and “Generalized images, created by variables such as representative products, economic and
Saunders (1978, p. political maturity, historical events and relationships, traditions, industrializat ion and the degree
562) of technological virtuosity.”

Desborde (1990, p. “Country-of-origin image refers to the overall impression of a country present in a consumer's
44) mind as conveyed by its culture, political system and level of economic and technological
development.”
Martin and Eroglu “Accordingly, country image was defined as the total of all descriptive, inferential and
(1993, p. 193) informational beliefs one has about a particular country.”

Kotler et al. (1993, “The sum of beliefs and impressions people holds about places. Images represent a
p. 141) simplification of a large number of associations and pieces of information connected with a
place. They are a product of the mind trying to process and pick out essential information fro m
huge amounts of data about a place.”
Askegaard and Ger “Schema or a network of interrelated elements that define the country, a knowledge structure
(1998, p. 52) that synthesizes what we know of a country, together with its evaluative significance or sc hema-
triggered affect.”
Allred et al. (1999, “The perception or impression that organizations and consumers have about a country. This
p. 36) impression or perception of a country is based on the country's economic condition, political
structure, culture, conflict with other countries, labor conditions, and stand on environmental
issues.”
Verlegh and “Mental representations of a country's people, products, culture and national symbols. Product -
Steenkamp (1999, country images contain widely shared cultural stereotypes.”
p. 525)
Verlegh (2001, p. “A mental network of affective and cognitive associations connected to the country.”
25)

(Source: Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009)

Table 2: Review of Key definitions of product country image

Definitions on product country image (PCI)

Hooley et al. (1988, “Stereotype images of countries and/or their outputs (…) that (…) impact on behavior.”
p. 67)
Li et al. (1997, p. “Consumers' images of different countries and of products made in these countries.”
116)
Knight and “Country-of-origin image (COI) reflects a consumer's perceptions about the quality of products
Calantone (2000, p. made in a particular country and the nature of people from that country.”
127)
Jaffe and “Brand and country images are similarly defined as the mental pictures of brands and countries,
Nebenzahl (2001, p. respectively.”
13)
Nebenzahl et al. “Consumers' perceptions about the attributes of products made in a certain country; emotions
(2003, p. 388) toward the country and resulted perceptions about the social desirability of owning products made
in the country.”
Papadopoulos and “Product-country images (PCIs), or the place-related images, with which buyers and/or sellers
Heslop (2003, p. may associate a product.”
404)
(Source: Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009)

19
 2. Cognitive country image and affective country image

Cognitive country image is determined through a consumer’s beliefs of a given country which
include its technological advancement, level of economic development, industrialization and
standard of living. As for the affective country image, it refers to person’s affective
predispositions towards a given country (Li et al., 2014) and it includes feelings and emotions
(Maher & Carter, 2011).

Image researchers have investigated in the way in which affective and cognitive constituents
lead to the formation of the overall image. Some studies followed Russell (1980) (who
declared that information comes first and then used to form emotions) and thereafter,
suggested that the affective component of image is the descendent of its cognitive component
(Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Beerli & Martín, 2004). In contrast, various investigations
determined that the affective and cognitive components form a second level construct (the
overall image) and are complementary (Lin, Morais, Kerstetter, & Hou, 2007; San Martín &
Rodríguez del Bosque, 2008). According to previous literature, these two components do not
have the same weight in forming the overall country image.

On the one hand, some studies have determined that the cognitive country image has a greater
weight and a stronger higher impact on the overall country especially for countries that are
well-known and that have a certain level of development (Qu, Kim, & Im, 2011). In contrast,
in the case of countries having a more negative image and those that have not been previously
visited, the affective component may have a greater weight in forming the overall image
(Baloglu and McCleary, 1999).

In destination choice context, several authors suggested and proved that country affect has a
stronger impact on consumer’s intentions comparing to country cognitions (Zeugner-Roth and
Zabkar, 2015; Alvarez and Campo, 2014; Campo and Alvarez, 2010; Kim and Yoon, 2003).
These results may be justified by the importance that emotions and affect have on the
formation and the change of attitude (Edward, 1990).

The current study will follow Zajonc’s (1980) separate systems perspective and will test both
the cognitive and the affective country image as two independent predictors of behavior.
Besides their relative importance in forming the overall country image, Li et al,. (2014)
consider it important to distinguish between the cognitive and the affective component
because consumers tend to maintain incongruent cognitive and affective perceptions of the

20
same country. For example, a person may appreciate the technology of a country, and at the
same time, may arouse bad feelings towards that country.

2.1. The cognitive country image

The cognitive country image is one of the two cues that form the overall country image. As
we have mentioned in the previous sub-section, most of COO studies have focused on the
cognitive component of country image.

The cognitive CI elements generally incorporate beliefs about the economic development,
technological advancement and political orientation of a given country (Pappu et al., 2007),
and this in addition to the competence of its people (Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009).

Further studies showed that the cognitive image of a given country influences the willingness
to buy that country’s products (i.e. Wang and Lamb, 1980; Wang et al, 2012), and even more,
it may indirectly influence the one’s intention to visit that country (Wang, 2020).

As stated by the rational processing and decision-making theories (K.Brijs et al, 2011 ),
country image provides information that authorizes consumers to have an idea about product
quality.

Han (1989) submits that the COO may act as a summary attribute that constitutes consumer’s
perceptions of product quality, and consequently, it provides a “halo” that leads consumers to
make inferences concerning product quality.

Li et al,. (2014) suggests that when making a rational purchase, consumers tend to implement
logical analysis and reasoning and may use cognitive country image as a summary element to
shape general beliefs of products coming from that country.

When opting an experiential product (which is our case), consumers tend to employ intuitive
thinking, and may use cognitive country image as a “Halo” in order to form general beliefs of
products appertaining to that country (Li et al,. 2014).

2.1.1. Country image as a Halo

This perspective states that country image is used product judgements for the reason that
consumers are unable to recognize the real quality of country’s products. In other words, the
consumer’s incapacity to detect the quality may lead them to use the country image to deduce
the quality of strange products (Huber and McCann, 1982).

21
This vision is comparable to the price role in evaluating a product. In fact, Price as a cue is
often used to determine a product’s quality when there is a lack in product information
(Jacoby et al, 1971), spatially when the product is unfamiliar (Monroe, 1976).

According to Johansson, Douglas and Nonaka (1985), if country image is used as a halo, it
will not significantly impact the product evaluation when the product is familiar to
consumers.

Han (1989) argues that the Halo hypothesis includes two implications:

 Consumers use country image to make inferences about that country’s product quality.
 Country image as a halo has a direct effect on consumer’s beliefs regarding product
attributes, and it indirectly affects attitudes towards the brand through those beliefs.

2.1.2. Country image as summary

“The summary construct view maintains that consumers recode and abstract individual
elements of information into higher order units or “chunks”... Consumers benefit because
information chunks are easier to store in and retrieve from long-term memory” (Han, 1989, p.
223). In other words, a summary construct mentions the conversion of the individual elements
of information to a higher-ranked concept.

The summary construct facilitates consumers’ information processing by helping them to

memorize and to use “chunks” from long-term memory (Simon, 1974). In fact, in every
decision making situation, evaluating the different product attributes is time-wasting when
consumers can simply call back previously formed general evaluations of each alternative
(Wright, 1975; Monga & Saini, 2009).

Brand name is frequently used as a summary construct, since it handles many attributes that
could be implemented to evaluate a product (Jacoby, Olsen, and Haddock 1971; Keller,
2008).

Like brand image, country image may considered as a summary construct (Han, 1989).
Brands from the same country tend to have similar product attributes, and as so, consumers
may use information about a product’s country in order to evaluate its quality.

According to Han (1989), the summary construct hypothesis includes two implications:

 Consumers abstract product information into its country image.

22
  Country image has a direct effect on consumer’s attitude towards a brand from that
country (Wright, 1975).

2.1.3. Cognitive country image measurement scales

Concerning the operationalization of the cognitive constituent, country beliefs may be

modeled through the dimensions that are usually used in the literature (Roth and
Diamantopoulos, 2009). These dimensions include two different facets; the country facet (i.e.,
politics, economy, technology, culture and climate), and the people facet (creativity,
competence, labor and standard of living).

It is also possible to conceptualize country beliefs as a group of interrelated dimensions (Roth

and Diamantopoulos, 2009). Indeed, Edwards (2001) argued that the choice of measurement
model depends highly on the study objectives. In line with this, and since we are treating the
cultural and creative industry context, we decided to measure the cognitive country image
through two facets; country facet that includes technological and economic beliefs, and people
facet that includes basically the perceived creativity of a given country’s people. The table
below presents the cognitive country image measurement scales that have been used several
times through the literature.

Table 3: Cognitive country image measurement scales

Scale Dimensions Items Context

Political dimension:
5 (7-point Likert scales)
Country image: -West Germany and
Economic dimension:
(Martin and Eroglu, Multi-dimensional India
5 (7-point Likert scales)
1993) -Product evaluation
Technological dimension:
4 (7-point Likert scales)
Cognitive country
image: -Destination choice
Unidimensional 9 (7-point Likert scales)
(Martinez and Alvarez, -Turkey
2010)

General country
attitude: -USA and Turkey
Unidimensional 10 (5-point Likert scales)
(Parameswaran and -Products
Yaprak, 1987)
Cognitive country
image:
(Wang et al,. 2012) -China
Unidimensional 5 (5-point Likert scales)
adapted from -products
(Parameswaran and
Pisharodi, 1994)

23
 Scale Dimensions Items Context

Competence
Stereotypes: Warmth
Bi-dimensional -Random nationalities
(Cuddy et al,. 2007) Itch dimension: 2 items (5-
point Likert scale)
Natural landscape:
2 (5-point Likert scales) -Products: Apples,
Climate: Tomatoes,
Cognitive country
2 (5-point Likert scales) Refrigerators, CD-
image: Multidimensional
Creativity: players
(Verlegh, 2001)
3 (5-point Likert scales) -Netherland, France
Competence: and Germany
3 (5-point Likert scales)

2.2. The affective country image

Besides the cognitive aspects, COO effects are attributed to the affective aspects too.
Previous studies mentioned that affect is apt to determine action tendencies regarding hedonic
objects when cognitions tend to determine action tendencies towards utilitarian objects
(Verlegh, 2001).

In 2011, Maher and Carter separated the roles of cognitive country image and affective
country image in their PCI study and they concluded that comparing to the cognitive country
image, the affective component tends to a more direct effect on consumer’s intention
behaviors. In fact, countries have affective and emotional connotations that are strong enough.
These connotations may be shaped through both direct and indirect experiences. For example,
consumers may maintain a certain affective image of a country through visiting it during
holidays or through e.g. mass media, movies and education (Verlegh, 2001). These
connotations may have an impact on consumer’s attitudes towards products or brands
belonging to a specific country. The often used example to justify the importance of affective
country image is the attitude of Arabs towards Israeli products and brands. For example, in
1989, Obermiller and Spangenberg used the example of an Arab-American who has a positive
cognitive image of the quality of Israeli optical tools, but however rejects these products
because of his negative attitude towards it. In other words, these authors note that that kind of
mechanisms are restricted to cases where there is a strong attitude toward a country.

In destination choice context, Alvarez and Campo (2005) determined that the affective image
hold by Turkish students towards Israel is negative and has a greater weight in forming the
overall image.

24
Primarily, affective effects come out of the affect transfer theory. Affective impacts represent
a process that leads the country image to directly affect product evaluations (Brijs et al,.
2011). In fact, when confronting experiential or hedonic products, consumers tend to rely on
non-rational factors (Imagery, emotions, symbolism, etc.) to evaluate these products (Batra et
al., 2000; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982). And also, Following the affect as information
approach (Wyer et al,. 1999), individuals may or not consider their affection and react to it in
order to form attitudes, depending on either they perceive it as a good basis of judgment or
not. Hence, beliefs may be made by assessing consumers’ feelings at a particular time, which
forms the bottom of their attitudes (Wyer et al,. 1999). Therefore, affection may play an
influential role in determining which beliefs are shaped, how they are assessed and how they
have a strong weight in forming preferences (Hoffman, 1986).

2.2.1. The affect transfer theory

Affect transfer theory relates a phenomenon in which attitudes towards an object’s

components (country of origin, in our case) may facilitate the formation of the general attitude
towards that object (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Coulter, 1998).

Affect is supposed to transfer from a given object that generates emotions to a second object
that induces few or no affective responses (Huddy and Gunnthorsdottir, 2000). This
phenomenon is called “affect transfer”, and it describes how individuals’ emotions and
feelings towards a given object are transferred to a second related object (Shimp, 1981).

2.2.2. Affective country image measurement scale

Some COO studies were based mainly on the “people affect” to measure the affective country
image (e.g. Parameswaran and Pisharodi, 1994; Laroche t al,. 2005) and took into account
scales such as creativity, competence, training, standard and labor. Nevertheless, according to
Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009), these items tend to represent cognitive perceptions rather
than affective perceptions. Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009) distinguished a lack of scales
that measure the affective country image. And in order to fill this gap, Martinez and Alvarez
(2010) developed a country image scale in order to measure the image of Turkey. Their scale
was refined to acquire a valid and reliable country image scale including 1 overall image, 9
cognitive and 6 affective items. Martinez and Alvarez’s (2010) measurement scale was
adapted by Alvarez and Campo (2014) in their study measuring the Israeli image.

25
Some authors tend to use the PANAS scale (Watson and Clarck, 1988) to measure the
affective country image such as Lopez and Balabanis (2020). The table below presents the
affective country image measurement scales that have been used several times through the
literature.

Table 4: Affective country image measurement scales

Scale Dimensions Items Context

Affective country image: 7 (7-point semantic -Destination choice

Unidimensional
(Martinez and alvarez, 2010) differential scale) -Turkey

-Japan and Sweden

People Affect: 3 (seven-point bipolar
Unidimensional -Foreign product
(Laroche et al,. 2005) adjective scale)
evaluation

-Rational and
Affective country image:
Unidimensional 4 (7-point scale) experiential
(Li et al,. 2014)
-China

10 (Positive and
PANAS
Unidimensional negative affect) (7- -USA
(Waston et al,. 1988)
point rating scale)

Contempt
Admiration
Pity
Emotion: -Random nationalities
multidimensional Envy
(Cuddy et al,. 2007)
Itch dimension :2 items
(5-point Likert scales)

Section 3: Product image

In this section we will present the product image’s definition and literature review.

1. Product image in Marketing literature

Product image reflects the overall perceptions that consumers maintain of a given country’s
products (Parameswaran & Pisharodi, 1994), or the general beliefs consumers possess about
products coming from a particular country (Nagashima, 1970, 1977).

In general, consumers tend to hold stereotypical beliefs for certain characteristics related to
the product image of particular countries (Wang et al,. 2012). For example, while individuals

26
consider Japanese products as durable ones, they associate German products with good
workmanship and precision, etc. This kind of attribute information may be saved in
consumers’ memory, and is recognized as objective knowledge. Meanwhile, subjective
knowledge makes reference to the level of subjective knowledge hold by consumers towards
certain products (Lee and Lee, 2009). Such particular associations to a country can often be
provoked when consumers are aware of the product’s “made in” (Hamzaoui ant Merunka,
2006).

Chao (1993) argues that globalization and the increase of strategic alliances through which
products have been designed or made in different countries, helped consumers to become
more familiar with the different qualities of products related to particular countries.

Following the globalization, multinational companies become in the need to manufacture their
products in low cost countries, which may or not transfer equal values in the consumer’s mind
(Hui and Zhou, 2003). For example, due to the manufacturing boom in China, that started
about 40 years ago, its economy has kept up to become more and more prosperous. As a
consequence, the demand for Chinese products has increased in countries where consumers
are conscious of the value (Sharma, 2011). Nevertheless, Chinese consumers’ demand for
goods produced abroad has increased. In fact, Chinese consumers tend to prefer overseas
produced vehicles rather than locally manufactured cars that are produced by foreign firms
(Wang & Chen, 2004; Wang, Siu, & Hui, 2004). This fact may be one of the reasons why
Chinese companies are now looking to import foreign products or hide the “made in” of their
products (Leonidou et al,. 2007).

Table 5: Review of key definitions of product image

Definitions on product image

Nagashima “‘Image’ means ideas, emotional background, and connotation associated with a concept.
(1970, p. 68) Thus, the ‘made in’ image is the picture, the reputation, the stereotype that businessmen and
consumers attach to products of a specific country.”
Narayana “The aggregate image for any particular country's product refers to the ent ire connotative field
(1981, p. 32) associated with that country's product offerings, as perceived by consumers.”
Han (1989, p. “Consumers' general perceptions of quality for products made in a given country.”
222)
Roth and “Country image is the overall perception consumers' form of products from a particular
Romeo (1992, country, based on their prior perceptions of the country's production and marketing strengths
p. 480) and weaknesses.”
Bilkey (1993, “Buyers' opinions regarding the relative qualities of goo ds and services produced in various
p. xix) countries”
Strutton et al. “Composite ‘made in’ image consisting of the mental facsimiles, reputations and stereotypes
(1995,p. 79) associated with goods originating from each country of interest.”
(Source: Roth and Diamantopoulos, 2009)

27
 Chapter 2: Cultural-creative industries

In this chapter, we will introduce cultural and creative industries and movies through a
literature revue. Second, we will present the cultural and creative industries’ situation in
Tunisia.

Section 1: Cultural and creative industries and movies

In this section, we are going to present a literature revue of the cultural and creative industries
in the first step. Second, we are going to present the movies in the marketing research.

1. Cultural and creative industries

Cultural and creative industries had been managed in various academic disciplines. In 2015,
Peltoniemi has defined cultural industries as industries that produce experiential goods
containing considerable creative elements distributed to consumers via mass distribution.

1.1. Artistic and cultural product and consumption specificities

1.1.1. Artistic and cultural product specificities

Since every day, artistic and cultural products have had their own specificities comparing to
other product classes. In fact, these products aren’t identical to utilitarian products when
talking about their specific attributes and the needs to which they respond.

According to Hirschman (1982), we may distinguish five cultural product characteristics:

 Abstraction: In fact, cultural products can’t be represented as a set of tangible

attributes but it’s much more than that. Their abstract characteristic makes them
arouse something other and more than what they are.
 Subjectivity: The subjective feelings and sensations that a cultural product can evoke
to its consumer are the most striking attributes.
 Non-utility: Artistic products are valued by them-same and they have no utilitarian
value.
 Uniqueness: In the case of cultural products the comparison between two products is
rejected.
 Holisticity: In fact, cultural products exist globally only; they cannot be deteriorated
according to an attribute structure.

28
 1.1.2. Artistic and cultural consumption specificities

Not only is based on the utilitarian facet of the product, the artistic and cultural consumption
is also based on the aesthetic, symbolic and hedonistic dimensions (Bourgeon, 2000).

Comparing to other ordinary products, the consumption of cultural products and specifically
in the arts (such as cinema) is full of subjectivity. Therefore, it is fundamental to understand
the consumers’ different feelings, emotions and thoughts in the cultural domain.

1.2. The emergence of marketing in artistic and cultural domains

On the one hand, marketing academics have manifested their interest in applying marketing in
arts and cultural areas and some of them considered this application as a non-profit marketing
branch (Butler, 2000; Kotler & Kotler, 1998, 1999; Sargeant, 1999; Scheff & Kotler, 1996). Now we
talk about “arts marketing” with a hole logic of theory rather than just a simple application of
marketing in arts (Lee, 2005).

On the other hand, the coexistent relation between arts and marketing disciplines has often
been controversial by the advocates of art and culture. In fact, these latter are skeptical about
the intervention of marketing for fear of the secondary effects that may this discipline
engender to arts. For them, marketing may destroy the authentic and the noble aspects of
artistic and cultural domain (lee, 2005).

1.2.1. The orientational dilemma of arts marketing

Bhrádaigh (1997) admits “The major difficulty [in a transfer of marketing to the arts
sector]…resides in the central marketing notion that products are created to suit the
customers”. Well, if art marketing is “marketing”, market orientation needs to be adopted
while the arts values have to be maintained (Andreasen, 1985).

 Arts-marketing is facing an “orientational dilemma” which was argued in different

marketing research papers through five different approaches.

29
 Table 6: Five approaches to solve the orientational dilemma
Arts Marketing approaches
The generic marketing concept
The relationship marketing approach
The extended definition of the
customer
The extended definition of the product
Orientational dilemma solving
Based on its generic definition, marketing began to assert its
universal utilization in any organization that implements social
interactions (Bagozzi, 1975).
This perspective tends to allow some modifications in the
marketing concept. For example, Kotler et al (1996) have proposed
the “societal marketing”; An organization that intends to preserve or
ameliorate the consumer’s and the society’s well-being, ought to
follow the “producer-led” approach and to find out the needs, wants
and regards of target markets.
 Based on this marketing interpretation, Butler(2000) and
Boorsma(2002) consider arts marketing as societal activity
placing the emphasis on the distribution of arts in an equal
way among the public through converting non-attenders into
arts-attenders.
Relationship marketing carries on the idea that the fundamental
marketing activity should be to maintain a long-term relationship with
customers. In fact, this approach is supposed to be more economical
compared to transactional marketing (Buttle, 1996).
 From this approach, researchers maintain that arts
organizations should apply marketing in human relationship.
This approach contradicts the societal explanation of arts marketing
since the art organizational focal point is about retaining the audience
rather than looking for new audiences (lee, 2005).
Some authors utilize a broadened definition of “consumer” in the
objective of allowing market orientation be compatible with the arts
context.
Arts researchers propose that “Arts consumers” are composed of
peer artists, critics and funding bodies plus the paying audiences
(Butler, 2000; Hill, O’Sullivan & O’Sullivan, 1995; Hirschman,
1983).
According to Hirshman (1983), Creating an artwork needs to
satisfy arts producers first of all, then these producers have to satisfy
their peers and critics. And she considers this as a market-driven
approach even if it is more focusing on constituencies 2 other than
paying audiences.
 So pursuing the extended definition of customer, an arts
organization can be considered as “Market-oriented” one.
Some research papers attempt to justify the fact that arts products can
be modified in order to respond to market needs (Boorsma, 2002;
Kolb, 2000; Kotler & Kotler, 1998, 1999; McLean, 1997).
Following this approach, arts products tend to be considered as “the
total package of experience”; the core product and the augmented
products. And in order to maximize arts consumers’ satisfaction
without changing the “core” product but by modifying peripheral
products which accompany the artistic product (Mclean, 1993).
 In short, while core products stay intact, the market
orientation can only be applied to the augmented and
complementary products (Lee, 2005).
30
 Arts Marketing approaches Orientational dilemma solving
Arts organization has two different objectives to fulfil; to realize an
artistic vison and to fulfil market needs.
Some arts marketing researchers consider that marketing’s role is to
create the balance between these two objectives.
According to Scheff and Kotler (1996), arts marketers should find
the balance between arts and market-oriented perspectives.
Meanwhile, some marketing researchers consider marketing as a
(Re)reduction of marketing to function
mean to achieve an organization’s artistic mission and this idea is
supported its neutrality. The marketing neutrality was principally
promoted in order to legalize its generality and its transferability
(Rodger, 1987).
 Marketing is a management function which is reliable to
commercial and non-commercial domains.

(Source: Adapted from Lee, 2005)

1.2.2. The role of marketing in art and culture

The role of marketing appears principally when talking about the link between the consumer
and the artist.

Thank to marketing, consumers have the possibility to connect with the artist while
considering the achievement of an adequate financial result (Diggles, 1986 (Quoted by
Ghariani, 2005)). Even more, marketing may help artists to find the most suitable audience for
their artistic creations (Mokwa, 1980 (Quoted by Ghariani, 2005)).

2. Motion pictures

In this section we will present the different characteristics of motions pictures. Then we will
present a literature review of movies in marketing research, and finally, we will present
movies in the context of country of origin literature review.

2.1.Motion pictures characteristics

In the previous sub-section we presented the different characteristics of cultural products. In

this sub-section we will present the different characteristics related more specifically to
motion pictures. Besides general cultural product specificities, motion pictures have their
proper characteristics.

 High risk and development product costs: On the first hand, film studios are facing
high product development costs, and on the other hand, they are facing notable risks
(Caves, 2000). In fact, most movies cost about tens of millions of Dollars and in
return, it is not certain if these movies will be successful or not (Stimpert et al, 2008).

31
Such characteristic may be one of the reasons why Tunisian motion pictures industry is not
producing a high number of movies per year.

 Short life-cycle product: In general, a movie’s life-cycle is very short (about 9 to 10

weeks), and in some cases, a movie may last only two weeks depending on many
circumstances (Caves, 2000; Radas & Shugan, 1998). Furthermore, at the time of
initial release, movies are characterized by a peak in revenues followed by an
exponential decline (Zufryden, 1996).
 High marketing and advertising costs: Following the previous characteristic, and
since movies risk to have a very short life-cycle, motion pictures studios spend
millions of Dollars to communicate and market their movies. In fact, these studios
spend all these Dollars in order to ensure high attendance especially during the
opening weeks (Stimpert et al, 2008).
 Personal and intangible customer experience: Similar to services and other forms of
popular culture, motion pictures represent a whole personal experience to different
customers. Thereafter, a movie may have different reactions from different consumers,
and each consumer may like or not the same movie. This fact is relied to motion
pictures uniqueness and intangibility (Stimpert et al, 2008).

2.2. Movies in the marketing research

In marketing research, there have been different studies that were focalized on movies and
cinema. Some of these studies considered movies as a product that may be composed of
different attributes such as genre, symbolism, year of release, production budgets and country
of origin (Gazely et al,. 2011; Feng and Feng, 2017) and through these attributes, marketing
researchers tried to predict movies’ consumption behaviors.

The country of origin have already been determined as a movie attribute that may affect the
consumer’s behavior to watch or not a movie (Feng and Feng, 2017), but there haven’t been a
detailed study that shows how does the country of origin affect the consumer’s behavior
towards movies. Therefore, in the current study, we investigated the impact of cognitive and
affective country image to better understand the country of origin effect in movies industries.

2.3. Movies and country of origin

Based on Holbrook’s (1999) definition, country of origin refers to the country where a movie
has been produced. While studies examining the different antecedents of movie success cover

32
many countries (Gemser et al., 2007; Bagella and Becchetti, 1999), previous research studies
do not consider country of origin effects on consumer choices (Gazley et al,. 2011).

According to Thomas (1982), when deciding whether to watch or not a new movie, domestic
consumers are likely to implement different reasons between foreign and domestic movies.
Foreign movies such as Hollywood box-office movies are likely to offer visual and sound
effects of a high quality and in a sophisticated way, and this quality is due to advanced
technologies and big budgets dedicated to movies industry. On the other hand, domestic
movies may not have the financial and technological resources to offer sophisticated visual
and sound effects, but may have other strengthens such as local acting stars, sceneries that are
more customized to domestic consumers, and other specific local elements that may be
included in a domestic movie (local places, local food etc.). Thereafter, domestic consumers
may set up their assumptions about local or foreign movies through these different factors
(Moon et al,. 2014). These factors may be determined through the cognitive or the affective
image of a given country.

Today, besides Hollywood movies, motion picture consumers are faced with a high number of
movies from different countries. In the current study, we suppose that unlike Hollywood
movies, other movies produced in other countries (South Korean, Spanish, Turkish, Tunisian
movies etc.) may not be very familiar to different consumers which may lead them to
implement the cognitive and the affective image they maintain about a given country in order
to form their expectations towards a movie. For example, some persons have preferences to
sophisticated movies; therefore, they may choose to watch movies from countries that have a
certain advanced technology, in other words, they may prefer movies from countries that have
a positive cognitive country image. On the other hand, some persons may have a positive
affective image about a given country, which may lead them to choose to watch movies
produced in that country.

33
Section 2: Cultural and creative industry in Tunisia

Since we decided to focus on the Tunisian movies in the current study, we decided through
this section to present the cultural and creative industry’s situation in Tunisia.

1. New phenomenon in the Tunisian cultural and creative industry

Since 2011, Tunisia has lived social and cultural transformations. Thereafter, several Tunisian
actors of creativity have taken advantage of these transformations in order to strengthen their
activities and their economic impact.

This may be evoked through:

Creative products and services that became more The growing interest from public institutions,
and more important patrons and NGOs

 Diversity of electronic music festivals since  Conferences and seminars treating the
2011 development of creative industries in Tunisia

Consumers’ growing demand The emergence of new start-ups and creative firms
 The film “Dachra (1018)” broke the records of  On-line event ticketing
entrances: 100 000 entrances in 17 days only

 On-line libraries

 VOD platforms

34
 2. An overview on cultural and creative industry’s potential in Tunisia

In 2019, BIAT has devoted a whole study in order to analyze and to assess the cultural and
creative industry’s potential in Tunisia. To do so, BIAT made a finding (Karoui, 2019) based
principally on an analysis and diagnosis of:

The Tunisian consumer’s behavior towards cultural and productive products and services
(Supply)

The characteristics of cultural and creative economic actors and their market presence
(Demand)

The role and the impact of public bodies ranging from the cultural affairs ministry to
generic state administrations (the State)

The role and the impact of private investors in the Tunisian cultural and creative economy
(Private investors)

In the following table, we are going to resume BIAT’s analysis report (Karoui, 2019),
presenting principally the four different actors in the cultural and creative Tunisian industry:

Table 7: Cultural and creative industry in Tunisia

Creative
industry Important facts Explanation
Actors
Indeed, accessibility to cultural and creative products and goods is not well-
distributed and disparate across Tunisia. Tunisians have little or no exposure to
Low exposure cultural and creative products, which systematically limits their consumption.
to cultural This is due to four factors:
goods and  Scarcity of infrastructure
services  Difficulty in activating the existing infrastructure
 Unequal geographical distribution (seeAppendix6 figure1, p171)
 inexistence of supply
Low financial Expenses for cultural and creative consumption are considered to be very low at
expenses the national level.
dedicated to But still, these expenses are increasing year per year. According to the National
Demand cultural and institute of statistics (INS), the turnover of internal demand for cultural products
creative and entertainment increased by 14% from 2010 to 2015.
consumption
Despite the decline in the purchasing power and the difficult access to cultural
Existence of real and creative goods, the Tunisian consumer is still showing an increasing interest
expectations in consuming cultural and creative products and services.
with a demand For example, the cinema attendance has been increasing since 2013 (INS,
oriented to 2017) (see Appendix6 figure2, p171).
Tunisian Contemporary arts are attracting an increasing loyal public such as “Dream
products city” (See Appendix6 figure3, p172).
symptoms Popular shows are having a significant success which sometimes makes late
purchase of tickets impossible. For example, the “Ziara show” (Sami Lajmi) had

35
Creative
industry Important facts Explanation
Actors
a great success and all the tickets were sold out especially in 2017 edition of the
Carthage festival. And we need to mention that tickets were from 35dt to 70d t.
Furthermore, there is an apparent interest in Tunisian product itself which may
be proved by the available Data in this subject.

Cultural and creative products and services tend to have a positive marginal
utility. In other words, more we consume cultural and creative goods, more we
need to consume them.
This notion has been determined by Becker and Murphy in 1988. According to
Significant
them “People get addicted not only to alcohol, cocaine, and cigarettes but also to
inactivated
(…) music, television, and many other activities” (Becker and Murphy, 1988,
demand
P675).
potential
 In the case of Tunisia, there is a low exposure to cultural and creative
good which in result doesn’t strengthen these products consumption
when applying Becker and Murphy’s theory.

It is important to mention that Tunisia is full of great talents.

Based on the different interviews conducted with different economic actors by
BIAT, the majority argued that talent and human resources are the most
important force in the cultural and creative Tunisian industry. Thus, Tunisia has
the necessary human resources to build a successful cultural and creative
Talent, a force
economy.
that is inactive
Even more, some of these talents are internationally well-recognized and won
in the Tunisian
many international prizes (See Appendix6 figure4, p172).
cultural and
Unfortunately, the existent cultural and creative organizations can’t afford an
creative
organizational framework to these talents, in order to produce and diffuse their
economy
artworks. Thereafter, artists and talents are most of the time obliged to manage
the managerial and organizational aspects.
This fact may be confirmed through the extremely low number of cultural and
creative firms in Tunisia (APII, 2020) (see Appendix6 figure5, p172).

In the cultural and creative industry context, a value chain, that transforms an
idea to a consumable cultural product, is mainly composed of four important
links:
1. Production: This step could be done through transforming a story into
a text, shooting a video etc.
Supply
2. Edition: At this step, the cultural product should be “packaged” and put
into context, so it can be consumed in an economic sense (e.g.
formatting a book, a museum tour conception etc.).
3. Distribution: At this level, the product is transformed to the public
through advertisements, commercial development, logistics etc.
Unstructured
Failure
value chain
4. User environment: At this level, the consumer has a direct contact
with the artistic product through consuming it. Failure
All these chain links depend on other important components such as
regulations (CNCI, HAICA etc.), funding and education (ISBAT, ESSTED,
ISAMM etc.).
Unfortunately, and because of the economic and the industrial failure in making
available the cultural products in the different access points, and in the existence
of these access points, the talent, its creative product and the public are not well-
linked.

A supply that In fact, the local cultural and creative economy is not exploring all the possible
does not explore offers and the demand pockets.
all its BIAT has explored three types of limitations:
possibilities Temporal limitation: Cultural products such as series or movies are most of

36
 Creative
industry Important facts Explanation
Actors
the time offered in specific periods (Ramada, JCC) which makes the Tunisian’s
cultural and creative consumption limited depending on specific events (see
Appendix6 figure6, p173).
Thematic limitation: There is a concentration on unvaried typologies when
talking about cultural and creative products such as movies genres and radio
positioning (see Appendix figure7, p173).
Geographic limitation: As we mentioned previously, Cultural and creative
products are unequally distributed.

Today, we can clearly distinguish the positive impact that has the digital on
cultural and creative sector in Tunisia:

The digital, a great support for Tunisian cultural and creative economy:
Tunisian actors in the cultural and creative economy become conscious of the
several opportunities offered by the digital, that facilitate the development and
that enable them to avoid the slowness of “real life” activities. Otherwise, digital
has recently been implemented to accelerate the production and the distribution
of cultural and creative goods and services.
Digital platforms improve the diffusion and the distribution of cultural
and creative products: Nowadays, YouTube and Facebook are the most visited
sites by Tunisians, thereafter; artists are communicating their artworks throu gh
such platforms. This guarantees them not only the public contact, but also the
possibility of monetization (e.g. through views number of Tunisian Rap music
videos on YouTube) and the international notoriety (e.g. today Netflix is offering
different Tunisian movies “Dachra” etc.).
Digital is offering a new experience in consuming cultural and creative
Digital, a products: Thank to the simplification of processes through the digital, there has
double-edged been an emergence of various initiatives such as the creation of platforms of
weapon ticketing “Teskerti.tn”. These initiatives may play an important role to better
manage the value chain of cultural and creative products.

Although the digital is offering all these opportunities, Tunisian cultural and
creative producers are more and more confronting the international cultural and
creative market.
In fact, international creative companies are extremely developed comparing
to Tunisian companies, and they are implementing artificial intelligence in the
creative sector in order to get closer to consumers. In return, Tunisia is still
upgrading to international markets.
Tunisian advertisers are more and more oriented towards Google and
Facebook and they are neglecting the local online media. In return, the local
economy is not beneficiating anymore from these advertisers.
Besides, the weakening of Tunisian platforms can be a real threat for the local
creative economy, because it will be difficult to resist all the existent
international platforms where the Tunisian content is very low and negligible.
Despite this current situation, some Tunisian platforms such as “Artify” are
trying to find a good place in the digital, and are prioritizing Tunisian artworks.

The legal framework applied on the cultural and creative sectors is not updated
and well-adapted to the market evolutions.
A non-refreshed Example: according to the Tunisian customs 1 : “the import and export of
The
legal framework cultural and historical goods or literary and artistic works is subject to special
State
restrictions”.
This disposition disables the release of a contemporary artwork from the

1 : https://www.douane.gov.tn/biens -culturels/

37
Creative
industry Important facts Explanation
Actors
Tunisian territory, and it restricts international openness.
Thus, the current legal framework can slow down the creative actors to exercise
their profession and can even discourage them to do so.

According to a survey made by the Word Economic Forum2 , it has been proved
Heavy that Tunisia is suffering from an inefficient government bureaucracy. This
administrative inefficiency is automatically applied to cultural and creative projects and
processes investments.

The State is so far the first investor in the cultural and creative industry.
This position has been inherited since the 60s and 70s, where the State
represented the only guarantor of culture and creativity in Tunisia.
The State, a Even with the opening of new private creative organisms, the State did not
monopolistic abandon its dominant position that can slow down the development of these
economic actor private creative economic actors, and this is due to different factors such as:
of creativity A monopoly that is not open to completion.
Favoring public economic actors to the detriment of private economic actors
by public services.

Following the post-2011 economic crisis, the Tunisian State is facing a structural
transformation. Thereafter, the budged dedicated to cultural and creative is
challenged on several levels.
First, the cost of the functioning economy affiliated to the subsidy system is
Structural increasing by the direct effect of inflation.
disengagement Second, the State’s priorities are in general oriented towards other sectors and
of the State investments.
In 2021, the State has dedicated 358.4 million Dinars 3 to the cultural affairs
ministry which represents only 0.68% of the total State budget.

Once interested in investing in local cultural and creative industries, a private

investor will systematically look for evaluating the current market situation in
order to guaranty his strategical choices.
The market evaluation is mainly based on numbers. But, there is a significant
Lack of data and
lack of data and information concerning the different transactions in cultural
transaction
creative sector in Tunisia.
transparency
This poor data is due to two important factors:
which restrict
Lack of specific indicators to evaluate the cultural and creative economy.
the investments
Lack of surveys treating different tendencies of this sector such as
Private consumption tendencies.
investors  This lack of data and transaction transparency can as a result discourage
private investors to invest in this sector.
The private The private sector has two complementary roles:
sector, an An investor role: Private sectors offer financial resources that can help talents
important actor to create, communicate, and present their artworks to the public.
for revitalizing A sponsor role: As a sponsor, investors have certain logic of promoting culture
the creative and and creativity, and an intention to broaden the demand.
cultural
economy in
Tunisia
(Source: Adapted from: Biat’s report (Karoui, 2019))

2: https://www.ilboursa.com/marches/world-economic-forum-les-16-boulets-du-climat-des-affaires-en-

tunisie_14910
3: https://tunisie.co/article/15090/culture/art-et-literrature/358-mdt-le-budget-2021-du-ministere-des-affaires-

culturelles-142209#:~:text=Le%20budget%20du%20minist%C3%A8re%20des,cours%20(0%2C74%25)

38
 Chapter 3: COO effect and the moderating role of consumer
ethnocentrism xenocentrism: Conceptual model development

In order to define our conceptual model, we will present the development of the different
hypotheses through the argumentation of the links between dependent and independent
variables. And also we will provide specific details about consumer ethnocentrism and
consumer xenocentrism and the moderating role of those two consumer orientations on the
links between consumer’s intention to watch a domestic versus foreign movie at the cinema
and its antecedents. We will start with a literature revue of consumer ethnocentrism and
consumer xenocentrism and then we will present our conceptual model and the different
hypothesis.

Section 1: Consumer xenocentrism

In this section we will present the consumer xenocentrism variable. In a first step we are
going to introduce this section with brief representation of the sociological word
“Xenocentrism”. Second, we will focus on the consumer xenocentrism and its different
dimensions.

1. Xenocentrism

1.1. Etymology

Xenocentrism is a sociological term that is composed of two words: "Xeno" and "centrism".

"Xeno" is a Greek word which has the meaning of "stranger" and it's pronounced "zeeno".

The word "Centrism" is used basically in politics and it indicates an intermediate ideology
position. In general, centric individuals are those who prefer keeping away from political
extremes. In Marketing, consumer centrism is composed of three identity bases which are
ethnocentrism, xenocentrism and cosmopolitanism (Prince et al, 2016).

1.2. Definitions of xenocentrism

Xenocentrism was invented by two American sociologists Kent and Burnight in 1951 to
counterpart the term "ethnocentrism".

First defined by these two researchers, xenocentrism is a psychological attitude and it

represents “a view of things in which a group other than one's own is the center of everything,
39
and all others, including one's own group, are scaled and rated with reference to it”.
Therefore, individuals who have preferences for another society instead of their own society
and who evaluate everything in reference to it are xenocentric (Kent and Burnight 1951).

Kent and Burnight, 1951, had considered xenocentrism as feelings that persist in complex
societies and they are almost subjective. Well, a xenocentric person tends to perceive errors
where none exists. In this case, a mental set had biased that perception. They had also
mentioned three categories of xenocentrics. First, the aesthete type who totally neglects his
own culture to support a foreign culture that he may know very few things about.

The second type is the first generation nationals who abandon their native culture to support
their new national culture, the culture of where they actually live. And finally, the second and
third generation descendants who have an idealistic image of their forefathers’ culture and
they believe that this one is superior to all other cultures (Mueller et Al, 2016).

This phenomenon refers to the fact that individuals have a positive orientation to an out-group
and a negative orientation to their in-group and it has been discussed by other researchers
without mentioning the term "xenocentrism". These authors had described it using other
different words such as: "negative ethnocentrism" (Swartz 1961), "disaffected nationals"
(Geutzhow's, 1955), "renegades" (Singer and Radloff, 1963), "alienated" (DeLamter et al,
1969) and "alter-centrism" (Montero 1986). However, all these authors had not been agreed
about a collective term to specify this phenomenon (Hyman and Singer, 1968). In 1993,
Eshleman, Cashion and Asirico had proposed another definition for “Xenocentrism” and had
considered it as the fact that products, lifestyle and ideas that have a foreign origin are judged
better and superior to our own ones.

Recently in 2016, Prince et al had defined xenocentrism as an out-group or out-groups

preference and an in-group rejection. Xenocentrism has also been defined by Balabanis and
Diamantopoulos in 2016 as “out-groups favoritism coupled with one’s own in-group’s
negative perception.”

2. Consumer xenocentrism

2.1. Definitions of consumer xenocentrism

To define consumer xenocentrism, Mueller et Al (2016) were based on Kent and Burnight’s
research that treated the Xenocentrism concept. According to Mueller et Al (2016), consumer

40
xenocentrism reflects persons who have preferences for products from a foreign country or
region and who do not evaluate products in reference to their own country but they refer to
foreign countries to scale these products. In 2016, Blabanis and Diamantopoulos had
presented consumer xenocentrism as “a bias in favor of foreign products over those which are
domestic, and this preference occurs even in cases which are impractical.”

Based on system of justification theory (Jost and Banaji 1994; Jost et al, 2004), consumer
xenocentrism has been conceptualized as a second order construct that is composed of two
dimensions; “perceived inferiority” and “social aggrandizement” (Blabanis and
Diamantopoulos, 2016). In fact, these two marketers consider that a xenocentric consumer
may have a perceived inferiority toward domestic products and prefers foreign products for
social aggrandizement reasons.

2.2. Consumer Xenocentrism dimensions

2.2.1. Perceived inferiority

Perceived inferiority is one of the two dimensions that explain consumer xenocentrism and is
defined as a tendency to underestimate, to denigrate and fail to appreciate domestic brands
and products (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016).

As suggested by the SJT, the perceived inferiority represents a negative stereotyping of the
consumer’s in-group. In effect, Xenocentric consumer considers that products made by his
own country are worse than those made in higher-level foreign countries.

These beliefs may be explained by different factors that are related to the consumer’s home
country, for example, infrastructure, level of technology, economical situation, human capital
etc. Thus, this kind of perceptions may lead to a negative judgement of the home country’s
product country image (PCI) (Diamantopoulos et al, 2018). Therefore, Diamantopoulos et al
(2018) have suggested that when faced with domestic products, Xenocentric consumers will
devalue their home country PCI and even more, they will layout negative attitudes towards
other products produced in that same country.

According to Touzani et al (2015), the complex of the decolonized represents one of the
variables that may lead to prefer foreign products against local products in the Tunisian
context. In fact, it indicates a stereotypical belief of citizenries of previously colonized
countries that everything from foreign countries especially from Western countries is
systematically superior to anything local.

41
 2.2.2. Social aggrandizement

This second dimension represents “the emphasis placed on the symbolic value of foreign
products as way of enhancing perceived social status” (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016)
and this matches the SJT’s hypothesis about the outgroup favoritism.

In 1987, Bra-Haim has deduced the different motivations that drive Chinese consumers to
purchase Western goods and among these motivations, there was the “symbols of status”.

In fact, Eastern European consumers are buying foreign goods to become distinguishable
from others, to give a good image to their social level and to impress. In other words, the fact
that these products are imported from foreign countries (superior Western countries) this
represents for them “symbols of status” (Bra-Haim, 1987).

In the Chinese context, “Almost anything Western (Western beauty, Western technology,
Western style etc.) is considered ‘Shishang’ (fashionable)” (Zhou and Belk, 2004) because
Chinese consumers consider it as a symbol that relates people who are successful, those
estimating to be successful and those looking for success. Purchasing and consuming Western
products is perceived to distinguish the “successful” from the “unsuccessful” (Zhou and Belk,
2004).

The social aggrandizement doesn’t only concern wealthy elites in developing countries;
poorer consumers are also trying to find other ways to show that they are consuming foreign
products.

2.3. System of justification theory (SJT)

The SJT (Jost and Banajis 1994) is judged to be the dominant theory that explains the most
consumer xenocentrism (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016, Diamantopoulos et al, 2018;
Rojas-Méndez and Chapa, 2019). This theory was developed in the social psychology
discipline, and it describes ingroup inferiority and out-group superiority phenomena. Low-
status groups (the case of developing countries) accept the fact that they have a low status,
and thus, they tend to discriminate themselves (Jost and Andrews, 2012; Rojas-Méndez and
Chapa, 2019). Individuals belonging to low-status groups (For example: On the economic
level), exhibit rejection of their ingroup and display favoritism towards out-groups once they
perceive reasonable differences between ingroup and out-group (Jost and Burgess, 2000).

42
According to Jost and Hunyady (2005), this kind of behaviors helps individuals from low-
status groups cope with the imbalance and the inequity in the world. In effect, perceived
inferiority of a one’s ingroup leads him to own goods belonging to high status countries in
order to increase his own status (Sivanatan and Pettit, 2010). As a result, xenocentrism rises
since foreign products are in general judged to be better domestic products in developing
countries.

2.4. Consumer xenocentrism measurement scales

In order to measure the consumer xenocentrism, researchers started to use a reverse

interpretation of CETSCALE (Prince et al., 2016; Soto, 2008; Bailey and de Pineres, 1997).
In other words, they supposed that a low level of ethnocentrism refers to xenocentric
tendencies. Indeed, this interpretation was judged incorrect since a non-ethnocentric person
need not automatically be xenocentric (Rojas-Méndez and Chapa, 2019). Thereafter, three
different consumer xenocentrism have been developed (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016;
Prince et al, 1016; Rojas-Méndez and Chapa, 2019). The following table presents the three
measurement scales and their characteristics.

Table 8: Consumer xenocentrism measurement scales

Scale Dimensions Items Context

-This scale was developed

CXENO 6 (5-point Likert
Unidimensional in USA
(Lawrence, 2012) scale)
-Products

5 (7-point Likert - This scale was developed

Perceived inferiority
C-XENSCALE scale) in Greece
(Balabanis and - 12 diverse product
Diamantopoulos, 2016) categories
5 (7-point Likert
Social aggrandizement
scale)

5 (7-point Liker
Foreign admiration -This scale was developed
X-SCALE scale)
in China, Ecuador, Mexico,
(Rojas-Méndez and Chapa,
Peru and Colombia
2019) 5 (7-point Liker
Domestic rejection -Products
scale)

43
Section 2: Consumer Ethnocentrism

In this section we will present the consumer ethnocentrism variable. In a first step we are
going to introduce this section with brief representation of the sociological word
“Ethnocentrism”. Second, we will focus on the consumer ethnocentrism and its different
dimensions

1. Ethnocentrism

Who has actually coined the term “Ethnocentrism”?

This question has been discussed several times in several research papers. In fact, it is widely
known that the term “ethnocentrism” was created by Sumner in his book Folkways (1906). In
opposition to this fact, it has been proved in several articles that this term has been coined by
the Polish sociologist Gumplowicz in his Polish books written in 1879 and 1881 where he
talked about “Ethnocentrismus”. In 2014, Bizumic has conceptualized ethnocentrism and has
agreed that this term was coined by Gumplowicz in 1879, and even more, he has advocated
future writers to stop giving Sumner the credit for the development of this concept.

1.1. Etymology

Ethnocentrism is a sociological term that is composed of two different Greek words: “Ethnos”
and “Kentron”. The word “Ethnos” refers to “nation”, and the word “Kentron” means
“center”.

1.2. Definitions of ethnocentrism

The conceptualization of ethnocentrism has started with the sociologist Gumplowicz since
1879. According to him, ethnocentrism is considered as an illusionary predisposition where
people believe that their ethnic group is better and more important than other ethnic groups,
and that it is in the heart of everything.

Widely influenced by Gumplowicz, the US social scientist Sumner (1906) considered

ethnocentrism as an attitudinal construct; “The sentiment of cohesion, internal comradeship
and devotion to the ingroup, which carries with it a sense of superiority to any outgroup and
readiness to defend the interests of the ingroup against the outgroup, is technically known as
ethnocentrism” (Sumner, 1911). Sumner relates ethnocentrism to dislike and hatred of ethnic

44
outgroups very strongly. In result, subsequent social scientists have treated ethnocentrism as a
unidimensional construct (Bizumic and Bizumic, 2018).

Over the years, the concept of ethnocentrism became unclear because of its use to study
different kinds of groups beyond ethnic groups such as artificial groups (Crocker and
Schwartz, 1985) and groups based on gender (Grant, 1993). Thereafter, ethnocentrism started
to have different meanings presented by different researchers.

Based on Sumner’s definition, Bizumic et al conceptualized ethnocentrism in 2009

considering it as an attitudinal construct emerging from the belief that one’s ethnic group is
widely important. They asserted that ethnocentrism is a distinct notion that, on the one hand,
refers to ingroup positivity, and on the other hand refers to outgroup prejudice, that it
principally concerns ethnic groups, and that it is a multidimensional concept including six
different dimensions that are: Devotion, Group cohesion, Preference, Superiority, Purity and
Exploitativeness.

2. Consumer ethnocentrism

2.1. Definition of consumer ethnocentrism

First defined by Shimp and Sharma (1987), consumer ethnocentrism refers to the fact that
consumers believe that purchasing foreign products is unethical and unpatriotic, injures the
domestic economy, and engenders job losses. Ethnocentric consumers tend to perceive local
products as better and superior to foreign products.

Highly ethnocentric consumers perceive wrong the purchase of foreign products because of
its negative effect on the local economy (Shimp and Sharma, 1987). Low ethnocentric
consumers are more inclined to evaluate a product based essentially on its qualities.

2.2. Ethnocentric tendencies

Ethnocentric consumers believe that purchasing foreign products is immoral since it may
damage the home country’s economy and also because it is perceived disloyal to the
consumer’s country (Shimp and Sharma, 1987).

According to Shimp and Sharma (1987, p.280), “objects of contempt” is how ethnocentric
consumers perceive foreign products. Domestic products refer to ethnocentric consumers’
local culture. In fact, ethnocentric consumers believe that their own culture is superior to and

45
better than any other foreign culture (Li et al, 2014). Ethnocentrism is as well negatively
associated to attitudes and preferences towards foreign products (He and Wang, 2015). Thus,
besides its pro-domestic signification, consumer ethnocentrism is also an anti-foreign
construct.

In the case where certain products are not available in their own country, consumers with a
certain level of ethnocentrism buy products that belong to countries with similar culture
instead of culturally dissimilar countries products (Watson and Wright, 2000; Li et al, 2014).
Preferences for and purchase willingness to buy domestic or foreign products are influenced
by consumer ethnocentrism so far as this consumer orientation leads persons to consume local
instead of foreign products (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2004; Cleveland et al, 2009).

2.3. The social identity theory

Consumer ethnocentrism is principally based on the social identity theory (Zeugner-Roth et

al, 2015; Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016).

Social identity theory explains intergroup behavior as affirmed by Brown (2000). According
to Tajfel and Turner (1979), this theory refers to ingroup favoritism and out-group
devaluation. These authors admit that this favoritism is the case since individuals seek to carry
a favorable self-image for their self-esteem.

This self-concept emanates from positively perceiving the groups people identify with
(Brown, 2000). The social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954), human beings have a need to
judge themselves comparing to others, and following this theory, individual judge their own
group with other groups. In order to preserve their positive self-concept, individuals tend to
devalue outgroup and to value their own group (Hornsey, 2008).

Consumer ethnocentrism is based on the social identity theory insofar as it refers to in-group
valuing and out-group devaluing. In other words, ethnocentric consumers consider their own
culture to be superior and they prefer their local products (Lee et al, 2014). And also,
ethnocentric consumers despise foreign products which lead them to reject these products
(Shimp and Sharma, 1987). This tendency helps ethnocentric consumers to maintain their
positive self-image. The social identity theory is generally appropriate in the developed
countries (Shimp and Sharma, 1987; Watson and Wright, 2000).

46
 2.4. Consumer ethnocentrism’s dimensionality

Shimp and Sharma (1987) presented consumer ethnocentrism as a unidimensional construct,

and in order to measure this construct, they developed a unidimensional measurement scale
(CETSCALE). The following authors who examined consumer ethnocentrism using
CETSCALE, treated this construct differently, by considering it as a multidimensional
construct (Douglas and Nijssen, 2003; Weber et al, 2015; Ghani and Mat, 2017).

In 2015, Siamagka and Blabanis developed a new multidimensional scale (CEESCALE) to

measure consumer ethnocentrism. This time, consumer ethnocentrism construct contained
five different dimensions (Prosociality, cognition, insecurity, reflexiveness, and habituation).
The Prosociality refers to love and sacrifice expressed by ethnocentric consumers towards
their home country. Cognition considers that ethnocentric consumers perceive the world
through ethnic groups. Insecurity refers to the fact that ethnocentric consumers believe that
foreign products threaten their country’s economy and the domestic employment. The
reflexiveness predicts that ethnocentrism is due to biased information that is received
frequently, which leads to foreign products rejection. And finally, the habituation dimension
focuses on how consumer ethnocentrism is caused by a repeated behavior related to morality.
Sharma developed a new consumer ethnocentrism measurement scale (CES) in 2015, and he
examined this construct as a multidimensional construct. Based on ABC structure (LaPiere,
1934), Sharma (2015) considered consumer ethnocentrism to be an attitudinal construct
containing the three dimensions that form the attitude; affective reaction, cognitive bias and
behavioral preference.

The affective reaction is related to an ethnocentric emotion that, on the one hand, leads to the
distinction between consumer’s own group and others, and on the other hand, leads to the
suspicion for other groups. Thus, the affective reaction dimension might clarify why
consumers with a high level of ethnocentrism tend to express affinity for domestic goods, and
reject for foreign goods, without considering the respective quality. The cognitive bias
dimension refers to the favorable perception hold by ethnocentric consumers towards
domestic products compared to foreign ones. Finally, the third dimension, called “behavioral
preference”, goes beyond consumer’s preference to purchase domestic products instead of
foreign products. It also relates consumer ethnocentrism to behavioral aspects such as
willingness to buy, purchase and positive word of mouth. In the current study, consumer
ethnocentrism is considered to be a unidimensional construct.

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 2.5. Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scales

Through the literature, we distinguish that scales measuring the consumer ethnocentrism are
very scarce. In fact, there are only three consumer ethnocentrism measurement scales (Shimp
and Sharma, 1987; Sharma, 2014; Siamagka and Balabanis, 2015). The table below presents
the three measurement scales and their characteristics.

Table 9: Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scales

Scale Dimensions Items Context

- This scale was

CETSCALE 17 (7-point Likert developed in USA
Unidimensional
(Shimp and Sharma, 1987) scale) - Products

Affective reaction 6 - This scale was

developed in China,
CES
Cognitive bias 6 India, UK and USA)
(Sharma, 2015)
- Products and services
Behavioral preference 6
5 (7-point Likert -This scale was
Prosociality
scale) developed in UK and
3 (7-point Likert USA
Cognition - Brands
scale)
CEESCALE
3 (7-point Likert
(Siamagka and Balabanis, Insecurity
scale)
2015)
3 (7-point Likert
Reflexiveness
scale)
3 (7-point Likert
Habituation
scale)

Section 3: Studying the causal links between country of origin image,

product image, and the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the
cinema: Hypotheses development

In our study, we aim to examine the country of origin effect on consumer behavioral
intentions based on both cognitive and affective country image, since attitude theory predicts
that both country affect and cognition cues have an impact on consumer behavior (Shiv et
Fedorikhin, 1999). To do so, we decided to test affective CI and cognitive CI separately as
two independent behavior predictors based principally on the separate systems perspective
(Zajonc’s, 1980).

48
In fact, it is important to distinguish between cognitive and affective CI for the simple reason
that a person may simultaneously maintain different and inconsistent cognitive perceptions
and affective images of the same country (Wang et al, 2012). For example, statistics in
Europe have found that although people maintain unfavorable emotions towards US foreign
policy, they like American business and products (Guyon, 2003).

The current study admits that both cognitive and affective CI influence the consumer’s
behavioral intentions in different ways. And In this section, we will present the causal links
between the different variables of our conceptual model. These links will allow us to define
the conceptual model of our research.

1. Cognitive country image, product image (movies) and consumer’s behavioral

intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema

Cognitive CI may, on the first hand, refer to a country’s industrialization, economic

development, living standards and technological advancement, and on the other hand, it may
refer to a country’s people image. Product image meanwhile is based on the overall
perception of a specific country’s products and services. This link was suggested and
confirmed in previous studies.

In the current study, product image refers to the overall movies image of a given country. In
line with this, overall movies image is based on the overall perception of a specific country’s
movies.

Following the “halo” effect of COI, consumers may use the country of origin as a summarized
attribute to make inferences towards a product’s quality (Han, 1989). In our case, we believe
that, when making an experiential decision, consumers may implement cognitive CI as a halo
to deduce the overall product quality and shape general perceptions of different products
coming from that country (Li et al, 2014). For example, consumers may use cognitive cues
when choosing to watch a movie from a specific country at the cinema (for example: the
advanced technology of a country may give us an idea about the movie’s technical quality).

Research on the COO effect has, in general, examined the impact of product image on the
perception of the overall product quality (Johansson, Douglas and Nonaka, 1985; Bilkey and
Nes, 1982; Papadopoulos and Heslop, 1993). In fact, COO acts as a cue of product quality
(Han, 1989) and impacts the purchase likelihood (Laroche et al, 2005). Yaprak and
Parameswaran (1986) have demonstrated that, specific product characteristics, consumer’s

49
general perceptions of products coming from a specific country, and the perceptions of that
country, directly influence consumer’s behavioral intention and choices. However, the
country of origin’s impact on consumer’s behavioral intention is primarily conducted by
consumer’s perceptions of the characteristics of a particular product (Wang et al, 2012). Thus,
there exists a link between cognitive CI, PI and behavioral intentions. More particularly,
cognitive CI has an impact on overall movies image associated with a particular country,
which in turn influences behavioral influences.

In 2012, Wang et al have argued that the impact of the cognitive country image on consumer
behavior can be better understood by separating the effects of cognitive county image and
product image. In fact, according to them, when consumers do not have a high knowledge
about a country’s product, they will count more on their stereotypical beliefs towards a
country in order to form the image of that country’s product image. In such situations,
cognitive country image is considered to have an impact on consumer product quality
evaluation, which in turn will impact the purchase intention. However, when consumers have
a good knowledge regarding products from a given country, they will rely more on product
image than cognitive country image to infer product quality and make choice decisions. As a
result, the cognitive image of a given country impacts consumers’ purchase intentions
indirectly through product image (Wang et al, 2012). In line with these arguments, we expect
that cognitive CI is positively related to the overall movies image, that product movies image
is positively related to the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema, and that
the cognitive CI is indirectly related to the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the
cinema through the overall movies image.

H1: The cognitive country image has a positive direct effect on the overall movies image
(product image)

H2: The overall movies image (product image) influences the intention to watch a
domestic/foreign movie at the cinema

H3: The overall movies image mediates the impact of the cognitive country image on the
intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema

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 2. Affective CI, Overall movies image (product image), and consumer’s intention to
watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema

Country of origin may act as a salient attribute that does not only evoke cognitive stereotypes
associated with a country. This stems from consumers’ purchase intentions not only being
affected by product quality evaluations, but more importantly by the affective evaluations for
a given country (Klein et al, 1998; Nebenzahl, Jaffe & Lampert, 1997).

Apart from its cognitive component, country of origin may play the role of a salient attribute
through its affective component (Laroche et al, 2005; Wang et al, 2012; Li et al, 2014; Moon,
2017; Lopez and Balabanis, 2020). In fact, consumer’s behavioral intentions may be impacted
by the affective image of given country.

Following the affect as information approach (Clore, Schwarz, & Conway, 1994; Schwarz &
Clore, 1983; Wyer, Clore, & Isbell, 1999), consumers tend, or not, to form attitudes using
their affection, depending on their degree of belief that affection is a basis of judgment (Wang
et al, 2012). Consumers may be able to form judgments about any given target through their
feelings, which forms the basis of their attitudes (Wyer et al, 1999). As a result, Affection
might play a significant role in the formation of preferences (Hoffman, 1986).

In the case where affective CI and cognitive CI are harmonious, consumers tend to use
affection to enhance information processing. When affective CI and cognitive CI are
inconsistent, affective CI might dominate the cognitive CI effect, thus, consumers will tend to
use affection to form information processing (Wyer et al, 1999; Wang et al, 2012). For
example, Alvarez and Campo (2014) have found that negative emotions expressed by
consumers towards Israel affects directly their intention to visit it, even if these emotions are
associated to favorable cognitive CI. Additionally, Sanchez, Campo and Alvarez (2018) have
demonstrated the direct impact of animosity towards a given country on the intention to visit
it. In the case of emerging countries, positive emotions towards a given country may
positively influence consumer’s behavioral intentions towards it Kim and Yoon (2003).

In the current study, we suggest that, when faced with Tunisian and foreign movies at the
cinema, consumers may implement affective components towards the different countries in
order to choose the movie to watch (for example: If a person likes culture and people from a
given country, this person may intent to choose to watch movies from that country since
movies reflects the given country’s culture and lifestyle). Thus, we believe that affective CI

51
will directly and positively influence consumer’s intention to watch a Tunisian versus foreign
movie at the cinema, and such impact doesn’t depend on PI or cognitive CI effects.

On the other hand, the affect literature shows that people may incorporate their feelings into
evaluation through the mechanism of affect transfer (Pham, 2004). Based on the theory of
classical conditioning (Gorn, 1982), consumers’ affective responses elicited by a country may
be carried over to its products. For example, Laroche et al. (2005) found that when a country’s
image has a strong affective component, the country image has a positive impact on
consumers’ product evaluations. The classical conditioning theory also posits that this affect
transfer process is based on mere association and not much on inference making (Gorn,
1982). As this process occurs in a more “automatic” fashion (Pham, 2004), we argue that
affective country image positively influences the general product image of a country for both
rational and experimental purchases. In line with this, we argue that affective country image
positively influences the product image namely movies image of a given country, especially
that movies are experiential products, and when confronting experiential or hedonic products,
consumers tend to rely on non-rational factors (Imagery, emotions, symbolism, etc.) to
evaluate these products (Batra et al., 2000; Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982).

These arguments allowed us to propose hypotheses bellow:

H4: The affective country image influences the overall movies image (product image)

H5: the affective country image influences consumer’s intention to watch a

domestic/foreign movie at the cinema

3. The moderating role of Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism

The current study is basically studying the consumer’s intention to watch a domestic versus
foreign movie at the cinema, and when talking about the consumer’s choice between local and
foreign products, “consumer ethnocentrism” and “consumer xenocentrism” are two variables
that may affect this choice and they represent simultaneously domestic and foreign country
biases (Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2004; Balabanis and Diamantopoulos, 2016).
Therefore we decided to study the moderating effect of “consumer ethnocentrism” and
“consumer xenocentrism” in our conceptual model. In fact, we believe that the moderating
effects of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism exist on the different links
between our dependent and independent variables present in our conceptual model.

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Unlike consumer xenocentrism, consumer ethnocentrism has been already tested as a
moderator in some previous studies (Supphellen and Gronhaug, 2003; Vuong and Khanh
Giao, 2020). In the following section, we will present separately the potential moderating
effect of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism on each link.

3.1. The moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism

According to Shimp and Sharma (1987), consumer ethnocentrism represents the belief that
consuming foreign products is unethical and may damage the home country’s economy.

Based on social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1979; 1986), which is a theory that
explains the most consumer ethnocentrism (Zeugner-Roth et al, 2015; Balabanis and
Diamantopoulos, 2016), ethnocentric consumers believe that their culture is superior to all
others, and they tend to associate local products to their local culture (Lee et al, 2014).
Furthermore, consumer ethnocentrism is also associated to attitudes towards foreign products,
and intentions to buy foreign products in a negative way (He and Wang, 2015,
Shankarmahesh, 2006). As a result, when faced with domestic products and other products
from foreign countries, consumers with high ethnocentrism level will tend to consume
domestic products instead of foreign ones. Thus, we suppose that consumer ethnocentrism
may moderate both the direct impact the overall movies image and the affective country
image on the intention to watch a local movie at the cinema.

On the first hand, we suppose that the consumer ethnocentrism positively moderates the
impact of the overall Tunisian movies image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the
cinema. Also, we suppose that the consumer ethnocentrism positively moderates the impact of
the affective Tunisia image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema.

H6: The impact of affective Tunisia image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at
the cinema is positively moderated by consumer ethnocentrism level

H7: The overall Tunisian movies image impact on the intention to watch a Tunisian
movie at the cinema is positively moderated by the consumer ethnocentrism

3.2. The moderating effect of consumer xenocentrism

“A person who prefers products from a country other than their own and who rates products
in reference to the foreign country and not their own” is how Mueller et al (2016) have
defined consumer xenocentrism.

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Based on system of justification theory, Balabanis and Diamantopoulos (2016),
Diamantopoulos, Davydova and Arslanagic-Kalajdzic, (2018), and Rojas and Chapa (2019)
approved statistically that consumer xenocentrism is negatively connected to purchase
intention of local products and it is positively connected to purchase intention of foreign
products, produced in countries that are perceived superior to the person’s own country.

As a result, when faced with domestic products and others from foreign countries, consumers
with high xenocentrism level will tend to consume foreign products instead of domestic ones.
Thus, we suppose that consumer xenocentrism may moderate both the impact of the overall
movies the movies image on the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema,
and the link between affective country image and the intention to watch a domestic/foreign
movie at the cinema.

First, we suppose that the consumer xenocentrism positively moderates the impact of the
overall Turkish/South Korean movies on the intention to watch a Turkish/South Korean
movie at the cinema. On the second hand, we suppose that the impact of the affective
Turkey/South Korea image on the intention a Turkish/South Korean movie at the cinema.

Following the arguments bellow we propose these hypotheses:

H8: The impact of affective foreign country image on the intention to watch a foreign
movie at the cinema is positively moderated by consumer xenocentrism level

H9: The overall foreign movies image (PI) impact on the intention to watch a foreign
movie at the cinema is positively moderated by the consumer xenocentrism

It is important to mention that, as far as we know, the moderating role of consumer

xenocentrism has not been studied yet in prior studies.

54
Section 4: Research’s conceptual models

In this section we will present our conceptual model that contains our explanatory, mediating,
dependent, and moderating variables. Our literature review presented in chapter one and two
allowed us to develop these four conceptual models presented in the figure bellow

Figure 1: The Conceptual Model

In order to make sure to have better results, we decided to control our conceptual model by
introducing two control variables, namely; movies genre preferences, and familiarity to
movies from a given country. In fact, the product familiarity has always been an important
cue in country of origin effect studies and it may influence the intention to buy that product
(Soltman et al, 1991). We believe that if consumers are familiar with movies from a given
country, they would intend to watch more movies from that country. This conceptual model
will be tested on three different movies origins.

55
Part II: Methodology and results

56
 Chapter 1: Methodology, data collection and data processing

This chapter treats the methodological approach, the data collecting and processing. In this
chapter, we will discuss this study’s research method and provide more details about our
research design. First, we will provide a brief reminder of the research objectives and
operational framework.

This research is a quantitative one, and before conducting our quantitative study, we
conducted two qualitative pre-surveys in order to choose the different countries and to better
understand the Tunisian movies and series consumer.

Section 1: Research objectives and operational framework

This section will contain a reminding of this research’s objectives and will clarify its
epistemological approach.

1. Research objectives

In the context of cultural products, our research will investigate the impact of the cognitive
country image, the affective country image, and the overall movies image on consumer’s
intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the cinema. We will also study the moderating role
of the consumer xenocentrism, and the consumer ethnocentrism on the links between the
overall movies image (product image) and the intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the
cinema, and the affective country image and the intention to watch a local/foreign movie at
the cinema.

Research objectives:

 Study the impact of the country of image on the intention to watch a Tunisian/foreign
movie at the cinema through both the cognitive and the affective components.
 Study the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer
xenocentrism on the impact of the country image on the intention to watch a
Tunisian/foreign movie at the cinema.

2. Epistemological approach

In this academic research, we followed the post-positivism with a hypothetico-deductive

approach. This method is established thanks to a specific theoretical model made up from a

57
well-organized, well defined concepts system and few hypotheses that are all linked together
forming a coherent whole (Uzunidis, 2007). This scientific method helped us to generate the
realistic and testable hypotheses we mentioned previously in the last section, based on initial
predictions formed through a daily life observation.

Section 2: Preliminary exploratory study

We conducted an exploratory study given the complexity of cultural products especially

movies, and the scarcity of studies in emerging countries. The Tunisian context needs to be
more explored in order to avoid the imposed-etic view proposed by the existing theories.

Thereafter, we decided to use to conduct a qualitative study in order to better understand the
Tunisian movie consumer’s behavior. In fact, we tried to explore more and more the Tunisian
movie consumption area.

Our exploratory study is composed by two different methodological tools; Netnography and
semi-structured interview. In the next subsection, we are going to present our two
preliminary studies’ objectives, data collection methods, sample characteristics and data
analyses.

1. Netnography

“Netnography is the name given to a specific set of related ethnographic, data analysis,
ethical, and representational practices, conducted using the social and cultural data that people
share freely through the internet.” (Kozinets, 2015)

Unlike ethnography, netnography is not a field study. This data collection method is applied
through the internet which makes of it a less intrusive approach. This specificity allows the
researcher to collect a more realistic data since the studied population is expressing its
different opinions in a spontaneous way.

According to Kozinets (2015), this qualitative method is considered as a more naturalistic

data collection comparing to survey, experiments, focus groups and individual interviews.
Netnography is a five steps method as represented by Kozinets in 2010: (1) Entrée, (2) Data
collection, (3) Data analysis, (4) ethical standards guaranty and (5) Ensuring research
representation.

58
These steps were followed by different Netnographic followers and were mentioned in many
research papers (e.g. Belz and Baumbach 2010; Kozinets 2002, 2015).

1.1. Entrée

In this step we are going to present the online community that we decided to analyze.

Since our research problematic is principally focusing on the movies consumption, we have
chosen the well-known Facebook group named “On a regardé pour vous “films et séries”.
This online group includes an important number of persons whose interest is to watch movie
via internet or at the cinema. Of course, on Facebook there are several Tunisian groups
dedicated for films and series viewers (figure2), but this group (On a regardé pour vous “films
et series) is the most visited and the most known group in Tunisia.

Figure 2: Films and series Facebook groups in Tunisia

59
The different reasons why we have chosen this online community are:

 The first reason why we have chosen this online community is this Facebook group’s
principle interest which is “movies and TV series experiences”. This group was
created in 2014 and today, it is considered as the most famous Tunisian group that has
cinematographic concerns and it has kept the same interests. Well, all the shared posts
are about the different movies and series that have been consumed by different
members and any other posts that are not about these two cultural products are deleted
by the group admins.
 Second, we have chosen this Facebook group for its high number of members; in fact,
this Facebook community is composed of 301,1K members.
 Third, the most important reason why we have chosen this online community is the
number of posts shared per day. It is very distinguishable that these group members
are very active and interactive. Many members are publishing posts where they are
giving their opinions about certain movies or series; they are even describing their
experiences by evoking what they have felt during watching a movie or a series. And
more than that, the comments below every post are even more interesting and juicy in
term of data collection.

1.2. Netnographic data collection

In a netrography, we distinguish three different data collection forms: the archival, the elicited
and the field-note data (Kozinets, 2015). These three netnographic data collections depend
basically on the participation of the researcher in creating the data.

In our case, we employed the archival data collection method, and to do so, we conducted a
non-participant method. The researcher in this case is 0% involved in the creation of data. We
decided to use this method in order to obtain the most spontaneous information.

The data was collected during 5 moths (January, February, March, June and July 2020). We
observed most of the movies and series posts, the different comments and interactions. We
elaborated a table including movies and series’ titles, country origin, number of comments
and likes (interactions), and finally, the most interesting comments and remarks (texts) (see
appendix3, p166). Besides these data, we also took some screenshots.

60
 1.3. Netnographic data analysis

In order to conduct the data analysis, we used the content analysis method. After collecting
data from posts and comments published on the Facebook group “On a regardé pour vous des
films et des series”, we conducted a coding of all these data in order to identify the different
variables mentioned by group members through their posts and comments. Finally, an
analysis and an interpretation of this data seem important to better understand the Tunisian
series and movies viewer. A set of variables that have been reached will be identified
separately in this section.

1.3.1. Variables related to the country of origin

Through our collected data, we distinguished that group members are publishing movies and
series from different countries. These movies and series are almost American, Egyptian,
Tunisian, Turkish, Spanish, Sub-Korean, Indian, Syrian, Palestinian, and Lebanese.

Table 10: Approximate number of movies and series posts in “On a regardé pour
vous des films et des series”

Number of published posts (movies and series)

Month
Tunisian Spanish Turkish Sub-Korean Indian Egyptian Hollywood
Jenuary 15 6 7 4 1 3 <35
February 16 5 3 8 2 8 <20
March 6 6 3 3 0 1 <10
June 9 3 4 3 1 4 <15
July 8 4 5 1 1 3 <11

1.3.1.1. Movie choice based on the country of origin

Based on some posts published on the observed group, we distinguished the mention of the
country of origin of some movies. In general, a movie’s country of origin was not mentioned
in the case of Hollywood or Egyptian movies, but when publishing a Tunisian, Turkish,

61
South-Korean, Indian (etc) movies, the country of origin was mentioned in most of the posts.

Thus, the country of origin may be an important determinent when choosing to watch a movie
other than Holywood or Egyptian movies. In addition, in cases where a given movie had two
versions from two different countries, the impact of the country of origin seem important and
may be significant in impacting attitudes towards that movie. For example, the fim “A miracle
in cell N7” was produced and realized in two different countries (Turkey and South Korea).

However, some members have expressed their preferences towards the Turkish version and
vice versa, and others have expressed their enjoyment towards the two versions.
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 Comment: “The Korean version is waay better”

Also, in some cases, people comment just to ask about the published movie or serie’s country of
origin, especialy when actors are not well-Known.

Knowing that the person who wrote the comment in the last screen shot is a male, this comment lead
us to propose the second variable that is the gender.

 These findings determine the importance of studying the country of origin effect in movies
context.

1.3.1.2.Gender and movies/series preferences with respect to country of origin

Through the netnography data, we distinguish that the gender may have a certain influence on
movies preferences with respect to the country of origin. In fact, Turkish movies posted in the
observed group had many positive comments and ikes from females and very little
interactions from males. Also, we determined the number of likes on a post of a Sub-Korean
movie and we find out that only eigh males on 81 have liked this post.

1.3.2. Variables related to attitudes towards movies/series with respect to the country of
origin

In this subsection we will not be treeting Hollywood or Egyptian movies, but ofcourse, group
members have been publishing an infinity of Hollywood movies.

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 1.3.2.1. Positive attitude towards foreign movies/series

Through several posts, group members expressed their enjoyment of watching movies
produced and realized in foreign countries.Turkish movies and are having a considerabe
success and group members are expressing a positive attitude towards these movies and
series. This positive attitude may be inderstood through hearts emojis, likes, and positive
comments.

Also, we distinguished an emergence of a positive attitude towards of Spanish movies and

series in this group. Even Sub-Korean movies and series are beeing published and
recommended by different group members. Indian movies are much less published but most
of Indian movies posts had a high interaction.

 Apart from Hollywood movies and series, other motion pictures produced and realized
in other foreign countries are getting an enjoyement from the tunisian series and
movies viewer. Such findings are important because it allowd us to better choose the
different movies origins in the current study.

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 1.3.2.2. Negative attitude towards foreign movies

Besides all the positive interactions and comments, some foreign movies and series have had
negative comments and thus, negative attitudes by some group members.

The interesting remark at this level is that when commenting to a foreign movie or series post,
Tunisians tend to be quite polite and tend to express their negative opinion using soft
expressions, which is not the case when it comes to Tunisian movies and series posts (We will
explain this point in the following subsection).

1.3.3. Variables related to Tunisian movies and series

During the netnography, we distinguished that members are publishing a high number of
Tunisian movies and series per month. Some of the posts are positive and others are negative.
For example In January, There were about 23 Tunisian movies or series publications of about
100 publications (7 posts were about the movie “Un fils” diffused in January and all the posts
were positive as well as the comments.). And, In February, There were about 18 Tunisian
movies and series publications of about 80 publications (7 posts were about the movie “Un
divan a Tunis” (5 positive posts) and 8 posts related to the movie “Rebelote” (4 positive
posts), two movies diffused in February 2020).

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 1.3.3.1. Positive attitude towards Tunisian movies and series

Group members expressed several times their positive attitude towards Tunisian movies and
series. In fact, there have been positive posts, comments and interactions on Tunisian movies
and series.

1.3.3.2. Responsible consumption

We noticed that some members were defending Tunisian movies and were encouraging others
to watch Tunisian movies on legal movies Platforms or cinema theaters. And other members
have indirectly expressed the importance of watching and encouraging Tunisian movies.

Through these comments, we can understand that Tunisians may consider that local movies
consumption can positively impact the Tunisian’s economic situation.

66
  Tunisians may have feelings of patriotism toTunisia. In fact, through the conducted
netnography, we noticed that Tunisians may have the volonty to help their coutry.
Also, ethnocentrism may explain these results, since some members are giving
importance to local consumption considering it as a way to fix the Tunisian’s
economy.

1.3.3.3. National pride

Through some posts, we distinguished that group members have a feeling of pride towards
Tunisia. These feelings appeared when a Tunisian movie (Brotherhood) was nominated for an
international aword. Also, national pride was observed when a Tunisian actor (Fares
Landolsi) played an important role in a Hollywood series (Messiah).

67
In the last two posts, we can consider the use of Tunisian flags is to express national pride.
And in the last post, the group member expressed very cleary her national pride “I’m proud of
the Tunisian actor”.

1.3.3.4. Negative attitudes towards Tunisisan movies

Negative comments are very appearent in Tunisian movies posts. Tunisian movies posts were,
several times, commented very negatively. Even more, some members made efforts to write
long sentenses just to express their negative attitude towards Tunisian movies. The movies
“Noura tehlem” and “Rebelote” for example were commented very negatively and without
any murcy. And even the film “Dachra”, that has a success in Tunisia, was evaluated
negatively. Some comments had nothing to do with critics. In fact, a minority of group
members tried to expressthe the negative attitude through interesting comments that criticize
the movie or the series. But, most of group members tend to be aggrassive and very severe
when criticizing a Tunisian movie or series. It is important to mention that it was never the
case of other foreign movies and series.

In some cases, some members have written negative and bad comments to express their
disappointment towards a Tunisian movie that they have not watched yet.

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 1.3.3.5. Percieved inferiority of Tunisian cinema

Almost, in every Tunisian movie post we find members who express their percieved
inferiority of Tunisian cinema. In fact, many members tend to concider the Tunisian cinema
has nothing to do with art and good cinema. Many comments are discriminating thTunisian
cinema.

These comments tend to be very firm, icy, and lacks of feelings and emotions. And so far,
such comments have never been written under a foreign movie post on this Facebook group,
and we never noticed comments that are descriminating foreign cinemas.

1.3.3.6. Language issue with respect to Tunisian movies

Bold words used in Tunisian movies are posing problem to many Tunisian spectators. This
point has been noticed through many Tunisian movies posts. Many members have asked if the
movie contain some bold words before watching it. It is clear that an important number of
Tunisian spectators are bothered about the use of bold words in Tunisian movies, which is not
the case when it comes to foreign movies. We typed the word “KLEM ZEYED” (bold words)
in this group and all the posts that appeared are 100% Tunisian movie posts with 0 foreign
movie post. In these posts, members were complaining about the use of these vulgaire words
in Tunisian movies.

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Also, we distinguished that some Tunisian movies that did not contain bold words, were
criticized for “sexual suggestions” (Such as the movie “Rebelote”).

1.3.3.7. Tunisian movies stereotype: Tunisian movies = Hammam

In every post related to a Tunisian movie we found comments that contain the word
“Hammam”.

The “Hammam” is considered as a heritage in our country. Since a long time, Tunisians used
to go to the “Hammam” to get cleaned and it’s still the case till today. In that special place,
women used to talk to each other about many different subjects, they talk about their familial
problems, their divorces, their marriages (etc). Therefore, this place became a special source
of social storytelling.

We noticed that the “Hamam” is not perceived as a traditional heritage in the Tunisian
movies. Through the comments, we distinguished that the “Hamam” is perceived as an insult.

In some cases, even when a member is positively commenting the post, he adds the famous
phrase “at least, there was no “hamam” in this movie!”.

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  Tunisians are incapable to delete this maintained stereotype of Tunisian movies, and
refuse to perceive the emergence of the new Tunisian movies spirit present in several
new movies like “Dacha”, “Un fils”, “Rebelote”.

1.3.3.8. Nostalgia

We noticed through our netnographic obsrvation that posts that are about old tunisian films
and series, are the posts that had the highest number of comments and likes.

Maybe Tunisians are looking for old tunisian values through these old movies and series. It
seems like Tunisian values and customs are beeing missed in Tunisian motion pictures, which
may explain the continued success of old series likes “Choufli Hall (2005)”.

Through these results, we distinguished that the Tunisian movies and series viewer may
change his behavior towards movies and series according to where these cultural products
were produced and realized. Especially when comparing between Tunisian (local) and foreign
movies, Tunisians tend to be much more severe and cold towards Tunisian movies.

To better understant Tunisians behaviors towards Tunisian movies in particular, we decided to

conduct semi-structured interviews among 5 persons.

1.4. Ethics

In order to respect ethical standards, we covered names and to keep members picture in the
different figures and screenshots.

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 2. Semi-structured interviews

After conducting the netnography, we decided to conduct semi-structured interviews among 5

persons.

2.1. Objectives

First of all, we wanted to determine the Tunisian’s interest in watching movies, and more
specifically, his interest in watching movies at the cinema. Second, we had as objective to
determine how a Tunisian consumer choose movies at home and at the cinema, and what
movie criteria does he use while choosing a movie to watch.

We also aimed to understand the Tunisian’s opinions and attitudes towards movies from
different countries in general, and towards Tunisian movies in particular. And also we aimed
to have a global view of the consumer’s perception of Tunisian movies in the future.

Besides movies, we finally looked for understanding the Tunisian consumer’s attitudes and
behaviors towards Tunisian products in general. To do so, we constructed our interview guide
focusing on these different objectives.

2.2. Interview guide

As mentioned before, we focused on the previous objectives in order to elaborate the

interview guide. Therefore, we organized it by themes that are directly related to the
objectives (see appendix 4, p167).

Theme 1: Cinema and movies consumption

Theme 2: Movies choice criteria

Theme 3: Tunisian movies

Theme 4: General consumption of Tunisian products

Theme 5: Future vision of Tunisian movies

2.3. Presentation of the interviewed sample

In the current study we interviewed 4 participants (see appendix 5: Interview, p168). The
number of interviewees may seem limited, but we would like to point out that our study
follows a hypothetico-deductive epistemology, and that these interviews served as a tool to
better understand the Tunisian movies consumer. Our participants are situated in Sousse and
Tunis. In the table above we will present the interviewees’ Sociodemographic characteristics.
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 Table 11: Sociodemographic characteristics of participants

Participant Gender Age Profession Educational Family Habitation Interview

level status duration
Rania Female 27 Sport coach University Single Sousse 36min
Youssef Male 22 Student University Single Sousse 48min
Amina Female 27 Student University Single Sousse 35min
Cherif Male 30 Barista University Married Tunis 32min

2.4. Data collection

In order to collect our data, we established a face to face interview, and three remote
interviews (Online) that lasted between 32 and 48 minutes. During these interviews, we tried
to be very objective; we avoided giving our opinion, or trying to influence the different
interviewees. The interviews were recorded in order to make sure to have all the answers with
all the details needed.

2.5. Ethics

Before starting interviewing the different participants, I asked every one if it was fine to
record their answers and to mention their names, ages and professions in our research.

2.6. Interview analysis

In order to analyze our interviews, we transcribed all the interviews, and then we elaborated a
thematic content analysis to build an analytic grid. The thematic content analysis is defined as
a type of qualitative analysis (see table 3). It is used in order to analyze classifications and
present different themes that relate to the data. It represents the data in great detail and deals
with different subjects via interpretations (Boyatzis, 1998).

Table 12: Interviews analyses

Themes Subthemes FREQ Lexicon Verbatim

High movie-watching N=2 “This is what I do the most in my life, I watch
habit a lot of movies”
N=2 “Most of the time, I watch movies at the
Cinema- High cinema-going cinema”
going and habit “honestly, I prefer watching movies at the
movie- cinema”
watching N=2 “I'm not really a “cinephile” like I don't miss a
habit Medium movie-
movie, but when I have nothing to do I prefer
watching habit
to put on a movie” (Amina)
Medium cinema-going N=2 “In general I watch movies at home, and
habit sometimes I go to the cinema” (Cherif)
Movie N=3 War, comedy, “First of all genre” (Youssef)
Genre
choice genre, action, “The first thing I type on Netflix is “war””

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Themes Subthemes FREQ Lexicon Verbatim
criteria science fiction (Rania)
(When N=4 Actors, “I also choose movies according to actors”
watching Stars
(Rania)
the movie N=2 Hour, duration, “First of all, I choose a movie that doesn’t last
at home) length more than an hour and a half” (Amina)
Film duration
“Sometimes I focus on the length of the
movie” (Youssef)
N=4 Recommended, ““El Badla” was highly recommended on the
Word-of-mouth friends’ Facebook group “ORPV”“ (Amina)
(WOM) opinions, “I ask my friends to recommend me movies to
WOM, watch” (Cherif)

N=1 Egyptian “But when I decide to watch a movie on TV I

go for Egyptian movies” (Rania)
Country of origin

N=2 Tunisian “ but in case I find a Tunisian film, I will

Movie cancel the previous criteria and I will certainly
choice Country of origin choose to watch the Tunisian film” (Rania)
criteria “I would choose to watch the Tunisian movie!
(When Because it’s Tunisian” (Amina)
watching N=4 Genre, actors, “first the positive WOM, and then the trailer”
the movie trailer, WOM (Amina)
at the Other movie attributes “If I am alone at the cinema, I would choose
cinema) the film according to genre and actors”
(Youssef)
N=2 Love, adore, “I love Tunisian films, I love the stories
Positive attitude
Like embodied in these films” (Rania)
N=2 Unpleasant, bad, “we always find scenes that are dropped and
negative that don't make sense”(Youssef)
Negative attitude
“I have a negative idea about Tunisian
films”(Cherif)
N=3 Pride, like, “we can say that I felt a certain pride after
beautiful, watching “fi Inaya”” (amina)
“For example I liked “Dachra” very much
Tunisian
Positive experience even though I didn't know the actors, I liked
movies
the video quality, you feel that there is a
beautiful story that touches us Tunisians
directly”(Youssef)
N=3 Deception, “I was dissatisfied with the film "Fi
dissatisfied, bad, Inaya"”(Youssef)
bad words, “I also had a bad experience when I went to
Negative experience
ashamed see the comedian film "Porto Farina"”(Amina)
“I couldn't stand the bad words used in this
movie so I left the cinema theater” (Rania)
N= 3 Avoid “When faced to different products from
different countries, I try to avoid Tunisian
made ones” (Rania)
“I cannot think of going to the cinema just to
Local Xenocentrism
watch a Tunisian movie” (Cherif)
products “At the cinema, I prefer paying 13dt to watch
consumpti
an American movie instead of a Tunisian
on
movie” (Youssef)
N=2 Encourage, “I prefer watching Tunisian movies at the
Ethnocentrism belonging cinema in order to encourage the Tunisian
movie industry” (Amina)

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In summary, these interviews analysis reveal that the Tunisian’s interest in watching movies
at home and also at the cinema. In fact, this may be understood first of all through the diverse
film platforms such as “Netflix” and “Egybest”. And second, the cinematographic behavior
may be explained through the opening of new cinema theatres with greater quality and better
services, such as “Pathé”.

“Pathé is very comfortable compared to "Le Palace" cinema theatre, so when I visited it, it
gave me the desire to come back several times and watch movies there”. Rania (27 years old)

The second point to mention is the different criteria to choose a movie to watch. In fact, it is
clear that all the respondents focused on movie genre, actors, trailers etc. These movie criteria
have been already studied and determined through previous research. But what caught our
attention the most, is the fact that some of the interviewees have indirectly focused on the
movie’s country of origin while they totally ignored their interests in movies’ origins.

This paradox was present several times in the different interviews. For example, Rania (27
years old) told us on the first hand, that at the cinema, if there is a Tunisian and other foreign
movies projection, she would absolutely watch the Tunisian movie. On the second hand,
when we asked her about the movie’s origin importance, she answered “No, I have never
thought about a movie’s origin before watching it.”

Same for Cherif who also ignored the importance of movie’s origin, and at the same time, he
eliminated some movies just because of their origin.

“Even if my friends recommend me a Korean movie; I don’t think I would watch it”. (Cherif,
30 years old)

It is clear in Cherif’s case that he eliminated Korean movies, not for their genre or negative
WOM, but for their country of origin.

 These results allowed us to focus more and more on the country of origin effect on the
intention to watch local and foreign movies in our research study.

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Section 3: Data collection methods and survey administration

We conducted a quantitative study through online survey questionnaire which is the most
appropriate method to better understand the different relations between all the variables of our
conceptual models.

1. Countries choice

In our research study, we decided to choose three different cinema countries: Tunisian
cinema, which represents the domestic cinema, Turkish cinema and Korean cinema. The two
foreign nationalities were not chosen randomly; In fact, based on our Netnography, we
distinguished that the Tunisian movie consumer is publishing a high number of posts about
American, Egyptian, Tunisian Korean and Turkish movies.

American and Egyptian cinemas represent two prominent references in cinema industry in
general. In fact the American cinema represents a reference in western cinema industry, and
the Egyptian cinema is an oriental cinema industry reference. Therefore, and in order to avoid
any sort of biased results, we eliminated these two countries.

We can’t argue that Tunisian movie theatres diffuse principally Tunisian, American and
Egyptian movies, and that Turkish and Korean movies are almost absent in Tunisian giant
screens. Despite that, we believe that it will be interesting to examine those two countries
since the Tunisian movie consumer has started paying attention to both Turkish and Korean
movies and we are studying the intention to watch movies. And even more, we believe that
maybe one day Sub-Korean and Turkish movies will be diffused in the Tunisian movie
theatres.

2. Data collection methods

In the current research, we chose the quantitative survey research method. To do so, we will
use a self-conducted questionnaire, which is considered as a reality measure tool (Mbengue
and Vandangeon-Derumez, 1999). The different questions provided on the questionnaire will
allow us to collect answers to our research problem and verify our different hypotheses (Hair
et al, 2007). Instead of the face-to-face survey, we chose to apply an online survey because
this method will allow us to have access to different people living in different places. Also, it
will allow us to contact people who are difficult to reach. And finally, this method will help us

76
reduce time and effort thank to the automated data collection (Wright, 2005). To avoid any
sort of misunderstanding of the survey, we conducted a pretest among 10 persons.

3. Questionnaire structure

While preparing the questionnaire, we did our best to make sure the questions followed a
logical order. The questionnaire body was made up from different questions. In order to
insure an exact testing of the hypotheses, several questions were asked about each one of the
hypothesis.

We tried to use general complementary questions at the beginning, the middle, and the end of
the questionnaire to ensure a better understanding of the questionnaire for the respondents,
and to allow us to better understand our respondents. The questionnaire contains single choice
questions, 5-point Likert scales, and open-ended questions. Some of the questions contained
the option “other” to make sure our lists are exhaustive. We also tried to make sure that the
different questions were clearly understood by respondents by testing them on 10 different
persons before sharing the questionnaire. We translated our questionnaire from English to
French, and to so, we verified the translation with an academic researcher and an English
student. For the purpose of this study, we only shared the French version to our respondents.
The questionnaire contains four different parts namely introduction questions, questions
related to the research’s different explanatory, dependent, and control variables,
complementary questions, and general information questions.

3.1. Introduction questions

The introductory questions 1 and 2 are directly related to the respondent’s passion of movies
and cinema. We used these questions to introduce our questionnaire, gather some specific
details about the respondents’ passions of movies and cinema, and to prepare them to the next
part of the questionnaire. In this part, we used 5-point Likert scale questions.

3.2. Variables related questions

The questions 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 20 are related to the different variables
of our conceptual model. These questions will allow us to find answers to our research
problem since they are directly related to our conceptual model variables. For these most of
these questions we used 5-point Likert scale, except for the questions 17, 18 and 19 we used
5-point semantic scale.

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 3.3. Control variables related questions

This part of the questionnaire includes the questions 8 and 9. These questions are related to
control variables of our conceptual model. The 8 th question is a single choice question, and
the 9th question is a 5-point Likert question. These questions allowed us also to do our
preliminary study about Tunisian movies viewers’ behavior.

3.4. Complementary questions

The complementary questions are the questions number 3, 11, 12, and 13. We added these
questions to make sure that studying the cognitive and the affective country image effects
separately is better than studying the overall country image effect.

3.5. Personal information questions

This part of the questionnaire includes the last questions: 21, 22, 23 and 24. These questions
are related to the respondent’s personal information, and they are single choice questions (21
and 23) and open-ended questions (22 and 24). These questions will allow us to gather
detailed information about respondents’ characteristics in order to better understand our
sample. The English and the French versions of the questionnaire are in the appendix 1 and 2.

Section4: measurement scales

In our study, we decided to measure cognitive country image using a combination between
the scale adapted by Wang et al, (2012) to measure the country facet, and the scale of Verlegh
(2001) to measure peoples’ creativity facet. In fact, items used Wang et al’s (2012) scale is
coherent with our cognitive country image definition, and the scale measuring the creativity
of a given country’s people presented by Verlegh (2001) is very coherent to our context. We
chose Martinez and Alvarez’s (2010) measurement scale to measure the affective country
image because this scale was tested in Turkish context, and Turkey represents one of our three
target countries and it was tested in experiential context which is very consistent with our
study context (Watching movies at the cinema).

In order to measure the consumer xenocentrism, and since we have retained Balabanis and
Diamantopoulos’s definition that presents the consumer xenocentrism as a two-dimensional
construct involving perceived inferiority and social aggrandizement, we decided to use the

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C_XENSCALE in our survey. The table below presents the different scales retained in our
study in order to measure the variables in our conceptual model.

Table 13: Retained measurement scales

Each question featured a 5-degree Likert scale response option ranging from agree completely
(5) to disagree completely (1).

Construct Items Source

Consumer 1. Russians shouldn't buy foreign product because this harms the
ethnocentrism: local economy and increases unemployment.
CETSCALE, 2. It is not right to purchase foreign products, because jobs are
Moderating lost in Russia. Adapted by
variable 3. A true Russian should only buy Russian products. Verlegh
4. Even if I had to pay more I would rather buy a Russian (2007).
product.
5. We should purchase Russian products; otherwise we make
other countries rich.
Consumer Perceived inferiority:
xenocentrism: 1. There are very few domestic products that are of equal quality
Moderating to foreign products.
variable 2. I cannot think of any domestic brands that are as good as the
foreign ones I purchase.
3. I trust more foreign than domestic companies, because they are
more experienced and have more resources. Balabanis,
4. In most product categories, foreign brands outperform G., &
domestic ones. Diamantopo
5. I trust foreign products more than the domestic ones. ulos, A.
Social aggrandizement: (2016).
6. Using foreign products enhances my self-esteem.
7. People that buy domestic products are less regarded by others.
8. I prefer foreign to domestic brands as most of my
acquaintances buy foreign brands.
9. Buying foreign products makes me trendier.
10. I purchase foreign brands to differentiate myself from others.
Cognitive country Country facet:
image: In your perception, country XYZ is/has : Adapted
Independent 1. Affluent from: Wang,
variable 2. Economically well developed C. L., Li, D.,
3. High living standards Barnes, B.
4. Advanced technology R., & Ahn,
5. Good standard of life J. (2012),
And,
People creativity facet: Verlegh, P.
6. People are creative W. J.
7. People are imaginative (2001).
8. People are artistic

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 Construct Items Source
Affective country Based on your emotions, you … country XYZ
image: 1. Like-dislike
Independent 2. Trust-distrust
Martínez, S.
variable 3. Respect-disrespect
C., &
4. Admire-do not admire
Alvarez, M.
Country XYZ:
D. (2010).
5. Annoys me-doesn’t annoy me
6. Arouses good feelings-bad feelings

Product image: When you think about movies made in country XYZ, you generally
Mediating variable perceive that those movies:
1. High quality  Have a high quality Adapted
2. Having global brand presence  Have global presence from: Wang,
3. High workmanship  Are well realized C. L., Li, D.,
4. Reliable  Have in general, a good scenario Barnes, B.
5. Well-designed  Are aesthetically well made and beautiful to R., & Ahn,
watch J. (2012).
6. Are good movies in general

The intention to When, in the cinema, I am faced with Tunisian, Korean and Turkish Transposed
watch a movie in movies: from the
the cinema: 1. I would like to watch the [country] movie adapted
Dependent 2. I would possibly watch the [country] movie scale of:
variable 3. I would recommend others to watch [country] movie Zhang, H.,
Xu, F.,
Leung, H.
H., & Cai,
L. A. (2015)

Section5: Sample selection method

In this section we are going to present the population to whom we extrapolated the results of
our survey, sampling method and the sample characteristics.

1. Relevant population and sampling method

In the current study, Tunisians that are aged above 18years old were chosen as relevant
population. In fact, it is impossible to interview all the Tunisian population which leads us,
researchers, to choose a given sample (Gavard Perret et al., 2012).

In order to manage this study, we implemented the non-probability sampling approach. In

fact, we supposed that most of the Tunisians are interested in watching movies, thereafter; we
considered that it will be easier to select respondents based on their willingness to answer the
questionnaire in order to get as much responses as possible.

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 2. Sample characteristics

In the current study, the size the sample size is 217 Tunisians. Our sample is a matched
sample (the 220 respondents responded three times to the part devoted to the country of
origin, once about Tunisia, once about Turkey, and once about Korea).

In the following table, we will present our sample’s different characteristics.

Table 14: Sample characteristics

Variable Modality Percentage

Female 73%
Gender
Male 27%
[18 ; 20] 31%
[21 ; 25] 47%
Age
[26 ; 30] 19%
Above 30 years old 3%
Student 76%
Socio-professional category
Employee 24%
Tunis 69%
Sousse 12%
Place of residence
Nabeul 8%
Other 11%

Tunis Sousse Nabeul Bizerte

Beja Monastir Kairouan Other
27% Male 1% 3%
2% 1%
Female 4%
73%
8% 12%
69%

18-20 21-25
26-30 31-35
24% Student
36-40 above 40years old
1% 1% 1%
76% Employee 19% 31%

47%
Figure 3: sample characteristics

 Female respondents (73%) are more than male respondents (27%).

 Most of the respondents are living in Tunis (69%).
 Most of the respondents are students with a percentage of 76%.
 Most of the respondents are between 18 and 35 years old (97%).

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Section6: Data analysis processing

Through this section, we will emphasize the different data processing methods that we used in
order to get reliable and valid results that will lead us to pick up answers to the current
research problem. In a first step, we will present the different software that we used in this
research. Second, we will provide details about the data processing methods employed to
drive our preliminary, exploratory, confirmatory and structural analyses as well as the data
processing methods employed for the moderating variables verification.

1. Exploratory analysis Data processing method

First we will present specific details about the Principle Component Analysis (PCA). Second,
we will the reliability of the different measurement scales employed to drive the current
research.

1.1. The Principle Component Analysis (PCA)

According to Védrine (1991), the Principle Component analysis (PCA) is a multivariate

statistical method employed to turn descriptive variables into synthetic factors in order to
reduce the data. This statistical method will help us to purify the different measurement scales
used in the current research (Evrard et al., 2003). In the current research analysis, we will start
by verifying the KMO index that has to be superior to 0.5, and the Bartlett Sphericity test that
needs to be significant at 5% risk. Second, we will verify the representation quality; the
eigenvalues of every item must reach 60% in order to consider that the representation quality
is good (Jolibert and Jourdan, 2006). Finally, we will verify the total explained variance, and
we will examine the different components Varimax rotation.

1.2. The reliability evaluation

According to Evrard et al,. (2003), a measurement scale has a satisfactory reliability when the
Cronbach’s Alpha is above 0.7. The reliability of a measurement scale allows us to determine
whether the scale has a good quality and whether the different variables are connected.
Therefore, we will determine the Cronbach’s Alpha of each dimension.

2. Confirmatory analysis Data processing methods

The exploratory analysis results’ psychometric quality can be determined by the confirmatory
analysis. In the current research, we will present the results of the confirmatory analysis

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related to our conceptual models variables in order to verify their measurement scales’
reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity.

In a first step, we will present the measurement model and its fit for each variable of our
conceptual model. Second, we will use the Jöreskog’s rhô in order to verify the reliability of
each measurement scale dimension (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). In fact, a dimension is judged
reliable if its Jöreskog’s rhô is above 0.7.

Finally, we are going to verify the convergent validity in order to check the ability of our
conceptual models’ variables measurement scales. In fact, the convergent validity is verified
when ρvc is superior to 0.5 (Fornell and Larcker, 1981). The discriminant validity is verified
when the average variance is above the square of the correlation between the latent variable
studied and the different dimensions of the measurement model (Fornell and Larcker, 1981).
In order to run a second order confirmatory analysis, two conditions must be required; first,
the construct need to have a good theoretical background, and second, the correlation between
the two dimensions must be above 0.6 (Roussel et al., 2003).

3. Structural analysis Data processing methods

According to Hair et al (2007), the significance and the importance of the different links
between conceptual model variables are tested by the structural analysis. In our research
analysis, we will first verify the structural models fit by analyzing absolute fit measure,
incremental fit measures, and parsimony fit measures in order to test our different hypotheses.
Second, we will verify the mediating role of the overall movies image on the link between the
cognitive country image and the intention to watch a [country] movie at the cinema. In order
to verify our structural models fit quality, we will use fit measures indices. In the following
table, we will present the different fit measures categories, their indices as well as the
conditions of the different indices acceptance.

Table 15: Fit measures indices

Fit measures category Indices Acceptance conditions

GFI/ AGFI Values> 0.9 Values
Absolute fit measures RMR Values near 0
RMSEA Values<0.08
Incremental fit measures CFI/ NFI/IFI/RFI Values<0.9
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df Values<3
Source: Najjar and Najar (2013, page 6).

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Then, through the structural analysis, we will verify the mediating role of the overall movies
image on the link between the cognitive country image and the intention to watch a [country]
movie at the cinema. In order to verify the existence of the indirect links, we will use the two-
tailed significance. In fact, when the indirect link is significant at 5% risk, and the Critical
Ratio is above 2, the mediating effect exists.

In the current research we will not use Baron and Kenny’s (1986) approach since we have a
complex model. Instead, we will use the Bootstrap method with Monte Carlo simulation
which is efficient for complex structural models. However, the Baron and Kenny (1986) as
well as Zhao et al., (2010) researches will be used to determine the nature of the mediation.

4. Verifying the moderating role process

According to Roussel et al (2003), the direction and the intensity of a link between a
dependent and independent variables can be affected by a moderating variable. In the current
research, we will use the Sauer et al (1993) procedure in order to verify the moderating roles
of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer xenocentrism on the different links.

In a first step, we use the K-mean clustering in order to determine and present consumer
clusters according to their ethnocentrism and xenocentrism levels by verifying at which
iteration the convergence is achieved. Second, we will develop two models; a constrained and
an unconstrained model. Finally, we will use the Chi-square difference test to determine
whether the moderating role exists. When Chi-square difference test is significant at 5%, the
moderating role is verified, and by comparing between the groups, we will be able to
determine the direction of this moderation.

5. Software used for the analyses

To conduct the current research, we will use the Statistical Analysis Software SPSS 23
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences), the spreadsheet software Microsoft Excel and the
statistical software AMOS 26 (Analysis of Moment Structures). The following table will
present the software used and their utility in our research.

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 Table 16: Software used for the analyses
Software
Statistical Analysis Software SPSS23
Spreadsheet Software Microsoft
EXCEL
Statistical software AMOS26
Utility
 Creating the database of collected responses.
 Demonstrating results of preliminary and exploratory
analysis.
 Purifying measurement scales
 Moderating variables clustering
 Creating graphics
 Demonstrating results from first and second order
confirmatory analysis and structural analysis.
 Verifying the mediating role of general movies image.
 Verifying the moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism
and consumer xenocentrism.
 Verifying the measurement model fit.
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 Chapter2: Analyses and results

In this chapter, we will present and analyze results from the different quantitative data
analysis. The data was generated from respondents’ answers to the questionnaire elaborated
previously. The analysis will allow us to answer our research problem. First, we are going to
present the results of the exploratory, confirmatory and structural analysis which will allow us
to verify our conceptual model elaborated and demonstrated previously. Then, we will test the
moderating effect of the consumer ethnocentrism, and the moderating effect of the consumer
xenocentrism on the links between consumer’s intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the
cinema. In the last section of this chapter, we will discuss these results in order to provide
theoretical and managerial implications. We will finally provide recommendations for both

managerial and academic purposes.

Section1: Measurement scale validation (PCA)

In this section, we will provide the results of the exploratory analysis for each variable of our
conceptual model namely, cognitive country image, affective country image, general movies
image, intention to watch [country] movie at the cinema, consumer xenocentrism, and
consumer ethnocentrism. We will first identify the latent variables then we will try to purify
the measurement scale related to each one of these variables and finally test their internal
consistency.

1. PCA of the affective country image scale

In the table below we present the exploratory analysis result for the affective country image.
The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the eigenvalue, the explained variance,
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s sphericity test.

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 Table 17: Exploratory analysis result of the affective country image

Items Representation quality

Aff1 0.745
Aff2 0.556
Aff3 0.611
Aff4 0.759
Aff5 0.425
Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.849
Eigenvalue 2.676
Explained variance 62.013%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.807
Chi-square 14637.710
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

The first remark to mention is that the fifth item “Aff5” needs to be eliminated since it has a
representation quality inferior to 0.5 (0.425). (All the indices were calculated after the
elimination of the fifth item).

According to the table above, all the other items (“Aff1”, “Aff2”, “Aff3”, “Aff4”) are
accepted since the have a representation quality that is superior to 0.5. This allows us to admit
that we have a good representation quality. Information can be summarized in one dimension.
This table shows that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO above 0.5 (KMO=
0.807). Also, it shows that the Bartlett’s sphericity test is significant at 5% risk (P= 0.000).
This demonstrates that the correlation matrix differs from the identity matrix; therefore, the
observed variables are connected.

The affective country image variable has an eigenvalue of 2.676 (above 1). These items
maintained about 62% of the affective Tunisia image (explained variance= 62.013%) which
means that the different items presenting this variable summarize 62% of the information.

Finally, the table above shows that this measurement scale has a satisfactory reliability since
Cronbach’s Alpha is superior to 0.7 (Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.849) (this value was calculated
after excluding the item “Aff5”)

2. PCA of the cognitive country image scale

In the table below we are going to present the exploratory analysis result for the cognitive
country image. The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the eigenvalue, the
explained variance, Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s sphericity test.

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 Table 18: Exploratory analysis result of the cognitive country image

Component after
Dimensions Items Representation quality
Varimax rotation
Cog1 0.721 0.817
Cog2 0.899 0.943
Cog3 0.831 0.898
Economic and
Cog4 0.840 0.900
technological image
Cog5 0.871 0.916
Reliability (Cronbach’s
0.949
Alpha)
Eigenvalue 4.162
Cog6 0.869 0.921
Cog7 0.896 0.940
People creativity Cog8 0.741 0.823
image
Reliability (Cronbach’s
0.896
Alpha)
Eigenvalue 2.506
Explained variance 83.352%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.874
Chi-square 4768.765
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

The table above demonstrates that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO index
superior to 0.5 (KMO= 0.874). All the items are accepted since they have a representation
quality above 0.5. Information could be summarized in two dimensions.

 The first dimension contains the items: Affluent, Economically well-developed, High
living standards, Advanced technology, and Good standards of living. All these items
forming the “Economic and technological image” dimension present the cognitive
image a person maintains towards the country’s economy and technology.
 The second dimension is composed of these items: People are creative, People have
imagination sense, and People are known for their artistic sensibility. All these items
forming the “People creativity image” dimension present the cognitive image a person
maintains towards a country’s people creativity.

“Cog1”, “Cog2”, “Cog3”, “Cog4”, and “Cog5” are integrated in the dimension that we
decided to name “Economic and technological image” with an eigenvalue of 4.162 (superior
to 1). These items present 59% of the cognitive Turkey image variable.

“Cog6”, “Cog7”, and “Cog8” are integrated in the dimension that we decided to name
“People creativity image” with an eigenvalue of 2.636 (above 1). These items summarize 24%
of the cognitive country image.

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Therefore, the two dimensions maintain 83% (explained variable= 83.352%) of the
information about the cognitive Turkey image variable. As a result, we can say that items
forming the cognitive country image variable summarize 83% of the information. Finally, this
measurement scale has a satisfactory reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha superior to 0.5
(Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.949; 0.896).

3. PCA of the overall movies image (product image) scale

In the table below we are going to present the exploratory analysis result for the general
movies image. The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the eigenvalue, the explained
variance, Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s sphericity test.

Table 19: Exploratory analysis result of the general movies image

Items Representation quality

Movim1 0.805
Movim2 0.709
Movim3 0.842
Movim4 0.762
Movim5 0.831
Movim6 0.838
Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.948
Eigenvalue 4.787
Explained variance 79.776%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.923
Chi-square 3752.322
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

The table above shows that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO index
superior to 0.5 (KMO= 0.923).. Also, this table demonstrates that all the items of this variable
are accepted since they have a representation quality that is above 0.5. This allows us to
confirm that we have a good representation quality. Information can be summarized in one
single dimension. The general movies image variable has an eigenvalue of 4.787 (above 1).
These items maintained about 80% of this variable (explained variable= 79.776%) which
means that the different items presenting this variable summarize about 80% of the
information. Finally, the table above shows that this measurement scale has a satisfactory
reliability since Cronbach’s Alpha is superior to 0.7 (Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.948).

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 4. Exploratory analysis of the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the
cinema

In the table below we are going to present the exploratory analysis result for the intention to
watch [country] movie at the cinema. The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the
eigenvalue, the explained variance, Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s
sphericity test.

Table 20: PCA result of the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the
cinema

Items Representation quality

Int1 0.924
Int2 0.920
Int3 0.915
Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.954
Eigenvalue 2.579
Explained variance 91.607%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.777
Chi-square 2037.078
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

The table above shows that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO index
superior to 0.5 (KMO= 0.777). Also, this table demonstrates that all the items of this variable
are accepted since they have a representation quality that is above 0.5. This allows us to
confirm that we have a good representation quality. Information can be summarized in one
single dimension. The intention to watch [country] movie at the cinema variable has an
eigenvalue of 2.579 (above 1). These items maintained about 81% of this variable (explained
variable= 91.607%) which means that the different items presenting this variable summarize
91% of the information. Finally, the table above shows that this measurement scale has a
satisfactory reliability since Cronbach’s Alpha is superior to 0.7 (Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.954).

5. PCA analysis of consumer ethnocentrism scale

In the following table we are going to present the exploratory result for the consumer
ethnocentrism variable. The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the eigenvalue, the
explained variance, Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s sphericity test.

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 Table 21: The exploratory analysis result of consumer ethnocentrism

Items Representation quality

Ethno1 0.644
Ethno2 0.704
Ethno3 0.658
Ethno4 0.501
Ethno5 0.619
Reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha) 0.850
Eigenvalue 3.126
Explained variance 62.528%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.744
Chi-square 551.663
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

This table demonstrates that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO index
superior to 0.5 (KMO= 0.744). Also, this table shows that the Bartlett’s sphericity test is
significant at 5% risk (P=0.000). This demonstrates that the correlation matrix differs from
the identity matrix; therefore, the observed variables are connected. Also, this table shows that
all the items of this variable are accepted since they have a representation quality that is above
0.5. This allows us to admit that we have a good representation quality. Information can be
summarized in one single dimension. Consumer ethnocentrism variable has an eigenvalue of
3.126 (superior to 1). These items maintained about 62% of the consumer ethnocentrism
variable (explained variance= 62.528%) which means that the different items presenting this
variable summarize 62% of the information. Finally, the table above shows that this
measurement scale has a satisfactory reliability with a Cronbach’s Alpha above 0.7
(Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.850).

6. Exploratory analysis of consumer xenocentrism

In the following table we are going to present the exploratory result for the consumer
xenocentrism variable. The table includes Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient, the eigenvalue, the
explained variance, Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) coefficient and Bartlett’s sphericity test.

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 Table 22: Exploratory analysis result of consumer xenocentrism

Representation Component after

Dimensions Items
quality Varimax rotation
Xeno1 0.423 0.375
Xeno2 0.571 0.596
Xeno3 0.695 0.704
Xeno4 0.706 0.611
Perceived inferiority
Xeno5 0.673 0.723
Reliability (Cronbach’s
0.843
Alpha)
Eigenvalue 2.586
Xeno6 0.635 -0.224
Xeno7 0.607 -0.358
Xeno8 0.745 -0.480
Xeno9 0.703 -0.476
Social Aggrandizement
Xeno10 0.707 -0.476
Reliability (Cronbach’s
0.878
Alpha)
Eigenvalue 3.397
Explained variance 68.467%
Kaiser-Meyer-Olken (KMO) 0.848
Chi-square 983.869
Bartlett’s sphericity test
Significance P= 0.000

The first thing to mention is that the item “Xeno1” has a representation quality inferior to 0.5
(0.423), and was therefore eliminated. (The different indices were calculated after the
elimination of the first item).

The table above demonstrates that there is an acceptable factorial solution with a KMO index
superior to 0.5 (KMO= 0.848). Bartlett’s sphericity test is significant at 5% risk (P= 0.000).
This shows that the correlation matrix differs from the identity matrix; therefore, the observed
variables are connected.

Beside the first item “Xeno1”, all the other items are accepted since they have a
representation quality above 0.5. Information could be summarized in two dimensions.

 The first dimension contains the items: I cannot think of any Tunisian brands that are
as good as the foreign ones I purchase, I trust more foreign than Tunisian companies,
because they are more experienced and have more resources, In most product
categories, foreign brands outperform Tunisian ones, and, I trust foreign products
more than the Trust ones. All these items forming the “perceived inferiority”
dimension present the perceived inferiority a person maintains towards domestic
products, brands, and companies.

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  The second dimension is composed of these items: Using foreign products enhances
my self-esteem, People that buy Tunisian products are less regarded by others, I prefer
foreign to Tunisian brands as most of my acquaintances buy foreign brands, Buying
foreign products makes me trendier, and, I purchase foreign brands to differentiate
myself from others. All these items forming the “social aggrandizement” dimension
present the perceived superiority of foreign products, brands, and companies.

“Xeno2”, “Xeno3”, “Xeno4”, and “Xeno5” are integrated in the dimension “Perceived
inferiority” with an eigenvalue of 2.586 (superior to 1). These items present 48% of the
consumer xenocentrism variable.

“Xeno6”, “Xeno7”, “Xeno8”, “Xeno9”, and “Xeno10” are integrated in the dimension “social
aggrandizement” with an eigenvalue of 3.397 (above 1). These items summarize 20% of the
consumer xenocentrism variable.

Therefore, the two dimensions maintain 68% (explained variable= 68.467%) of the
information about the consumer xenocentrism variable. As a result, we can say that items
forming the consumer xenocentrism variable summarize 68% of the information. Finally, this
measurement scale has a satisfactory reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha superior to 0.5
(Cronbach’s Alpha= 0.878; 0.843) (Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated after excluding
“Xeno1” item).

Section2: Confirmatory factorial analysis

In this section, we will present the confirmatory analysis results of each variable of our
conceptual model in order to verify their measurement scales’ reliability, convergent validity
and discriminant validity.

1. The cognitive country image measurement scale

In this subsection we will present the confirmatory analysis result of the cognitive country
image measurement scale in order to verify its reliability, convergent validity and
discriminant validity. In the previous section, we presented the exploratory analysis result of
the cognitive country image measurement scale with 8 items. In this part, we will present this
variable measurement model. Therefore, we will present the measurement model for the two
dimensions of the cognitive country image as well as its reliability, convergent validity,

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discriminant validity and model fit. In the following figure, we present the cognitive country
image’s two dimensions;

Figure 4: The cognitive country image model

In a second step, we will present the fit indices, Jöreskog’s rhô and the convergent validity
related to the two dimensions of the cognitive country image variable and its discriminant
validity.

Table 23: The consumer cognitive country image confirmatory analysis results

Dimensions Items Estimates

Cog1 0.872
Cog2 0.958
Cog3 0.921
Technological and economic
Cog4 0.932
image
Cog5 0.946
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.935
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.746
Cog6 0.949
Cog7 0.953
People’s creativity image Cog8 0.814
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0,933
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.824
GFI= 0.927 AGFI= 0.869
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.671 RMSEA= 0.127
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.956 NFI= 0.952
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 11.41

The table above shows that the two dimensions forming the cognitive image have a good
quality fit. In fact, the GFI is above 0.9, and the CFI as well as the NFI are higher than 0.9.

Also, the results in this table show that both dimensions have a good reliability with a
Jöreskog’s rhô above 0.7 for the two dimensions. Both the first and the second dimension

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have a significant convergent validity that is above 0.5. The discriminant validity is verified
for the two dimensions of the cognitive country image. In fact, the average variance is above
the square of the correlation between the first and the second dimension (Rhô vc1 = 0.746>
r²O-K =0.622 =0.38; Rhô vc2 = 0.824> r²O-K =0.62²=0.38). The cognitive country image is a
well-established concept in the theoretical background as we already demonstrated in the
theoretical chapter. The second condition is also verified since the two dimensions’
correlation (0.62) is above 0.6. These two verified conditions allow us to run a second order
confirmatory analysis for the cognitive country image variable.

In the following figure, we present the cognitive country image measurement model.

Figure 5: The cognitive country image second order measurement model

The cognitive country image second order measurement model we be used next in our
structural model. In the following table, we will present the fit quality of the cognitive country
image second order measurement model.

Table 24: The cognitive country image second order measurement model fit quality

Indices
GFI= 0.962 AGFI= 0.928
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.079 RMSEA= 0.085
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.981 NFI= 0.977
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 5.683

The different measures in the table above are showing that there is a good quality fit of the
cognitive country image second order model. In fact, the GFI and the AGFI are above 0.9 as
well as the CFI and the NFI. Also, the RMR and the RMSEA did not reach 0.1.

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 2. The affective country image measurement scale

In this subsection we will present the confirmatory analysis result of the affective country
image measurement scale in order to verify its reliability, convergent validity and
discriminant validity. In the previous section, we presented the exploratory analysis result of
the affective country image measurement scale and we retained 4 items. In this part, we will
present the affective country image measurement model. Therefore, we will present the
measurement model as well as its reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and
model fit.

In the following figure, we will present the affective country image model;

Figure 6: The affective country image model

In the following table, we will present the fit indices, Jöreskog’s rhô and the convergent
validity related to the intention to watch [country] movie at the cinema variable.

Table 25: The affective country image confirmatory analysis result

Variable Items Estimates

Aff1 0.884
Aff2 0.601
Aff3 0.699
Affective country image
Aff4 0.888
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.857
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.605
GFI= 1.000 AGFI= 0.999
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.005 RMSEA= 0.000
Incremental fit measures CFI= 1.000 NFI= 1.000
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 0.192

The different fit measures in this table show us that the affective country image has good fit
quality. In fact, GFI and AGFI is above 0.9, RMR and RMSESA are lower than 0.1 is; NFI
and CFI are above 0.9. On the other hand, the table shows that reliability of affective country
image is above 0.7 and its Jöreskog’s rhô is above 0.5. This allows us to say that the affective

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country image variable measurement scale is reliable and valid and can be used in the
structural model.

3. The overall movies image measurement scale

In this subsection we will present the confirmatory analysis result of the overall movies image
measurement scale in order to verify its reliability, convergent validity and discriminant
validity. In the previous section, we presented the exploratory analysis result of the overall
movies image measurement scale with 6 items. In this part, we will present the overall movies
image measurement model. Therefore, we will present the measurement model as well as its
reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and model fit. In the following figure, we
will present the overall [country] movies image model;

Figure 7: The overall movies image model

In the following table, we will present the fit indices, Jöreskog’s rhô and the convergent
validity related to the overall movies image.

Table 26: The cognitive country image confirmatory analysis results

Variable Items Estimates

Cogim1 0.875
Cogim2 0.796
Cogim3 0.907
Cogim4 0.842
Overall movies image
Cogim5 0.899
Cogim6 0.900
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.949
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.758
GFI= 0.956 AGFI= 0.898
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.026 RMSEA= 0.117
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.979 NFI= 0.976
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 9.851

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The different fit measures in this table show us that the overall movies image has good fit
quality. In fact, GFI is above 0.9, RMR did not reach than 0.1, and NFI and CFI are above
0.9. On the other hand, the table above shows that reliability of the overall movies image is
above 0.7 and its Jöreskog’s rhô is above 0.5. This allows us to say that the affective country
image variable measurement scale is reliable and valid and can be used in the structural
model..

4. Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scale

In this subsection we will present the confirmatory analysis result of the consumer
ethnocentrism measurement scale in order to verify its reliability, convergent validity and
discriminant validity. In the previous section, we presented the exploratory analysis result of
the consumer ethnocentrism measurement scale with 5 items. In this part, we will present the
consumer ethnocentrism measurement model. Therefore, we will present the measurement
model as well as its reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and model fit.

In the following figure, we will present the consumer ethnocentrism model;

Figure 8: The consumer ethnocentrism model

In the following table, we will present the fit indices, Jöreskog’s rhô and the convergent
validity related to the consumer ethnocentrism variable.

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 Table 27: The consumer ethnocentrism confirmatory analysis results

Variable Items Estimates

Ethno1 0.826
Ethno2 0.883
Ethno3 0.738
Consumer Ethnocentrism Ethno4 0.500
Ethno5 0.614
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.843
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.527
GFI= 0.829 AGFI= 0.486
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.155 RMSEA= 0.326
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.790 NFI= 0.785
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 23.977

The table above shows that the consumer xenocentrism model needs to be adjusted, since its
fit quality seems to be bad.

In order to adjust this model, we checked the covariance between the different errors
corresponding to each item, and we find out that the error corresponding to the forth item
“Ethno4” has a very strong covariance we other items’ errors. In this case, the fourth item
“Ethno4” that corresponds to “Even if I had to pay more, I would rather buy a Tunisian
product. The consumer ethnocentrism adjusted model is presented in the following the
following table.

Table 28: Adjusted consumer ethnocentrism model’s confirmatory analysis results

Variable Items Estimates
Ethno1 0.833
Ethno2 0.918
Ethno3 0.711
Consumer Ethnocentrism
Ethno5 0.559
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.847
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.589
GFI= 0.985 AGFI= 0.925
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.044 RMSEA= 0.326
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.988 NFI= 0.983
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 3,344

After adjusting the consumer ethnocentrism’s model, we can admit that this model has a good
quality fit (Table 28). In fact, the absolute fit measures (GFI and AGFI) are above 0.9, and the
RMR does not reach 0.1. Also, the incremental fit measures (CFI and NFI) are higher than
0.9. The table above shows that reliability of satisfaction is above 0.7 and its Jöreskog’s rhô

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is above 0.5. This allows us to say that this variable measurement scale is reliable and valid
and can be used in the structural model.

5. Consumer xenocentrism measurement scale

In this subsection we will present the confirmatory analysis result of the consumer
xenocentrism measurement scale in order to verify its reliability, convergent validity and
discriminant validity. In the previous section, we presented the exploratory analysis result of
the consumer xenocentrism measurement scale and we retained 9 items. In this part, we will
present the consumer xenocentrism measurement model. Therefore, we will present the
measurement model for the two dimensions of the consumer xenocentrism as well as its
reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and model fit.

In the following figure, we present the consumer xenocentrism’s two dimensions;

Figure 9: The consumer xenocentrism dimensions model

We will present in the following table, the fit indices, Jöreskog’s rhô and the convergent
validity related to the two dimensions of the consumer xenocentrism variable and its
discriminant validity.

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 Table 29: The consumer xenocentrism dimensions’ confirmatory analysis results

Dimensions Items Estimates

Xeno2 0.780
Xeno3 0.861
Xeno4 0.835
Perceived inferiority
Xeno5 0.854
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0.901
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0.694
Xeno6 0.837
Xeno7 0.789
Xeno8 0.861
Social aggrandizement Xeno9 0.838
Xeno10 0.841
Reliability (Jöreskog’s rhô) 0,919
Convergent validity (Rhô vc) 0,695
GFI= 0.881 AGFI= 0.802
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.548 RMSEA= 0.133
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.893 NFI= 0.870
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 4.83

This table is showing that the two dimensions of consumer xenocentrism don’t have a good
quality fit quality. In fact, the results show that the normed chi-square is above 3, GFI as well
as AGFI have not reached 0.9, RMR and RMSEA are superior to 0.1, and CFI and NFI are
below 0.9. Also, the results in this table show that both dimensions have a good reliability
with a Jöreskog’s rhô above 0.7 for the two dimensions. Both the first and the second
dimension have a significant convergent validity that is above 0.5. The discriminant validity is
verified for the two dimensions of the consumer xenocentrism. In fact, the average variance is
above the square of the correlation between the first and the second dimension (Rhô vc1 =
0.694> r²O-K =0.72 =0.49; Rhô vc2 = 0.695> r²O-K =0.7²=0.49).

The first condition is verified since the consumer xenocentrism is a well-established concept
in the theoretical background. The second condition is also verified since the two dimensions’
correlation (0.7) is above 0.6. These two verified conditions allow us to run a second order
confirmatory analysis for the consumer xenocentrism variable (Roussel et al, 2003). In the
following figure, we present the consumer xenocentrism measurement model.

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 Figure 10: The consumer xenocentrism second order measurement model

The consumer xenocentrism second order measurement model we be used next in our
structural model. In the following table, we will present the fit quality of the consumer
xenocentrism second order measurement model.

Table 30: The consumer xenocentrism second order measurement model fit quality

Indices
GFI= 0.915 AGFI= 0.852
Absolute fit measures
RMR= 0.094 RMSEA= 0.093
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.933 NFI= 0.909
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 3.490

The different measures in the table above are showing that there is a good quality fit of the
consumer xenocentrism second order model. In fact, the GFI is above 0.9 as well as the CFI
and the NFI. Also, the RMR and the RMSEA are less than 0.1. The normed chi-square is
slightly above 3 (3.490).

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Section 3: Preliminary study results

In this section, we will pick up the results of some general questions that may allow us to
better understand movies viewers in the Tunisian context.

Also, we will determine the descriptive analysis results of our respondents’ intention to watch
Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movies at the cinema, the cognitive countries image, the
affective countries image, the overall movies image, and the level of ethnocentrism and
xenocentrism of our respondents.

1. Movies and cinema passion

In this sub-section, we will determine whether our respondents are passionate of movies and
cinema through a descriptive analysis of the first and the second question of our
questionnaire.

Table 31: Movies and cinema passion

Descriptive statistics
N M ean Std. Deviation
Movies passion 217 4,0829 0,899

Cinema passion 217 4,0829 0,899

The table above shows that the majority of the respondents are strongly passionate of both
movies and cinema. The dispersion is low (0.899), and it means that some respondents have
answered differently about their passion towards movies and cinema. In line with this, we will
consider that this study concerns a majority of respondents that are very passionate of movies
and cinema, and a minority that is not very passionate to movies and cinema.

2. Movies genres

In this sub-subsection, we will determine our respondents’ most preferred movies genres
through the 8th question of our questionnaire. In the following figure, we will present the
different movies genres preferences.

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 28% Comedy
40%
Romance
Horror
20% Drama
12%

Figure 11: movies genres preferences

This figure shows that most of the respondents have preferences for drama movies. In fact,
40% of respondents have stated that they prefer drama movies, and 28% of them prefer
comedy movies.

3. Tunisian, Turkish and Korean movies familiarity

Since we are studying consumer intentions towards Tunisian, Turkish and Korean movies, we
decided to know more about our respondent’s familiarity towards these countries’ movies
familiarity. To do so, we will analyze the 9th question in our questionnaire.

In the following table, we will present the descriptive analysis results of the familiarity
towards Tunisian, Turkish and Korean movies.

Table 32: Movies familiarity

Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Tunisian movies familiarity 217 3,1843 1,156
Turkish movies familiarity 217 3,2304 1,351
Korean movies familiarity 217 2,2765 1,315

The table above shows that our study respondents are familiar to Tunisian and Turkish movies
much more than Korean movies. The std. Deviation results show that the dispertion is low in
the three cases (between 1.156 and 1.351), which means that the respondents answered
differently on considering their level of familiarity towards Tunisian, Turkish and Korean
movies.

For more detail, we presented the following figures that explain the way the respondents have
ansewered to this affirmation “I am familiar to [country] movies”.

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 Tunisian movies Turkish movies Korean movies familiarity
familiarity familiarity

Totally
disagree and
disagree
28% 33% 23% Neither agree
45% 49% or disagree
23% 54%
Agree and
27% 18% totally agree

Figure 12: Movies familiarity

The figure above shows that 45% of the respondents have either agreed or totally agreed on
the fact that they are familiar to Tunisian movies. And only 28% of them have either
disagreed or totally disagreed on this affirmation. Also, 49% of respondents have either
agreed or totally agreed on the fact that they are familiar to Turkish movies. And 33% of them
have either totally disagreed or disagreed on their familiarity to Turkish movies.

Unlike Turkish and Tunisian movies, the figure above shows that most of the respondents
(54%) have either totally disagreed or agreed on their familiarity to Korean movies, and only
23% of them were familiar to these movies.

4. The intention to watch a Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movie at the cinema

In this sub-section, we will determine our respondents’ intention level to watch Tunisian,
Turkish or Korean movies at cinema in order to better understand our movies viewers’
cinematographic behavior.

In the following table, we will present the descriptive analysis results of the intention to watch
Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movies at the cinema.

Table 33: Intention to watch Tunisian, Turkish or Korean Movie at the cinema
Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema 217 3,4639 1,098
Intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema 217 3,4762 1,213
Intention to watch a Korean movie at the cinema 217 2,7819 1,229

This table shows that our respondents’ intention to watch Tunisian and Turkish movies at the
cinema is high. On the other hand, the intention to watch Korean movies at the cinema does

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not seem to be the lowest, but it does exist (Mean= 2.8>2.5). The dispersion is low (from
1,098 to 1,229). This means that respondents answered differently on considering their
intention to watch Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movies. In view of this, the different habits
and behaviors determined through this study concerns viewers have or not an intention to
watch Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movies at the cinema.

5. Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism level

5.1. Consumer ethnocentrism level

In this sub-section, we will determine our respondents’ level of ethnocentrism. In other words,
we will determine whether our respondents have a predisposition to believe that their ethnic
group is at the center of everything, and that it is more important than and superior to other
ethnic groups or not (Bizumic, 2014). In the following table, we will present the descriptive
analysis results of our respondents’ ethnocentrism level.

Table 34: Consumer ethnocentrism level

Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Consumer ethnocentrism level 217 3,2512 1,016

The table above shows that our respondents tend to have a high level of ethnocentrism. In
other words, and based on the different items used to evaluate the consumer ethnocentrism
level, our respondents consider consuming local (Tunisian) products instead of foreign
products important to maintain a good local economy. The dispersion is low (0.956). This
means that respondents answered differently on the different affirmations related to the
consumer ethnocentrism. In view of this, the different habits and behaviors determined
through this study concerns viewers that have or not a high ethnocentrism level.

5.2. Consumer xenocentrism level

In this second sub-section, we will determine our respondents’ level of xenocentrism. To do

so, we will first determine our respondent’s perceived inferiority level and social
aggrandizement level. Second, we will present the overall respondents’ xenocentrism level.
In the following table, we will present the descriptive analysis results of our respondents’
perceived inferiority and social aggrandizement level.

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 Table 35: Perceived inferiority and social aggrandizement level

Statistiques descriptives
N Mean Std. Deviation
Perceived inferiority level 217 3,3567 0,88389
Social aggrandizement level 217 2,5115 1,042

The table above shows that our respondents tend to high level of perceived inferiority. In
other words, most our respondents consider that local (Tunisian) products and brands are
inferior to foreign products and brands. On the other hand, this table shows that the social
aggrandizement level of our respondents is not high. In the next table, we will present the
descriptive analysis results of the overall consumer xenocentrism level.

Table 36: Consumer xenocentrism level

Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Consumer Xenocentrism level 217 2,843 0,841

According to the table above, our respondents tend to have a good level of xenocentrism. The
dispersion is low (0.798). This means that respondents answered differently on the different
affirmations related to the consumer xenocentrism. In view of this, not all our respondents are
xenocentric, and thereafter, the different habits and behaviors determined through this study
concerns viewers that have or not a high xenocentrism level.

6. The cognitive and the effective Tunisia, Turkey and Korea image

In this sub-section, we will determine our respondents’ maintained cognitive and affective
image of Tunisia, Turkey and Korea. In the following table, we will present the descriptive
analysis results of our respondents’ maintained cognitive and affective image of these
different countries.

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 Table 37: Cognitive and affective country image

Descriptive statistics
Tunisia
N Mean Std. Deviation
Cognitive Tunisia image 217 2,5052 0,66344
Affective Tunisia image 217 3,9286 0,93700
Turkey
N Mean Std. Deviation
Cognitive Turkey image 217 3,5691 0,72885
Affective Turkey image 217 3,4931 0,96613
South Korea
N Mean Std. Deviation
Cognitive Korea image 217 3,9338 0,71413
Affective Korea image 217 3,4044 0,95701

The table above shows that our respondents do not maintain a positive cognitive image of
Tunisia, but on the other hand they maintain a very positive affective image of this country.
The descriptive analysis of the cognitive and the affective image of Turkey show that our
respondents maintain a positive cognitive as well as affective image of Turkey.
The table above shows that our respondents maintain a positive cognitive as well as affective
image of Korea.
 When comparing the maintained image of these three countries, we can admit that
Tunisia has the highest affective image and Korea has the highest cognitive image.
7. The overall Tunisian, Turkish, and South Korean movies at the cinema

In this sub-section, we will determine the overall image towards Tunisian, Turkish, and South
Korean movies maintained by our respondents. In the following table, we will present the
descriptive analysis results of our respondents’ maintained overall image towards Tunisian,
Turkish, and South Korean movies.

Table 38: The overall Tunisian, Turkish, and South Korean movies image
Descriptive statistics
N Mean Std. Deviation
Overall Tunisian movies image 217 2,5622 0,83801
Overall Turkish movies image 217 3,7012 0,92126
Overall Sub-Korean movies image 217 3,2765 1,02519

Through the table above, we can distinguish that unlike Turkish and South Korean movies,
Tunisian movies do not have a positive image. Also, we can distinguish that Turkish movies
had the highest positive image according to our respondents.

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Section4: Structural analyses and the testing of the structural model

In this section we will analyze this research’s structural model with respect to the three tested
countries “Tunisia”, “Turkey”, and “South Korea”, and will test the different hypotheses
related to cause-and-effect links in each country separately.

We will start by presenting the structural model related to each country in order to test its fit
quality. In a second step, we will verify our research hypotheses H1, H2, H3 and H5. Finally,
we will verify the mediating role of the overall movies image (product image) between the
cognitive country image and the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema.

1. The first structural model and hypotheses verification: Tunisian case

In this subsection, we will start by presenting our structural model related to the Tunisian
country’s case and its fit quality. Then, we will test the different hypotheses related to the
effect of the cognitive Tunisia image on the overall Tunisian movies image (product image),
and the effects of the overall Tunisian movies image and the affective Tunisia image on the
intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema. In the following figure, we will present
this current research’s Tunisian structural model.

Figure 13: The research’s Tunisia structural model

In the following table, we will present the absolute, the incremental and the parsimony quality
fit indices, in order to find out the second structural model’s fit quality.

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 Table 39: The Tunisian structural model’s fit

Index Values
GFI= 0.862 AGFI= 0.830
Absolute fit measures
SRMR= 0.126 RMSEA= 0.064
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.933 NFI= 0.867
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 1.880

This table shows that this structural model has an acceptable fit quality. In fact, GFI and
AGFI are close to 0.9, CFI is above 0.9 and NFI is close to 0.9. Also, RMSEA have not
reached 0.09 and SRMR have barely reached 0.1. The normed chi-square is inferior to 3. In
the following table we will present table our variables’ cause-and-effect estimation and
significance in order to verify our hypotheses.

Table 40: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (Tunisia)

Links Hypotheses
Hypotheses Cause-and-effect link Estimation C.R
signification verification
Cognitive Tunisia image
H1a  overall Tunisian 0.591 0.003 2.995 Accepted
movies image
Affective Tunisia image
H2a 0.067 0.336 0.962 Rejected
Overall movies image
Overall Tunisian movies
H3a 0.588 0.000 8.855 Accepted
image  Intention
Affective Tunisia image
H5a 0.123 0.023 2.267 Accepted
 Intention
Genre preference 
Control 0.046 0.365 0.905 Rejected
Intention
variables effect
Familiarity  Intention 0.413 0.000 7.878 Accepted
P<0.05 and CR>2

According to this table, the cognitive Tunisia image has a significant positive direct effect on
the overall Tunisian movies image at 5%, risk since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R (2.817)>2.
Also, the overall Tunisian movies image has a significant positive direct effect on the
intention to watch Tunisian movie at the cinema at 5%, risk since P is inferior to 0.05 and
C.R=8.855 is superior to 2. The affective Tunisia image has a significant positive direct
effect on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since it has a
P<0.05 and a C.R= 7.787>2.

Finally, the affective Tunisia image does not have a significant impact on the overall Tunisian
movies image at 5%, since P (0.336) is superior to 0.05. Therefore, in Tunisian movies case,
the hypotheses H1, H3, and H5c are accepted, and the hypothesis H2 is rejected at 5% risk.

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For the control variables effects, the movie genre preference did not have a significant impact
on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema. The second control variable which
is “the familiarity towards Tunisian movies” has a significant impact on the intention to watch
a Tunisian movie at the cinema at the risk of 5% (P=0.000).

According to the structural model presented in the figure above, the overall Tunisian movies
image has a mediating effect on the link between the cognitive Tunisia image and the
intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema. In the fifth subsection, we will present the
results related to the mediating effect of the overall Tunisian movies image on the link
between the cognitive Tunisia image and the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the
cinema.

2. The second structural model and hypotheses verification: Turkish case

In this subsection, we will start by presenting the structural model related to the Turkish
movies case and its fit quality. Then, we will test the different hypotheses related to the effect
of the cognitive and affective Turkey country image on the overall Turkish movies image
(product image), and the effects of the overall Turkish movies image and the affective Turkish
country image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. In the following
figure, we will present this current research’s third structural model.

Figure 14: The research’s Turkey structural model

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In the following table, we will present the absolute, the incremental and the parsimony quality
fit indices, in order to find out the third structural model’s fit quality (Turkey).

Table 41: The Turkish structural model’s fit

Index Values
GFI= 0.835 AGFI= 0.796
Absolute fit measures
SRMR= 0.184 RMSEA= 0.076
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.933 NFI= 0.886
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 2.255

This table shows that this structural model has an acceptable fit quality. In fact, GFI is close to
0.9, CFI is above 0.9 and NFI is very close to 0.9. RMSEA have not reached 0.09 and SRMR
has barely reached 0.1. Finally, the normed chi-square is below 3. In the following table we
will present our variables’ cause-and-effect estimation and significance in order to verify our
hypotheses.

Table 42: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (Turkey)

Links Hypotheses
Hypotheses Cause-and-effect link Estimation C.R
signification verification
Cognitive Turkey image 
H1b overall Turkish movies 0.415 0.000 5.556 Accepted
image
Affective country image
H2b Overall Turkish movies 0.441 0.000 6.485 Accepted
image
Overall Turkish movies
H3b 0.486 0.000 6.603 Accepted
image  Intention
Affective Turkey image 
H5b 0.378 0.000 6.835 Accepted
Intention
Genre Preference 
Control 0.043 0.342 0.949 Rejected
Intention
variables effect
Familiarity  Intention 0.309 0.000 6.835 Accepted
P<0.05 and CR>2

According to the table below, all the cause-and-effect links are accepted since their links
signification are inferior to 0.05 (P= 0.000). Therefore, the four hypotheses (H1b, H2b, H3b,
and H5b) are accepted at 5% risk. The cognitive Turkey image has a significant positive
direct effect on the overall Turkish movies image at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R
(5.556) >2. Also, the affective Turkey image has a significant positive effect on the overall
Turkish movies image at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R (6.485)>2.

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The overall Turkish movies image has a significant positive direct effect on the intention to
watch a Turkish movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since P is inferior to 0.05 and C.R= 6.603 is
superior to 2. Finally, the affective Turkey image has a significant positive direct effect on the
intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R
(6.835)>2.

For the control variables effects, the movie genre preference did not have a significant impact
on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. The second control variable which is
“the familiarity towards Turkish movies” has a significant impact on the intention to watch a
Turkish movie at the cinema at the risk of 5% (P=0.000).

According to the structural model presented in the figure above, the overall Turkish movies
image has a mediating effect on the link between the cognitive Turkey image and the
intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. In the fifth subsection, we will present the
results related to the different mediating effects.

3. The third structural model and hypotheses verification: Sub-Korean case

In this subsection, we will start by presenting our third structural model related to Sub-Korean
movies case and its fit quality. Then, we will test the different hypotheses related to the effect
of the cognitive and the affective South Korea image on the overall Sub-Korean movies
image (product image), and the effects of the overall Sub-Korean movies image and the
affective Korea image on the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the cinema. In the
following figure, we will present this current research’s forth structural model.

Figure 15: The research’s South Korea structural model

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In the following table, we will present the absolute, the incremental and the parsimony quality
fit indices, in order to find out the third structural model’s fit quality (South Korea).

Table 43: The Sub-Korean structural model’s fit

Index Values
GFI= 0.821 AGFI= 0.780
Absolute fit measures
SRMR= 0.179 RMSEA= 0.080
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.934 NFI= 0.892
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 2.398

This table shows that this structural model has an acceptable fit quality. In fact, CFI is above
0.9 and NFI is very close to 0.9. RMSEA have not reached 0.09 and SRMR has barely
reached 0.1. Finally, the normed chi-square is below 3. In the following table we will present
our variables’ cause-and-effect estimation and significance in order to verify our hypotheses.

Table 44: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (South Korea)

Links Hypotheses
Hypotheses Cause-and-effect link Estimation C.R
signification verification
Cognitive South Korea image
H1c  overall South Korean 0.218 0.000 3.506 Accepted
movies image
Affective south Korea
H2c imageOverall South Korean 0.519 0.000 8.003 Accepted
movies image
Overall South Korean movies
H3c 0.527 0.000 9.181 Accepted
image  Intention
Affective South Korea image
H5c 0.200 0.000 3.563 Accepted
 Intention
Control Genre preference  intention 0,058 0,340 0,959 Rejected
variable
effect Familiarity  intention 0,471 0,000 6,387 Accepted
P<0.05 and CR>2

According to the table below, all the cause-and-effect links are accepted since their links
signification are inferior to 0.05 (P= 0.000). Therefore, the four hypotheses (H1c, H2c, H3c,
and H5c) are accepted at 5% risk. The cognitive South Korea image has a significant positive
direct effect on the overall South Korean movies image at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a
C.R(3.506)>2. Also, the affective South Korea image has a significant positive impact on the
overall South Korean movies image at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R (8.003)>2.

The overall South Korean movies image has a significant positive direct effect on the
intention to watch a South Korean movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since P is inferior to 0.05

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and C.R= 9.181 is superior to 2. Finally, the affective South Korea image has a significant
positive direct effect on the intention to watch a South Korean movie at the cinema at 5% risk,
since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R(3.563)>2.

For the control variables effects, the movie genre preference did not have a significant impact
on the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the cinema. The second control variable
which is “the familiarity towards Sub-Korean movies” has a significant impact on the
intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the cinema at the risk of 5% (P=0.000).

According to the structural model presented in the figure above, the overall Sub-Korean
movies image has a mediating effect on the link between the cognitive South Korea image
and the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the cinema. In the fifth subsection, we will
present the results related to the different mediating effects.

4. The structural general model and hypotheses verification

In this subsection, we will start by presenting our structural model and its fit quality. Then, we
will test the different hypotheses related to the effect of the cognitive country image and the
affective country on the overall movies image, and the effects of the overall movies image
and the affective country image on the intention to watch [county] movie at the cinema. In the
following figure, we will present this current research’s first structural model.

Figure 22: The research’s first structural model

In the following table, we will present the absolute, the incremental and the parsimony quality
fit indices, in order to find out the first structural model’s fit quality.

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 Table 45: The first structural model’s fit

Index Values
GFI= 0.852 AGFI= 0.818
Absolute fit measures
SRMR= 0.137 RMSEA= 0.083
Incremental fit measures CFI= 0.926 NFI= 0.912
Parsimony fit measures Chi-square/Df= 5.446

This table shows that our research’s first structural model has an acceptable fit quality. In fact,
GFI and AGFI are close to 0.9, CFI as well as NFI are above 0.9, and RMSEA have not
reached 0.09 and SRMR has barely reached 0.1 (0.137). In the following table we will
present table our variables’ cause-and-effect estimation and significance in order to verify our
hypotheses.

Table 46: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (3 countries)

Links Hypotheses
Hypotheses Cause-and-effect link Estimation C.R
signification verification
Cognitive country image
H1 0.675 0.000 6.174 Accepted
 overall movies image
Affective country image
H2 0.271 0.000 8.266 Accepted
Overall movies image
Overall movies image 
H3 0.455 0.000 13.264 Accepted
Intention
Affective country image
H5 0.324 0.000 10.292 Accepted
 Intention
Genre preference 
Control 0,056 0,341 0,961 Rejected
Intention
variables effect
Familiarity  Intention 0,381 0,000 6,267 Accepted
P<0.05 and CR>2

According to the table below, all the cause-and-effect links are accepted since their links
signification are inferior to 0.05 (P= 0.000). Therefore, the four hypotheses (H1, H2, H3, and
H5) are accepted at 5% risk.

According to this table, the cognitive country image has a significant positive direct effect on
the overall movies image at 5% risk, since it has a P<0.05 and a C.R (6.174)>2. Also, the
affective country image has a significant positive direct effect at on the overall movies image
at 5% risk, with a P=0.000 and a C.R (8.266)>2.

The overall movies image has a significant positive direct effect on the intention to watch a
domestic/foreign movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since P is inferior to 0.05 and C.R (13.264)
is superior to 2. Finally, the affective country image has a significant positive direct effect on

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the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema at 5% risk, since it has a
P<0.05 and a C.R (10.292) >2.

According to the current research structural model presented in the figure above, the overall
movies image has a mediating effect on the link between the cognitive country image and the
intention to watch [country] movie at the cinema.

5. Verifying the mediating role of the overall movies image

The current research’s four structural models showed that the overall movies image may have
a mediating role between the cognitive country image and the intention to watch a [country]
movie at the cinema. In this sub-section, we will verify the mediating role of the overall
movies image related to the following hypotheses:

H4: The impact of the cognitive country image on the intention to watch a [country] movie at
the cinema is mediated by the overall movies image.

In order to present the results related to the mediating role of the overall movies image, we
will use the Bootstrap method with Monte Carlo simulation. Unlike Baron and Kenny’s
(1986) approach, this method is more efficient in case of complex structural models

Table 47: Significance of the indirect effects

Indirect effects Estimates P

The indirect effect of cognitive country image in the intention to watch a
0.425 0.007
domestic/foreign movie at the cinema
The indirect effect of cognitive Tunisia image on the intention to watch
0.213 0.003
Tunisian movie at the cinema
The indirect effect of cognitive Turkey image on the intention to watch a
0.404 0.003
Turkish movie at the cinema
The indirect effect of cognitive South Korea image on the intention to
0.292 0.003
watch a South Korean movie at the cinema
P<0.05

According to this table, only the indirect effect of experience on consumer proselytism is
significant at a risk of 5% and its value is 0.257. The indirect effect of TV series experience
on attachment as well as the indirect effect of satisfaction to TV series on proselytism are not
significant (P>0.05).

According to this table, all the indirect effects are significant at 5% risk. In fact, the indirect
effect of the cognitive country image on the intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the
cinema is significant at 5% risk, and its value is 0.425. The indirect effect of the cognitive

117
Tunisia image on the intention to watch Tunisian movie at the cinema is significant at 5%
risk, and its value is 0.213. The indirect effect of the cognitive Turkey image on the intention
to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema is significant at 5% risk, and its value is 0.404.
Finally, the indirect effect of the cognitive South Korea image on the intention to watch a
South Korean movie at the cinema is significant at 5% risk, and its value is 0.292.

Previously, we have verified the impact of the overall movies image, the overall Tunisian
movies image, the overall Turkish movies image, and the South Korean movies image on the
intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie, Tunisian movie, Turkish, and Sub-Korean
movies at the cinema (H3). All these links were significant at 5% risk. These results allow us
to confirm that the overall movies image mediates the impact of the cognitive country image
on the intention to watch a movie at the cinema.

In order to determine the nature of this mediation, we verified the significance of the direct
impact of the cognitive country image on the intention to watch a movie at the cinema.
Results showed that in Turkish and Sub-Korean cases, the direct impact of the cognitive
Turkey/Korea image on the intention to watch a Turkish/Korean movie at the cinema is
insignificant at 5% risk (P=0,086 (Turkey)/ P=0,582 (Korea)). Thus, according to Barron and
Kenny (1986), the overall movies image fully mediates the impact of the cognitive country
image on the intention to watch a foreign movie at the cinema in both the Turkish and the
Sub-Korean cases. In the Tunisian case, the direct impact of the cognitive Tunisia image on
the intention to watch a Tunisian movie was significant at 5% risk (P=0.000). Thereafter, we
can admit that the overall Tunisian movies image has a partial mediating effect on the link
between the cognitive Tunisia image and the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the
cinema.

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Section5: Verifying the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and
the consumer xenocentrism

In this academic research, we proposed to study the moderating role of the consumer
ethnocentrism and the consumer xenocentrism on the impact of the overall movies image, and
the affective country image on the intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the cinema. We
will begin first by presenting consumer clusters in order to classify respondents according to
their ethnocentrism and xenocentrism level. This classification is made through the SPSS K -
means clustering and used to verify the moderation. The verification of the moderating roles
of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer xenocentrism are done through Multiple
Group Analysis, following Sauer et al (1993)’s approach.

1. Consumer ethnocentrism’s moderating role verification

1.1. Consumer clusters according to their ethnocentrism level

In this part, we will use the K-means clustering method in order to provide a classification of
the different respondents according to their ethnocentrism level. This method is efficient in
dividing a given number of observations into clusters.

In the following table, we will present the obtained results of the final clustering of the
consumer ethnocentrism’s different modalities.

Table 48: K-means clustering of the consumer ethnocentrism results

Items High C.ETH Low C.ETH ANOVA P

Ethno1 4 2 219.482 0.000
Ethno2 4 2 338.553 0.000
Ethno3 4 2 203.947 0.000
Ethno5 4 3 98.327 0.000
Number of cases 122 95
Percentage 56% 44%
Convergence achieved at the 6th iteration

The table above shows that our respondents can be divided into two different groups based on
the ethnocentrism level. The convergence was achieved at the 6 th level iteration. In fact, 55%
of respondents have a high level of ethnocentrism and represent the first cluster. On the other
hand, 45% of respondents have a low ethnocentrism level and represent the second cluster.
The ANOVA tests are significant for all the five items of the consumer ethnocentrism at a 5%
risk.

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 1.2. Verification of the consumer ethnocentrism’s moderating role

In this sub-section, we will use the Chi-square significance to verify the moderating role of
the consumer ethnocentrism on the different links.

First, we will verify the hypotheses related to the consumer ethnocentrism’s moderating role
on the link between the overall Tunisian movies image and the intention to watch a for
Tunisia movie at the cinema. Second, we will verify the different hypotheses related to the
moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism on the link between the affective Tunisia
image and the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema.

1.2.1. The moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism

In this subsection, we will verify these hypotheses:

H6: The consumer ethnocentrism has a positive moderating role on the impact of the overall
Tunisian movies image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema.

H7: The consumer ethnocentrism positively moderates the impact of the affective Tunisia
image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema

In the following table, we will present the results related to the Multiple Group Analysis.

Table 49: The Multiple group analyses results of the consumer ethnocentrism

Tunisian movies image  Intention to watch Tunisian vs foreign movie at the

Links
cinema
Groups DF CMIN P
High Consumer
ethnocentrism
59 75.499 0.073
Low consumer
ethnocentrism
Affective Tunisia image  Intention to watch Tunisian vs foreign movie at the
Links
cinema
Standardized
Groups Estimates C.R DF CMIN P
regression
High Consumer
0.402 0.358 3.768
ethnocentrism
31 48.106 0.026
Low consumer
0.200 0.183 1.659
ethnocentrism

We can distinguish from the table above that the Chi-square difference test is not significant
at 5% risk in the link between the overall Tunisian movies image and the intention to watch a
Tunisian movie at the cinema (P= 0.073). Therefore, the hypothesis H6 is rejected, and we

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can admit that the consumer ethnocentrism does not moderate the impact of the overall
Tunisian movies image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema.

The previous table also shows that the Chi-square difference test is significant at 5% risk (P=
0.026) in the link between the affective Tunisia image and the intention to watch a tunisian
movie at the cinema. The standardized regression results show that the impact of the affective
Tunisia image is higher when movies viewers have a high level of ethnocentrism. Therefore,
the hypothesis H7 is accepted, and we can admit that the consumer ethnocentrism has a
positive moderating role on the impact of the affective Tunisia image on the intention to
watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema.

2. Consumer xenocentrism’s moderating role

2.1. Consumer clusters according to their xenocentrism level

In this part, we will use the K-means clustering method in order to provide a classification of
the different respondents according to their Xenocentrism level. In the following table, we
will present the obtained results of the final clustering of the consumer xenocentrism’s
different modalities.

Table 50: K-means clustering of the consumer xenocentrism results

Dimensions Items High C.XENO Low C.XENO ANOVA P

Xeno2 4 3 14.237 0.000
Perceived Xeno3 3 2 51.092 0.000
Inferiority Xeno4 4 2 81.834 0.000
Xeno5 4 3 56.449 0.000
Xeno6 4 3 91.458 0.000
Xeno7 3 2 188.700 0.000
Social
Xeno8 3 2 87.823 0.000
Aggrandizement
Xeno9 3 1 107.436 0.000
Xeno10 3 2 97.105 0.000
Number of cases 130 87
Percentage 60% 40%
Convergence achieved at the 4th iteration

The table above shows that our respondents can be divided into two different groups based on
the xenocentrism level. The convergence was achieved at the 4th level iteration. In fact, 60%
of respondents have a high level of xenocentrism and represent the first cluster. On the other
hand, 40% of respondents have a low xenocentrism level and represent the second cluster.

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The ANOVA tests are significant for all the nine items of consumer xenocentrism at a 5%
risk.

2.2. Verification of the consumer xenocentrism’s moderating role

In this sub-section, we will use the Chi-square significance to verify the moderating role of
the consumer xenocentrism on the different links.

First, we will verify the hypotheses related to the consumer xenocentrism’s moderating role
on the links between the overall foreign movies image and the intention to watch a foreign
movie at the cinema. Second, we will verify the different hypotheses related to the moderating
role of the consumer xenocentrism on the links between the affective foreign country image
and the intention to watch a foreign movie at the cinema.

2.2.1. The moderating role of the consumer xenocentrism

In this subsection, we will verify these hypotheses:

H8: The consumer xenocentrism has a positive moderating role on the impact of the overall
foreign movies (a: Turkish/b: South Korea) image on the intention to watch a foreign (a:
Turkish/ b: Sub-Korean) movie at the cinema.

H9: The consumer xenocentrism has a positive moderating role on the impact of the affective
foreign country (a: Turkey/ b: South Korea) image on the intention to watch a foreign (a:
Turkish/ b: Sub-Korean) movie at the cinema.

In the following table, we will present the results related to the Multiple Group Analysis of
the consumer xenocentrism.

Table 51: The multiple group analyses results of the consumer xenocentrism

Sub-Korean movies image  Intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the

Links
cinema
Standardized
Groups Estimates C.R DF CMIN P
regression
High Consumer
0.920 0.782 12.254
xenocentrism
59 116.750 0.000
Low consumer
1.044 0.805 10.529
xenocentrism
Links Turkish movies image  Intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema
Standardized
Groups Estimates C.R DF CMIN P
regression
High Consumer
0.964 0.788 12.141
xenocentrism
59 129.453 0.000
Low consumer
1.114 0.774 9.249
xenocentrism

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 Affective South Korea image  Intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the
Links
cinema
Groups DF CMIN P
High Consumer
xenocentrism
31 42.376 0.084
Low consumer
xenocentrism
Links Affective Turkey image  Intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema
Groups DF CMIN P
High Consumer
xenocentrism
31 31.374 0.447
Low consumer
xenocentrism

The Chi-square difference test is significant at 5% risk in the case of Turkey and South Korea.

For the hypothesis H8a, the standardized regression of both groups showed that the impact of
the overall Turkish movies image is higher when movies viewers have higher level of
xenocentrism. Therefore, this hypothesis (H8a) is accepted, and the consumer xenocentrism
has positively moderated the impact of the overall Turkish movies image on the intention to
watch a Turkish movie at the cinema.

Finally, for the hypothesis H8b, the standardized regression of both groups showed that the
impact of the overall Sub-Korean movies image is lower when movies viewers have a high
level of xenocentrism. These results can’t be theoretically accepted since the consumer
xenocentrism is supposed to positively moderate this link. Therefore, the hypothesis H8c is
rejected, and the consumer xenocentrism does not positively moderate the impact of the
overall Sub-Korean movies image on the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the
cinema.

According to the table above, the hypotheses H9a and H9b are rejected, since the Chi-square
difference test is not significant at 5% risk (P= 0.447). Therefore, the consumer xenocentrism
does not moderate the impact of the affective Turkey image on the intention to watch a
Turkish movie at the cinema. And also, it does not moderate the impact of the affective South
Korea on the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie.

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Section6: Findings and discussion

In this last section, we will present the current research’s main findings about the COO effect
in the context of movies at the cinema.

1. Findings discussion

Our research’s findings are meant to verify our different conceptual modes that are linking the
cognitive country image, the affective country image, the overall movies image (product
image) and the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema.

Also, these findings aim to verify the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the
consumer xenocentrism on the different links.

On a first step, we will start by discussing the findings for the different causal links. Next, we
will discuss the different mediating effects of the overall movies image on the link between
the cognitive country images on the intention to watch a foreign/domestic movie at the
cinema. Then, we will discuss the results of the moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism
and consumer xenocentrism. Finally, we will discuss our preliminary analysis findings.

1.1. Discussion of causal links findings

Product image’s antecedents (movies)

Tunisian movies case

According to previous results, we distinguish that unlike foreign movies, Tunisian movies
image is only impacted by the cognitive image of Tunisia. On the other hand, the affective
Tunisia image does not have a significant impact on Tunisian movies image. In fact, the
affective component of Tunisia’s image did not apply a halo effect when forming a global
image of Tunisian movies, and the last depended only on the rational image of Tunisia. In
other words, Tunisians do not rely on their emotions towards Tunisia when judging Tunisian
movies. These results very strange since movies are supposed to depend on emotions given
their experiential and low-involvement nature. This may be explained through the relation
between Tunisians and Tunisian movies, and through how Tunisians perceive these movies.
In fact, these results are in line with some results revealed from our conducted netnography
that demonstrated the nature of this relation through the different comments when criticizing a

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Tunisian movie. As we mentioned in the netnography analysis, these comments tend to be
very severe and lack of emotions.

Figure 16: Overall Tunisian movies image’s antecedents

However, most of Tunisian movies are auteur-type movies, and these films are in general
dedicated to a limited category of movies viewers and are not appreciated by most of
Tunisians. This cinematographic positioning leaded to the rise of an elitist Tunisian cinema, a
cinema that neglected a large audience category. Thereafter, it might be that this accumulation
of auteur-type movies and the total absence of commercial movies impacted Tunisian movies
perception. In fact, Tunisians tend to perceive Tunisian movies as movies that are icy, cold,
and lacking of emotions and feelings. This may explain the reason why Tunisians rely on the
cognitive image of Tunisia when judging Tunisian movies.

Foreign movies case

Through the structural analyses results we distinguished that, in both Turkish and Sub-Korean
movies cases, movies image was impacted by the cognitive country image as well as the
affective country image. In fact, our respondents judged Turkish and sub-Korean movies
based on their emotions towards these countries and on their maintained stereotypes about
Turkey and South Korea.

In Sub-Korean movies case, the impact of the affective sub-Korea image was more important
and more intense than the impact of the cognitive Sub-Korea image on the overall Sub-
Korean image. Thus, Tunisians that have a positive affective image of South Korea are more
likely to judge Sub-Korean movies positively comparing to those who have a positive
cognitive image of South Korea. In fact, South Korea is still a mysterious and not a well-
known country for Tunisians, since it is geographically very far from Tunisia and traveling
there is very expansive. However, during the last decade, South Korea has developed a
positive affective image by promoting the Sub-Korean culture around the world through
spreading K-pop and Korean dramas. This Sub-Korean wave may be the reason why Sub-
Korean movies image is more based on the affective image of Korea than its cognitive image.

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 Figure 17: Overall Sub-Korean movies image’s antecedents

In Turkish movies case, the cognitive Turkey image and the affective country image have the
same importance and intensity in impacting Turkish movies image. These results are quite
understandable since Turkey has imposed a positive cognitive and affective image through the
tourism and the Korean Drama. In fact, Tunisians tend to travel frequently to Turkey which
might positively influence the maintained cognitive and affective image of Turkey. Also,
during the last decade, the Turkish drama became very popular in Tunisia, and Turkish series
producers promoted a strong positive image of Turkey. For these reasons, our results showed
how both the cognitive and the affective image of Turkey had the same importance in
impacting the overall Turkish movies image.

Figure 18: Overall Turkish movies image’s antecedents

The intention to watch a movie at the cinema’s antecedents

Tunisian movies case

Our results showed that the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema is impacted by
both the overall Tunisian movies image and the affective Tunisia image. Otherwise, the
results showed that the impact of the overall Tunisian movies image is way more important in
impacting consumers’ intentions to watch a Tunisian movie comparing to the affective
Tunisia image’s effect. Thereafter, we can assume that the intention to watch a Tunisian
movie at the cinema is following a rational and cognitive process, since the Tunisian movies
image depended only on the cognitive image of Tunisia. Hence, movies viewers who maintain
a positive image of Tunisian movies are more likely to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema

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than those who maintain a positive affective image of Tunisia. These results are in line with
the conducted netnography’s results. In fact, through these results we showed how Tunisians
are stereotyping Tunisian movies without really relying on emotions.

Figure 19: Intention to watch a Tunisian movie’s antecedents

Foreign movies case

Our conducted structural analyses showed that the intention to watch a Turkish or a Sub-
Korean movie at the cinema is impacted by the overall movies image as the affective country
image.

In Turkish movies case, results showed that the Turkish movies image and the affective
Turkey image have almost the same importance and intensity in impacting the intention to
watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. Hence, we can admit that the intention to watch a
Turkish movie at the cinema is following two processes namely an emotional and a rational
process.

Figure 20: Intention to watch a Turkish movie’s antecedents

In Sub-Korean movies case, results showed that the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie at
the cinema depends more on the Sub-Korean movies image then the affective South Korea
image. Hence, Tunisians who maintain a positive image of Sub-Korean movies are more
likely to watch a Sub-Korean movie at the cinema than those who maintain a positive
affective image of this country. But still, the affective component of South Korea’s image is

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still important in impacting the whole intention process since it has an important impact on
the image of Sub-Korean movies.

Figure 21: Intention to watch a Turkish movie’s antecedents

1.2. Discussion of mediating effects discussion

In the current research, we highlighted the mediating effect of the overall movies image on
the link between the cognitive country image and the intention to watch a domestic/foreign
movie at the cinema (H3). Well, our findings allowed us to accept the third hypothesis in both
local and foreign movies cases in this research, and to admit that the impact of the cognitive
country image on the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema is mediated
by the cognitive image of a given country.

Unlike foreign movies, the overall Tunisian movies image (product image) has partially
mediated the impact of the cognitive Tunisia image on the intention to watch a Tunisian
movie at the cinema. This demonstrates how important the cognitive component of the
Tunisian image in impacting the consumer’s behavior towards Tunisian movies.

In foreign movies case, the mediation of the overall foreign movies image on the intention to
watch a foreign movie at the cinema was a full mediation, which is in line with Wand et al’s
(2012) findings. This explains the importance of the overall movies image in impacting
consumers’ intentions to watch foreign movies. Hence, we can admit that consumers who
have a positive image towards a foreign country tend to watch a movie from that country only
if they maintain a positive image of the movies produced in that country.

1.3. Discussion of the moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer

xenocentrism

In our research, we a highlighted the moderating effect that could the consumer ethnocentrism
and the consumer xenocentrism have on the different links.

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First, in Tunisian movies case (local movies), the consumer ethnocentrism did not moderate
the impact of the overall Tunisian movies image on the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at
the cinema. Thus, consumers who have a positive image towards Tunisian movies had also a
high intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema no matter their level of ethnocentrism.
Thereafter, the hypothesis H6 was rejected. On the other hand, the consumer ethnocentrism
had a significant moderating role on the direct link between the affective Tunisian image and
the intention to watch a Tunisian movie at the cinema. In fact, the consumer ethnocentrism
has positively moderated this link, and the impact of the affective Tunisia image on the
intention to watch Tunisian movie at the cinema was higher for consumers who had a high
ethnocentrism level. This leaded us to accept the hypothesis H7. This moderation can be
explained by the fact that consumers who loves their country (affective country image), and
who believe that consuming local is important and has an important role in having a good
local economic situation, tend to consume local products instead of foreign products.
Thereafter, when faced to local and foreign movies at the cinema, consumers who have a high
affective image of their country, and who maintain a high ethnocentrism level tend to choose
to watch local movies more than foreign movies.

The consumer xenocentrism had a significant positive moderating role on the impact of the
overall Turkish movies image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. In
fact, consumers with a high xenocentrism level, and who maintained a positive image of the
overall Turkish movies, had a higher intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. This
allowed us to accept the hypothesis H8a. This moderation might be explained through the fact
that consumers who believe that foreign products and brands are better than domestic ones,
and that consuming foreign products makes them in a higher level of society, have a higher
intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema when they maintain a positive image of
Turkish movies. But still, this moderation was very week.

Also, the consumer xenocentrism did not have a significant moderating role on the impact of
the affective Turkey image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. In fact,
no matter what the ethnocentrism or the xenocentrism level is, the impact of the affective
Turkey image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema has the same intensity.
In line of this, we neglected the hypothesis H9a.

Finally, we distinguished through the different results that the consumer xenocentrism did not
have a moderating role on the impact of the overall South Korean movies image and the

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affective South Korea on the intention to watch a Sub-Korean movie, which leaded us to
reject the hypotheses H8c and H9c. In other words, our respondents who had a high
xenocentrism level do not believe that their xenocentric needs can be realized through the
consumption of South Korean movies.

 The consumer xenocentrism did not have a significant moderating impact on most of
the links. This may be explained through the fact that the consumer xenocentrism is
more significant when consumers belonging to developing countries are confronted to
products or services from “America” or “France” for example. And also, this may be
due to the clustering.

2. Managerial implications

Given the fact that country image and product image present two different but related
constructs, practitioners have to focus not only on their companies and products promotion,
but also, they need to promote their country image through these products, or through
campaigns that highlight the image of that country.

More specifically, films makers need to offer films of a good quality, and at the same time,
they need to focus more on the country branding through these movies by highlighting the
good sides of that country.

In fact, movies and series makers have a better, faster and easier chance to promote a good
image of a country, and the best example to follow can be Turkey. In fact, Turkish films and
series makers focused on increasing the local demand at the first place. This increasing
allowed them to have better scenarios, more charming actors and actresses, and better
production quality. Thereafter, they succeeded to promote good films and series quality, and
to promote a better image of Turkey around the world, which increased the series and films
exportation, and the number of tourists visiting Turkey at the same time (Bilgin et al, 2016).

In the Tunisian case, we recommend films producers to start by reinforcing the local demand
by offering better movies with better scenarios and production quality, and by focusing on the
good side of Tunisia and Tunisians in their movies.

International as well as national marketing strategies need to take into account cognitive as
well as affective country images. This may be important, since our findings suggest that
affective country image is as important as cognitive country image in influencing consumer

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intentions to watch movies especially when product image is not very favorable, which is the
case of Tunisian movies image.

Also, our research shows that Tunisians have a positive cognitive as well as affective image
of Turkey, and thereafter they had a very strong intention to watch Turkish movies at the
cinema. In line with this, Tunisian cinema directors need to rethink the movies that are
projected in Tunisian cinema Theaters. We have already mentioned that Tunisian cinema
theaters project a high number of American movies, and a less number of Egyptian movies,
and on the other hand, they totally neglected the fact that Tunisians have intentions to watch
other movies from other countries such as Turkish movies. And to be more sufficient in
choosing movies from different countries, movies importers can focus on countries that have
a positive cognitive as well as affective image in Tunisia.

Our study has also demonstrated the importance of the affective country image for enhancing
consumers to watch movies from a given country at the cinema, and this was independent of
product image. In line with this, practitioners, and films makers in particular, need to bear in
mind that it is always possible to change a country’s cognitive and affective images over time
through technological, social, or political change (Knight, Holdsworth, and Mather, 2007).

In our research, we distinguished two important points; first, a foreign country’s image
impacts consumers’ intentions to watch a movie from that country at the cinema. And second,
even a person’s own country image can influence his intention to watch a domestic movie at
the cinema. In line with this, we suggest that practitioners should promote their country image
at both national and international levels. In order to enhance a better image of a given country,
governmental departments and agencies should implement smart strategies that help in
branding that country, and in creating a good nation reputation.

Furthermore, this current research’s results showed the positive moderating impact of the
consumer ethnocentrism on the link between the affective local country image and the
intention to watch a domestic movie at the cinema. In fact, these results showed that high
ethnocentric consumers are more inclined to watch a domestic movie at the cinema. Results
therefore suggest that domestic movies industries may have their place alongside their more
powerful and sophisticated global competitors by understanding more and more the complex
idea of consumer ethnocentrism that can be exploited as a marketing tool to impact
consumers’ behaviors. In fact, the role that consumer ethnocentrism has in reinforcing the
impact of the affective domestic country image on the intention to watch local movies at the

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cinema is advantageous for local movies producers to emphasize the “domesticity” of their
products (movies) and adopt “buy national”.

As xenocentric consumers may be the most difficult to convince to purchase domestic brands
or to consume domestic movies, local firms should deal with the different needs of this
specific segment by adjusting their communication and positioning strategies accordingly. For
example, in order to deal with the social aggrandizement needs and the perceived inferiority
of xenocentric consumers, practitioners should implement campaigns that highlight the
quality of domestic products. Moreover, practitioners should work on boosting the self-
esteem and the confidence of xenocentric consumers through these campaigns. Also, domestic
films or series makers should implement such strategies through their motion-picture
products. For example, in order to boost a Tunisian xenocentric consumer’s self-esteem and
confidence, Tunisian movies makers should make movies about success stories of a Tunisian
man or woman.

In addition, an alternative approach for local firms operating in markets with sizeable number
of xenocentric segments (such as Tunisian firms) is to follow the “Chameleon” strategy
(Anestis et al, 2008, cited in Balabanis et al, 2016). Through this strategy, practitioners can
make their brand looks like a foreign brand through product design, advertising, or
merchandizing. Movies and series makers can also implement this strategy by making movies
that treat subjects already treated by foreign movies and series makers (Subjects that already
had a certain success all over the world).

For foreign companies, the phenomenon of the consumer xenocentrism needs to be

considered. In fact, we proved through this academic research that the consumer xenocentrism
has a positive moderating effect on the impact of the overall Turkish (foreign country) movies
image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema. In line with this result, foreign
movies exporters need to focus more on exporting their product in countries with high
xenocentric people, since it will be easier to convince these persons to consume foreign
movies. And also, we have detected through this research, that not all the foreign countries
take advantage of the consumer xenocentrism phenomenon, for example, the impact of the
overall South Korean movies, or the affective South Korea image on the intention to watch
movies that come from South Korea, which is a developed country, have not been positively
moderated by the consumer xenocentrism. Thereafter, foreign movies producers should
implement technics that can directly attract xenocentric consumers.

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 Conclusion
In this part, we presented the adopted methodology and the different empirical results that
provided us a better understanding for the different links between the cognitive country
image, the affective country image, the overall movies image, and the intention to watch a
[country] movie at the cinema. These findings were tested on three different countries
(Tunisia, Turkey, and Korea).

In the first chapter, we treated the methodological and the data collecting and processing. We
discussed in the first part of the chapter, the current study’s research method, and we provided
more details about our research objectives and the hypotheses that guided us through this
research.

In the second chapter, we presented the different conducted analysis results in order to answer
to our research problem. We started first by presenting the results from the exploratory,
confirmatory and structural analysis that allowed us to verify our conceptual model.

Results showed that the cognitive country image had a positive direct effect on the overall
movies image, and that the overall movies image as well as the affective country image had a
positive direct effect on the intention to watch a [country] movie at the cinema. Also, results
have showed that the effect of the cognitive country image on the intention to watch [country]
movie at the cinema is mediated by the overall movies image. These results were also
confirmed in the cases of Tunisian, Turkish, and South Korean movies.

Finally, results showed that the impact of the affective Tunisia image in the intention to watch
a Tunisian movie at the cinema were positively moderated by the consumer ethnocentrism,
and negatively moderated by the consumer xenocentrism. Also, we found that the consumer
xenocentrism had a positive moderating role on the impact of the overall Turkish movies
image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the cinema, and that the consumer
ethnocentrism had a negative moderating role on the impact of the overall South Korean
movies image on the intention to watch a South Korean movie at the cinema.

In the final chapter, we discussed results and provided implications and recommendations
especially for movies producers.

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 General conclusion
This research aimed to focus on the country of origin effect in cultural and creative industries
context and in movies context in particular. The purpose of this study was to provide a better
understanding for the country image effects on consumers’ behavioral intentions towards
local and foreign movies at the cinema. More specifically, we aimed to determine the effect of
the cognitive country image, the affective country image and the overall movies image from a
given country on consumer’s intention to watch a movie from a given country at the cinema.
And we aimed to analyze the moderating role of both consumer ethnocentrism and consumer
xenocentrism on these links.

The ultimate goal was to provide national and international movies producers and firms
specialized in diffusing movies at cinema theaters with some recommendations that may
improve their marketing strategies to promote their cultural and creative products, and that
may improve their movies importation and exportation strategies. To do so, we first
conducted two exploratory analyses namely, 4 semi-directive interviews and a 5 months
Netnography to afford a better understanding of Tunisian movies viewers’ behavior, to select
the different countries that were treated in this research, and to make sure it will be interesting
to study movies and country of origin effect. Then, we proposed research models founded on
a review of the literature. Finally, a quantitative analysis was conducted in order to test our
different hypotheses. In this manner, this research offered us answers to our research problem
"how does country of origin impact intention to watch a domestic / foreign movie at the
cinema? And how do ethnocentrism and xenocentrism influence this relationship?”

In this academic research, we decided to study COO effects in cultural and creative industries
context. In the first part, we introduced the country of origin effect in general and in the
context of cultural products context, namely movies. We presented a literature review on the
COO effect as well as the cognitive country image and the affective country image in
marketing research. Then, we reviewed the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer
xenocentrism and introduced their moderating roles on the different links between the
intention to watch a local/foreign movie at the cinema and its antecedents. Finally, we
reviewed cultural and creative products and movies, and we focused on presenting the
Tunisian’s cultural and creative industry situation during the last years.

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In the second part, we presented the methodological approach adopted and the data collecting
and processing. We discussed this study’s research method and provided more details about
our research design. We presented a brief reminder of the problem statement, the research
question, our research objectives and the hypotheses that guided us through this research.
Then, we analyzed results from the different quantitative data analysis in order to find
answers our research problem. We presented the results of the exploratory, confirmatory and
structural analysis that allowed us to verify our conceptual models.

Findings showed that the cognitive country image and the affective country image have an
impact on the overall movies image in both Turkish and Sub-Korean cases. But in Tunisian
movies case, only the cognitive country image had a significant impact on the overall movies
image. Results also showed that the affective country has a direct impact on consumers’
intentions to watch a movie from a given at the cinema, and the cognitive country image has
an indirect impact on consumers’ intentions to watch a movie from a given country at the
cinema. All these results were confirmed for local movies (Tunisian) as long as for foreign
movies (Turkish and South Korean). Next, we verified the moderating roles of the consumer
etnocentrism and the consumer xenocentrism on the different links. Finally, we discussed
results and provided several implications and recommendations for movies producers and
firms specialized in diffusing movies at cinema theaters.

The revealed results are in line with previous researches that highlighted the impact of
cognitive, affective country and product image on consumers’ behavior (Verlegh, 2001;
Maher and Carter, 2011; Li et al, 2014). Consequently, a good affective image and cognitive
image of a given country, and a good overall movies image make consumers have a more
positive intention to watch movies from that country at the cinema.

Furthermore, the mediation effect of the overall movies image between the cognitive country
image and the intention to watch a movie from a given country at the cinema was verified,
which is in line with the different findings of Wang et al (2012) . Besides, the verification of
the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism showed the existence of two types of
respondents, those who have a high ethnocentrism level and others who have low
ethnocentrism level. Results revealed that the consumer ethnocentrism positively moderates
the impact of the affective Tunisia (domestic country) image on the intention to watch a
Tunisian movie at the cinema.

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Results revealed that the consumer xenocentrism positively moderates the impact of Turkish
(but not South Korean) movies image on the intention to watch a Turkish movie at the
cinema. These results are harmonious with the findings of previous researches that underlined
the impact the consumer ethnocentrism (Balabanis et al, 2004; De Nisco et al, 2016; Vuong et
al, 2020) and consumer xenocentrism (Diamantopoulos et a, 2018; Balabanis et al, 2016) on
consumers’ preferences of domestic and local products.

Concerning exploratory analyses results, findings provided a deeper and better understanding
of Tunisian movies viewers’ behavior. In fact, through these exploratory analyses we were
able to know more about Movies viewers’ preferences and motivations, and figure out where
the different movies they watched come from. Also, preliminary analyses results made this
understanding of Tunisian movies viewers’ behavior even clearer and better.

This academic research made a tremendous theoretical and managerial contribution.

In terms of theoretical contribution, the current research highlighted the importance of the
cognitive as well as the affective country image in determining consumers’ intention behavior
with respect to cultural and creative products (movies at the cinema). Most of the researches
treating country of origin effects have focused on the cognitive aspect of the country of origin,
and have ignored its affective and emotional aspect except very few marketing researches.
Also, a very limited number of researches have focused on the importance of the cognitive
and the affective country image in movies context. Also as far as we know, the consumer
xenocentrism has not been treated as a moderator yet, and it has not been studied in the
context of cultural and creative products yet.

Regarding managerial contribution, this research has served to provide movies producers and
cultural and creative firms with some interesting recommendations that will lead the to focus
on their products image as well as their own country’s image in order to make sure their
cultural and creative products have a significant audience on both the national and the
international level. Also, these results provided them recommendations that can lead them to
implement better targeting strategies through taking into account ethnocentrism and
xenocentrism consumers. In addition, we proposed some recommendations for local movies
producers in order to reduce consumers’ xenocentrism level to minimize its negative
moderation on the impact the affective country image on the intention to watch a domestic
movie at the cinema on the first hand. And on the other hand, we afforded recommendations

136
for these local movies producers in order to benefit from consumers with a high
ethnocentrism level since they are more apt to consume local products and movies.

Of course, our academic research does not lack from limits, as it is the case for all scientific
researches. First, the literature about country of origin effect in the context of cultural and
creative products is very limited, which made it harder to adapt COO effect to our concept.
Furthermore, we noticed certain homogeneity in our sample; the majority of respondents are
females and students. This sample homogeneity may be due to our sampling method. Also,
our questionnaire length may present a limitation for this research since some respondents
have complained about it.

Future research should investigate more the country of origin effect on other cultural and
creative products, such as books, and music. Future research should also examine more and
more the phenomenon of consumer xenocentrism. It would be interesting to propose new
measurement scales in new contexts of this construct, because there are only two
measurement scales that have been constructed in specific contexts. It would be also
interesting to study movies from a given country’s effects on the cognitive and the affective
images of that country. It will be useful to transpose our study in other countries with different
cultures and history, because this may give us different results. Finally, future researches
should focus on movies viewers from different ages ranges and from different socio-
professional categories.

137
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 Appendix 1: Questionnaire (English version)

Questionnaire: Country of origin and the intention to choose a

movie in the cinema

Thank you for agreeing to take part in this survey. This questionnaire is a part of a research
about the consumer's choice of a movie in the cinema in order to obtain a marketing research
master's degree at the ISG Tunis. We need your cooperation to get answers to our research
problem.

This survey should only take 10 to 15 minutes to complete. There is no right or wrong
answer, only your opinion matters. Be assured that all answers you provide will be kept in
strict confidentiality.

Thank you in advance for being helpful and cooperative

1: Totally 2: Disagree 3: Neither agree 4: Agree 5: Totally agree

disagree or disagree

1. Are you passionate about movies?

1 2 3 4 5

Not at all passionate Completely passionate

2. Are you passionate about cinema?

1 2 3 4 5

Not at all passionate Completely passionate

154
 3. Please Indicate your level of agreement about the following statements:
1 2 3 4 5
I think I would like Tunisian movies
Watching a Tunisian movie would be quite pleasant
I think I would like South Korean movies
Watching a South-Korean movie would be quite pleasant
I think I would like Turkish movies
Watching a Turkish movie would be quite pleasant

4. In general I think that:

1 2 3 4 5
Turkish movies are of a high quality
Turkish movies have a global presence
Turkish movies are well realized
In general, Turkish movies have good scenarios
Turkish movies are aesthetically well made and beautiful to watch
Turkish movies are in general good movies

5. In general I think that:

1 2 3 4 5
Tunisian movies are of a high quality
Tunisian movies have a global presence
Tunisian movies are well realized
In general, Tunisian movies have good scenarios
Tunisian movies are aesthetically well made and beautiful to watch
Tunisian movies are in general good movies

6. In general I think that:

1 2 3 4 5
Sub-Korean movies are of a high quality
Sub-Korean movies have a global presence
Sub-Korean movies are well realized
In general, Sub-Korean movies have good scenarios
Sub-Korean movies are aesthetically well made and beautiful to
watch
Sub-Korean movies are in general good movies

155
 Once in the cinema: What would your intention be faced with the situation bellow?

7. If I have the possibility to watch a Tunisian, Turkish or Sub-Korean movies:

1 2 3 4 5
I would like to watch the Sub-Korean movie
I would possibly watch the Sub-Korean movie
I would recommend others to watch the Sub-Korean movie
I would like to watch the Tunisian movie
I would possibly watch the Tunisian movie
I would recommend others to watch the Tunisian movie
I would possibly watch the Turkish movie
I would possibly watch the Turkish movie
I would recommend others to watch the Turkish movie

8. I prefer to watch:

1. Comedy movie
2. Drama movie
3. Horror movie
4. Romance movie

9. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:

1 2 3 4 5
I’m very familiar with Sub-Korean movies
I’m very familiar with Tunisian movies
I’m very familiar with Turkish movies

10. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:

1 2 3 4 5
Tunisian shouldn't buy foreign product because this harms the local economy
and increases unemployment
It is not right to purchase foreign products, because jobs are lost in Tunisia
A true Tunisian should only buy Tunisian products
Even if I had to pay more I would rather buy a Tunisian product
We should purchase Tunisian products; otherwise we make other countries
rich

11. In general, my opinion of south Korea as a country is:

1 2 3 4 5

Negative Positive

156
 12. In general, my opinion of Turkey is:

1 2 3 4 5

Negative Positive

13. In general, my opinion of Tunisia is:

1 2 3 4 5

Negative Positive

14. In my perception, South Korea is/has:

1 2 3 4 5
Affluent
Economically well-developed
High living standards
Advanced technology
Good standard of life
Sub-Koreans are creative
Sub-Koreans have imagination sense
Sub-Koreans are known for their artistic sensibility

15. In my perception Tunisia is/has:

1 2 3 4 5
Affluent
Economically well-developed
High living standards
Advanced technology
Good standard of life
Tunisians are creative
Tunisians have imagination sense
Tunisians are known for their artistic sensibility

16. In my perception, Turkey is/has:

1 2 3 4 5
Affluent
Economically well-developed
High living standards
Advanced technology
Good standard of life
Turks are creative
Turks have imagination sense
Turks are known for their artistic sensibility

157
 Please answer the following questions:

17. I […] Tunisia:

1 2 3 4 5
I dislike Tunisia I like Tunisia
1 2 3 4 5
I distrust Tunisia I trust Tunisia
1 2 3 4 5
I disrespect Tunisia I Respect Tunisia
1 2 3 4 5
I do not admire I admire Tunisia
Tunisia
1 2 3 4 5
Tunisia annoys me Tunisia does not annoy me

18. I […] Turkey:

1 2 3 4 5
I dislike Turkey I like Turkey
1 2 3 4 5
I distrust Turkey I trust Turkey
1 2 3 4 5
I disrespect Turkey I respect Turkey
1 2 3 4 5
I do not admire Turkey I admire Turkey
1 2 3 4 5
Turkey annoys me Turkey does not annoy me

19. I […] South Korea:

1 2 3 4 5
I dislike South Korea I like South Korea
1 2 3 4 5
I distrust South Korea I trust South Korea
1 2 3 4 5
I disrespect South Korea I respect South Korea
1 2 3 4 5
I do not admire South Korea I admire South Korea
1 2 3 4 5
South Korea annoys me South Korea does not annoy
me

158
 20. Please indicate your level of agreement with the following statements:

1 2 3 4 5
There are very few Tunisian products that are of equal quality to foreign
products
I cannot think of any Tunisian brands that are as good as the foreign ones I
purchase
I trust more foreign than Tunisian companies, because they are more
experienced and have more resources
In most product categories, foreign brands outperform Tunisian ones
I trust foreign products more than the Trust ones
Using foreign products enhances my self-esteem
People that buy Tunisian products are less regarded by others
I prefer foreign to Tunisian brands as most of my acquaintances buy foreign
brands
Buying foreign products makes me trendier
I purchase foreign brands to differentiate myself from others

21. Gender:

Male Female

22. Age:

………….
23. Socio-professional category:

Senior manager

Middle manager or employee

Liberal profession

Worker

Retailer

Retired

Student

House wife

24. City of residence :

……………………………

THANK YOU!

159
 Appendix 2: The questionnaire (French version)

Questionnaire: Le pays d’origine et l’intention de choisir un film au cinéma

Merci d’avoir accepté de faire partie de cette étude. Ce questionnaire fait partie d’un
travail de recherche qui tourne autour du choix d’un film au cinéma. Nous avons besoin
de votre coopération afin de collecter des réponses à notre problématique.

Ce questionnaire vous prendra de 9 à 13 min. Il n’y a pas de bonnes ou fausses réponses,

c’est votre opinion qui nous intéresse le plus. Soyez assurés que toutes les réponses que
vous fournissez seront gardées dans la plus stricte confidentialité.

Merci de votre collaboration

1: Pas du tout 2: Pas d’accord 3: Ni d'accord ni 4: D’accord 5: Tout à fait

d’accord en désaccord d’accord

25. Êtes-vous passionné par les films?

1 2 3 4 5

Pas du tout passionné(e) Tout à fait passionné(e)

26. Êtes-vous passionné par le cinéma?

1 2 3 4 5

Pas du tout passionné(e) Tout à fait passionné(e)

160
 27. Veuillez indiquer votre niveau d’accord avec les affirmations suivantes:
1 2 3 4 5
Je pense que j'aimerai les films Tunisiens
Voir un film Tunisien serait plutôt agréable
Je pense que j'aimerai les films Sud-Coréens
Voir un film Sud-Coréen serait plutôt Agréable
Je pense que j'aimerai les films Turcs
Voir un film Turc serait plutôt Agréable

28. Généralement, je pense que:

1 2 3 4 5
Les films Turcs sont de grande qualité
Les films Turcs ont une présence importante dans le monde
Les films Turcs sont bien réalisés (une bonne mise en scène)
Les films Turcs ont généralement un bon scénario
Les films Turcs sont bien faits sur le plan esthétique et sont beaux à voir
D’une manière générale, Les films Turcs sont de bons films

29. Généralement, je pense que :

1 2 3 4 5
Les films Tunisiens sont de grande qualité
Les films Tunisiens ont une présence importante dans le monde
Les films Tunisiens sont bien réalisés (une bonne mise en scène)
Les films Tunisiens ont généralement un bon scénario
Les films Tunisiens sont bien faits sur le plan esthétique et sont beaux à voir
D’une manière générale, Les films Tunisiens sont de bons films

30. Généralement, je pense que :

1 2 3 4 5
Les films Sud-Coréens sont de grande qualité
Les films Sud-Coréens ont une présence importante dans le monde
Les films Sud-Coréens sont bien réalisés (une bonne mise en scène)
Les films Sud-Coréens ont généralement un bon scénario
Les films Sud-Coréens sont bien faits sur le plan esthétique et sont beaux à voir
D’une manière générale, Les films Sud-Coréens sont de bons films

161
 Supposons que vous allez au cinéma pour voir un film :

31. Veuillez répondre à chacune des propositions suivantes en attribuant une note de 1 à 5
selon votre degré d'accord :
1 2 3 4 5
J'aimerai regarder le film Sud-coréen
Je regarderai peut-être le film Sud-coréen
Je recommanderai aux autres de regarder le film Sud-coréen
J'aimerai regarder le film Turque
Je regarderai peut-être le film Tuque
Je recommanderai aux autres de regarder le film Turque
Je regarderai peut-être le film Tunisien
J'aimerai regarder le film Tunisien
Je recommanderai aux autres de regarder le film Tunisien

32. Je préfère voir des films de:

Comédie

Horreur

Drame

Romance

33. Veuillez indiquer votre niveau d'accord avec les affirmations suivantes:
1 2 3 4 5
Je connais bien les films Sud-Coréens
Je connais bien les films Tunisiens
Je connais bien les films Turcs

34. Veuillez indiquer votre niveau d’accord avec les affirmations suivantes:
1 2 3 4 5
Les Tunisiens ne devraient pas acheter des produits étrangers car cela a un effet négatif
sur l’économie locale et l’emploi en Tunisie
Ce n’est pas bien d’acheter des produits étrangers, car des emplois seront perdus en
Tunisie
Un vrai Tunisien ne devrait acheter que des produits fabriqués en Tunisie
Ça peut me couter plus cher à long terme, mais je préfère soutenir les produits
Tunisiens
Nous devrions acheter des produits fabriqués en Tunisie plutôt que laisser les autres
pays s’enrichir sur notre dos

35. En général, mon opinion sur la Corée en tant que pays est plutôt:
1 2 3 4 5

Négative Positive

162
 36. En général, mon opinion sur la Tunisie en tant que pays est plutôt:
1 2 3 4 5

Négative Positive

37. En général, mon opinion sur la Turquie en tant que pays est plutôt:
1 2 3 4 5

Négative Positive

38. Généralement, je pense que:

1 2 3 4 5
la Corée du Sud est riche
la Corée du Sud est économiquement bien développée
la Corée du Sud a un niveau de vie élevé
la Corée du Sud a une technologie avancée
la Corée du Sud a un bon niveau de vie
Les Coréens sont créatifs
Les Coréens ont de l'imagination
Les Coréens sont connus par leur sensibilité artistique

39. Généralement, je pense que:

1 2 3 4 5
la Tunisie est riche
La Tunisie est économiquement bien développée
la Tunisie a un niveau de vie élevé
la Tunisie a une technologie avancée
la Tunisie a un bon niveau de vie
Les Tunisiens sont créatifs
Les Tunisiens ont de l'imagination
Les Tunisiens sont connus par leur sensibilité artistique
40. Généralement, je pense que:
1 2 3 4 5
la Turquie est riche
La Turquie est économiquement bien développée
la Turquie a un niveau de vie élevé
la Turquie a une technologie avancée
la Turquie a un bon niveau de vie
Les Turcs sont créatifs
Les Turcs ont de l'imagination
Les Turcs sont connus par leur sensibilité artistique

163
 Veuillez répondre aux questions ci-dessous:

41. Je […] la Tunisie:

1 2 3 4 5
Je n’aime pas la Tunisie J’aime la Tunisie
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne fais pas confiance à la Je fais confiance à la Tunisie
Tunisie
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne respecte pas la Tunisie Je respecte la Tunisie

1 2 3 4 5
Je n’admire pas la Tunisie J’admire la Tunisie

1 2 3 4 5
La Tunisie me dérange Le Tunisie ne me dérange pas

42. Je […] la Turquie:

1 2 3 4 5
Je n’aime pas la Turquie J’aime la Turquie
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne fais pas confiance à Je fais confiance à la Turquie
la Turquie
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne respecte pas la Je respecte la Turquie
Turquie
1 2 3 4 5
Je n’admire pas la J’admire la Turquie
Turquie
1 2 3 4 5
Le Turquie me dérange La Turquie ne me dérange pas

43. Je […] la Corée du Sud:

1 2 3 4 5
Je n’aime pas la Corée
J’aime la Corée du Sud
du Sud
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne fais pas confiance à Je fais confiance à la Corée du
la Corée du Sud Sud
1 2 3 4 5
Je ne respecte pas la Je respecte la Corée du Sud
Corée du Sud
1 2 3 4 5
Je n’admire pas la Corée J’admire la Corée du Sud
du Sud
1 2 3 4 5

164
 La Corée du sud me La Corée du Sud ne me
dérange dérange pas

44. Veuillez indiquer votre niveau d’accord avec les affirmations suivantes:
1 2 3 4 5
Il existe peu de produits Tunisiens qui ont une qualité égale à celle des produits étrangers
Je ne peux pas penser à des marques Tunisiennes qui sont aussi bonnes que les marques
étrangères que j’achète
J’ai plus de confiance envers les entreprises étrangères qu’envers les entreprises
Tunisiennes, parce qu’elles ont plus d’expérience et disposent de plus de ressources
Dans la plupart des catégories de produits, les marques étrangères sont meilleures que les
marques Tunisiennes
Je fais plus confiance aux produits étrangers qu’aux produits Tunisiens
L’utilisation des produits étrangers améliore mon estime de soi
Les personnes qui achètent les produits Tunisien sont socialement moins considérées que
les autres
Je préfère les marques étrangères aux marques Tunisienne, car mes amis et mes
connaissances achètent des marques étrangères
Acheter des produits étrangers me permet d'être à la mode et de suivre les tendances
J’achète des marques étrangères pour me différencier des autres

45. Genre:
Femme Homme

46. Age:

………….

47. Catégorie socio-professionnelle:

Cadre supérieur

Cadre moyen et employé de bureau

Profession libérale

Ouvrier

Retraité(e)

Commerçant

Etudiant

Femme au foyer

48. Lieu d’habitation :

…………………………………

MERCI!

165
 Appendix 3: Netnographic Data collection example

Date country Publications Reactions Remarks

11/01/2020 Tunisian Film « un 24 likes There is an intention to watch the movie.
fils » 2
comments
11/01/2020 American Film 369 Likes Some comments are about the “Star Scalett
« marriage 183 Johanson”.
story ». cap5 comments There are positive and negative opinions.
14/01/2020 Turkish The TV show 388 Likes Most of the comments show a positive attitude
“Atieh”. Cap2 145 toward this sow.
comments There are a lot of heart emoticons.
09/11/2019 Spanish Film “the 422 Likes Comments contain many recommendations of
invisible 349 Spanish movies such as “el cuerpo” and “mirage”.
guest” cap2 comments Positive comments.
24/01/2020 Korean Film 91 Likes There are some positive and negative comments.
“Parasite” 103 Some of the members find this movie very
cap1 Comments interesting and others find it very ordinary or even
sill..
13/02/2020 Syrian The movie 1.7K Likes All the comments represent an agreement about
“Kapharnaum 401 how good this movie is.
” cap1 Comments
17/02/2020 South The Tv show 157 Likes Comments are positive
Korean “Crash 61 There are members who are K-drama lovers.
landing on Comments
you” cap1
01/03/2020 South The movies 83 Likes All the comments are positive + An intention to
Korean “Tunnel” 43 watch this movie is present.
Cap1 Comments There is a sarcastic comment about Tunisia
“Mathlouh fi tounes hahaha” (Because in the
movie the tunnel was broken)
08/03/2020 Tunisian The movie 132 The post is criticizing the movie negatively.
“Un divan a reactions There are many negative comments and some
Tunis” cap6 112 positive comments.
Comments Some members have expressed their opinions in a
A revoir constructive way, but there are comments that are
rude* “3al 7iit” “masset laset khiit”…
Same for the previous posts, there are comments
that are stereotyping the Tunisian movies with the
famous word “Hammem”.
The discrimination of Tunisian movies is present
too, “wentouma ba39alkom tetfarjou f twensa!!
Ken tefeha w9elet torbya…”
26/06/2020 Turkish The old series 195 Likes The comments are almost positive except few
“The 34 negative ones “I didn’t understand why did you
forbidden Comments like it”
love” cap1
26/06/2020 American The old TV 428 Comments are very positive. Tunisian spectators’
show Reactions attitude is positive towards this comedy TV show.
“Friends” 45 “My fav!” “The best ever!”…
cap3 Comments
27/06/2020 Indian The movie 97 The member who has published this post has
“black” Reactions mentioned that “this is the only Indian movie that
Cap1 45 I can recommend”.
Comments Through the comments, many members have
defended the Indian movies “Indian movie are
very good! And there many other movies to
recommend”

166
 Appendix 4: Interview guide

Interview guide
Themes Research questions Objectives
Cinema and movies -Do you like watching movies? Understanding the general
consumption -Where? With whom? movies consumption and
-Often or sometimes? cinema-going behaviors.
-Do you usually go to the cinema to watch movies? If
yes:
-For what kinds of films?
-What films have you seen at the cinema?
-What motivated you to go watch these movies?
-What do you think of: Korean/ Spanish/ Egyptian/
Turkish/ Tunisian movies?
-Chinese portrait: If Korean/ Spanish/ Egyptian/
Turkish/ Tunisian movies were a dish, what would it
be?

Movie choice criteria -When choosing a movie to watch at home, what Identifying the different
criteria do you use? criteria of movies choices
-When choosing a film to see at the cinema, what at home and at the cinema
criteria do you use?
-Do you have preferences for a specific movie origin?
Why?
-Do you accord importance to the movie’s country of
origin?
Tunisian movies -What do you think of Tunisian movies? Understanding the
-Name some Tunisian movies Tunisian’s perception of
-Have you ever watched a Tunisian movie at the Tunisian movies.
cinema? If not: Why?
If yes:
-Describe your experience(s) and your feelings
-Do you intend to go see a Tunisian film again in the
future?
General consumption -What do you think of the trends: “Be Tounsi, Determining the
of Tunisian products: #619…”? consumption behaviors of
-After discovering these trends, have you changed you Tunisian products and
daily consumption habits? understanding their
-Do you consume Tunisian? opinion towards these
-How do you perceive Tunisian products? products.
-What does consuming Tunisian mean to you?
Future vision of -What is your future vision of Tunisian movies? How Determining the
Tunisian movies: will it evolve? Tunisian’s thoughts about
-Do you think that Tunisians will be more likely to go Tunisian movies in the
see Tunisian movies at the cinema? future.
-What do you think is missing in the Tunisian Cinema
industry to encourage more Tunisians to watch
Tunisian movies?
-Do you have an optimistic or rather pessimistic view
of the Tunisian film industry?

167
 Appendix 5: Semi-structured interview (Amina, 26years old)

- To start, do you like watching movies?

I’m not the kind of persons who do not miss any new movie, but still, in my free-time I prefer
watching movies. In this quarantine period, I became more and more passionate about watching
movies.

- When you decide to watch a movie, you watch it with whom and where in general?

Honestly, I prefer watching movies at the cinema, especially when I decide to watch a Tunisian movie.

- And do you watch Tunisian movies on internet?

No, never, I really insist on watching Tunisian movies at the cinema.

- How many times per year did you do to the cinema?

Let’s say 2 or 3 times, Tunisian movies in general. But lately, I went to the cinema to watch an
Egyptian movie.

- Do you think that there has been an improvement of your cinematographic behavior since the
openness of the complex Pathé?
First of all, I’ve never been to Pathé, even the last movie I’ve watched it at the “Palace”. I think that
this is due to the distance. And second, since the openness of Pathé, I distinguished that “cinema
Palace” has ameliorated the sound and image quality of the diffused movies, which encouraged me to
go there to watch movies.

- What kind of movies do you prefer to watch when at the cinema?

In general, I go for comedy movies.

- What are the movies that you have recently watched at the cinema?
“El jeyda”, “Fi inaya”, “El badla”, but let’s say that this year, I didn’t watch Tunisian movies because
of my full time occupation.

- What motivated you to watch these movies?

Let’s say trailers, and the positive word-of-mouth. For example “El badla” was highly recommended
on the Facebook group “On a regardé pour vous des films et des series”.

- So, it’s clear that you are interested in following this kind of Facebook groups. What do you
think of the way that group members express themselves?
Sometimes, it seems that Tunisians consider themselves as scenarists and movies producers! But this
may have many positive points because some comments are very juicy and lead us “movies viewers”
to understand positive and negative points of certain movies or series. Also, there are several
interesting posts that have interesting movies and series critics. But still, some posts have nothing to
do with good critics.

- I see. Otherwise, what are the movies that you use to watch when at home?
I love watching light movies with light stories and scenarios. For example I like to watch “Maman j’ai
raté l’avion”. Otherwise, I always make sure to screenshot the movies that attract me in order to
remember to watch them when I decide to.

168
 - At this level, you are going to give me your opinion in general:

-About South Korean movies: I’ve already watched South Korean series, and I really enjoyed
watching them. But I’ve never watched a South Korean movie.
-About Spanish movies: I distinguished several Facebook posts recommending Spanish movies, but
I’ve never watched a Spanish movie. Maybe it’s time to discover them.
-Egyptian movies: I’ve watched Egyptian movies since I was very young. But I prefer old movies.
New movies have became very sophisticated and I don’t really like them.
-Tunisian movies: Well, we can do better. But in these recent years, I think that there is a significant
evolution of Tunisian movies. Tunisian movies producers started to offer us new scenarios and new
movies spirit.

- Now, we will try the Chinese portrait: If these movies were a plate, what they would be?

South Korean: Rice! Hahaha! They are cold..

Spanish movies: Paella!

Egyptian movies: spicy Spaghetti, because they have a lot of energy.

Tunisian movies: Oh I’m indecisive! I don’t know.

- What are the different criteria for choosing a movie to watch at home?

First, I tend to choose movies according to their duration. I prefer watching movies that does not last
more than 1h30min. Also, I follow the word-of-mouth a lot, and sometimes I take into account the
IMDB rankings.

- What are the different criteria for choosing to movie to watch at the cinema?

First, the positive word-of-mouth, and second the movie trailer.

- Once at the cinema, what movie will you choose to watch if we offer you an Egyptian,
American, Spanish, and Tunisian movie?
Without even thinking, I will opt for the Tunisian movie. Otherwise, I may tend to watch the
American movie.

- Do you consider the movie’s country origin as an important criterion to choose a movie to
watch?
No not really. Once the movie pleases me, I don’t really care to what country it belongs. But still, as
I’ve already told you, I don’t watch Spanish or South Korean movies. Euh, maybe the country of
origin counts indirectly, since I sometimes tend to eliminate Spanish and Korean movies.

- Do you have any preferences for movies belonging to specific countries?

Yes! I adore French movies. In fact, I’m so into French language, and I like their specific movies style.

- How do find Tunisian-made movies?

I think that recently there has been an amelioration of the casting quality, scenarios. Also, there have
been new subjects that have been discussed in Tunisian movies, such as the movie “Fi inaya” that
discussed the “autism”. But still, there are always some scenes that have nothing to do in Tunisian
movies in general.

169
 - Can you describe your experience while watching a Tunisian movie?

For example, when I went to watch the movie “Fi Inaya”, I felt a certain pride. But, I also had some
bad experiences while watching Tunisian movies, for example, the film “Porto Farina” was a real
deception for me. It has absolutely no story to tell, no sense let’s say. And adding to that the bad words
used in that movie were very disturbing.

- What motivates you to go to watch a Tunisian movie?

The fact that it is a Tunisian movie! This motivates a lot. This may be due to the fact that I am very
attached to Tunisia.

- Is there any lifestyle, or a culture that pleases you in particular?

Recently, I watched the TV show “Anne with an E”, and really loved that period that has been
presented in this series. Also, the period that has been evoked in the Tunisian movie “El jeyda”
intrigued me a lot.

- Have you ever noticed the different campaigns « Be Tounsi », « 619 », « Consommi tounsi »
etc ?

Yes of course. And I find this kind of campaigns very interesting.

- Did these campaigns impact your consumption behavior?

Yes kind of. I started to pay more attention to some products’ country of origin. But honestly, even if
I’m trying to consumer more Tunisian products, I still prefer consuming foreign products, especially
when buying cosmetic products.

- Do you look for leaving aboard?

No not really. For the moment I’m very comfortable here in Tunisia.

- To end this interview, I would like to ask you about how you perceive the Tunisian cinema in
the future.

I have faith! Really! I wish we invest more and more in this sector. At the moment, I’m glad that
Tunisian movies are improving and are having a certain success.

- Finally, what do you expect from Tunisian films in the future?

I think that movies producers need to deal with different and more original subjects. Anyways, I am
very optimistic for the future Tunisian cinema.

End.

170
 Appendix 6: Tunisian cultural industry figures

App6. Figure1: Geometric distribution of cinema theaters in Tunisia (source: INS.tn)

App6. Figure2: Evolution of number of cinema goers per year (source: INS.tn)

171
 App6. Figure3: Dream city frequentation (Source: Dreamcity.tn)

App6. Figure4: Tunisian cultural and creative actors internationally rewarded

App6. Figure5: Cultural and creative Tunisian firms in Tunisia

172
App6. Figure6: Concentration of series production during Ramadan (Source: Sigma.tn)

App6. Figure7: Tunisian movies genres

173
 Abbreviation list

COO: Country of origin

COI: Country of origin image

PI: Product image

SJT: System of justification theory

174
 Tables List

Table 1: Review of Key definitions of country image .......................................................................19

Table 2: Review of Key definitions of product country image ..........................................................19
Table 3: Cognitive country image measurement scales ...................................................................23
Table 4: Affective country image measurement scales....................................................................26
Table 5: Review of key definitions of product image .......................................................................27
Table 6: Five approaches to solve the orientational dilemma ..........................................................30
Table 7: Cultural and creative inductry in Tunisia ...........................................................................35
Table 8: Consumer xenocentrism measurement scales ...................................................................43
Table 9: Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scales .................................................................48
Table 10: Approximate number of movies and series posts in “On a regardé pour vous des films et
des series”...................................................................................................................................61
Table 11: Sociodemographic characteristics of participants ............................................................73
Table 12: Interviews analyses........................................................................................................73
Table 13: Retained measurement scales ........................................................................................79
Table 14: Sample characteristics ...................................................................................................81
Table 15: Fit measures indices ......................................................................................................83
Table 16: Software used for the analyses .......................................................................................85
Table 17: Exploratory analysis result of the affective country image ................................................87
Table 18: Exploratory analysis result of the cognitive country image ...............................................88
Table 19: Exploratory analysis result of the general movies image ..................................................89
Table 20: PCA result of the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema...................90
Table 21: The exploratory analysis result of consumer ethnocentrism .............................................91
Table 22: Exploratory analysis result of consumer xenocentrism .....................................................92
Table 23: The consumer cognitive country image confirmatory analysis results ...............................94
Table 24: The cognitive country image second order measurement model fit quality .......................95
Table 25: The affective country image confirmatory analysis result .................................................96
Table 26: The cognitive country image confirmatory analysis results...............................................97
Table 27: The consumer ethnocentrism confirmatory analysis results .............................................99
Table 28: Adjusted consumer ethnocentrism model’s confirmatory analysis results .........................99
Table 29: The consumer xenocentrism dimensions’ confirmatory analysis results .......................... 101
Table 30: The consumer xenocentrism second order measurement model fit quality ..................... 102
Table 31: Movies and cinema passion.......................................................................................... 103
Table 32: Movies familiarity ........................................................................................................ 104
Table 33: Intention to watch Tunisian, Turkish or Korean Movie at the cinema .............................. 105
Table 34: Consumer ethnocentrism level ..................................................................................... 106
Table 35: Perceived inferiority and social aggrandizement level .................................................... 107
Table 36: Consumer xenocentrism level ...................................................................................... 107
Table 37: Cognitive and affective country image .......................................................................... 108
Table 38: The overall Tunisian, Turkish, and South Korean movies image....................................... 108
Table 39: The Tunisian structural model’s fit ................................................................................ 110
Table 40: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (Tunisia) ............................... 110
Table 41: The Turkish structural model’s fit ................................................................................. 112
Table 42: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (Turkey) ................................ 112

175
Table 43: The Sub-Korean structural model’s fit ........................................................................... 114
Table 44: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (South Korea)........................ 114
Table 45: The first structural model’s fit ...................................................................................... 116
Table 46: Cause-and-effect estimations and hypotheses verification (3 countries) ......................... 116
Table 47: Significance of the indirect effects ................................................................................ 117
Table 48: K-means clustering of the consumer ethnocentrism results ........................................... 119
Table 49: The Multiple group analyses results of the consumer ethnocentrism .............................. 120
Table 50: K-means clustering of the consumer xenocentrism results ............................................. 121
Table 51: The multiple group analyses results of the consumer xenocentrism................................ 122

176
 Figures list

Figure 1: The Conceptual Model ...................................................................................................55

Figure 2: Films and series Facebook groups in Tunisia ...................................................................59
Figure 3: sample characteristics.....................................................................................................81
Figure 4: The cognitive country image model ................................................................................94
Figure 5: The cognitive country image second order measurement model ........................................95
Figure 6: The affective country image model .................................................................................96
Figure 7: The overall movies image model.....................................................................................97
Figure 8: The consumer ethnocentrism model ................................................................................98
Figure 9: The consumer xenocentrism dimensions model.............................................................. 100
Figure 10: The consumer xenocentrism second order measurement model ..................................... 102
Figure 11: movies genres preferences .......................................................................................... 104
Figure 12: Movies familiarity...................................................................................................... 105
Figure 13: The research’s Tunisia structural model ....................................................................... 109
Figure 14: The research’s Turkey structural model ....................................................................... 111
Figure 15: The research’s South Korea structural model ............................................................... 113
Figure 16: Overall Tunisian movies image’s antecedents .............................................................. 125
Figure 17: Overall Sub-Korean movies image’s antecedents ......................................................... 126
Figure 18: Overall Turkish movies image’s antecedents................................................................ 126
Figure 19: Intention to watch a Tunisian movie’s antecedents ....................................................... 127
Figure 20: Intention to watch a Turkish movie’s antecedents......................................................... 127
Figure 21: Intention to watch a Turkish movie’s antecedents......................................................... 128

177
Table of contents

Dedication .................................................................................................................................... 2
Summary...................................................................................................................................... 4
General introduction..................................................................................................................... 6
Part I: Literature review: The country of origin in cultural and creative products context..................11
Chapter 1: Country of origin (COO) and consumer’s intention behavior...........................................12
Section 1: Country of origin effect .................................................................................................12
1. Country of origin (COO) ...........................................................................................................12
2. Country of origin effect............................................................................................................13
3. Country of origin effect on domestic industry ...........................................................................14
4. Country of origin effect in emerging countries ..........................................................................15
5. Country of origin studies and Africa..........................................................................................15
6. Country of origin effects and cultural products..........................................................................16
Section 2: Cognitive and affective country image ...........................................................................17
1. The country image...................................................................................................................17
2. Cognitive country image and affective country image................................................................20
2.1. The cognitive country image ..................................................................................................21
2.1.1. Country image as a Halo......................................................................................................21
2.1.2. Country image as summary .................................................................................................22
2.1.3. Cognitive country image measurement scales ......................................................................23
2.2. The affective country image...................................................................................................24
2.2.1. The affect transfer theory ...................................................................................................25
2.2.2. Affective country image measurement scale ........................................................................25
Section 3: Product image ..............................................................................................................26
1. Product image in Marketing literature ......................................................................................26
Chapter 2: Cultural-creative industries ..........................................................................................28
Section 1: Cultural and creative industries and movies ...................................................................28
1. Cultural and creative industries ................................................................................................28
1.1. Artistic and cultural product and consumption specificities .....................................................28
1.1.1. Artistic and cultural product specificities ..............................................................................28
1.1.2. Artistic and cultural consumption specificities......................................................................29
1.2. The emergence of marketing in artistic and cultural domains ..................................................29
1.2.1. The orientational dilemma of arts marketing........................................................................29

178
1.2.2. The role of marketing in art and culture ...............................................................................31
2. Motion pictures.......................................................................................................................31
2.1. Motion pictures characteristics ..............................................................................................31
2.2. Movies in the marketing research ..........................................................................................32
2.3. Movies and country of origin .................................................................................................32
Section 2: Cultural and creative industry in Tunisia.........................................................................34
1. New phenomenon in the Tunisian cultural and creative industry ...............................................34
2. An overview on cultural and creative industry’s potential in Tunisia ...........................................35
Chapter 3: COO effect and the moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism xenocentrism:
Conceptual model development ...................................................................................................39
Section 1: Consumer xenocentrism ...............................................................................................39
1. Xenocentrism..........................................................................................................................39
1.1. Etymology ............................................................................................................................39
1.2. Definitions of xenocentrism...................................................................................................39
2. Consumer xenocentrism ..........................................................................................................40
2.1. Definitions of consumer xenocentrism ...................................................................................40
2.2. Consumer Xenocentrism dimensions......................................................................................41
2.2.1. Perceived inferiority ...........................................................................................................41
2.2.2. Social aggrandizement ........................................................................................................42
2.3. System of justification theory (SJT) .........................................................................................42
2.4. Consumer xenocentrism measurement scales ........................................................................43
Section 2: Consumer Ethnocentrism ..............................................................................................44
1. Ethnocentrism.........................................................................................................................44
1.1. Etymology ............................................................................................................................44
1.2. Definitions of ethnocentrism .................................................................................................44
2. Consumer ethnocentrism ........................................................................................................45
2.1. Definition of consumer ethnocentrism ...................................................................................45
2.2. Ethnocentric tendencies........................................................................................................45
2.3. The social identity theory ......................................................................................................46
2.4. Consumer ethnocentrism’s dimensionality .............................................................................47
2.5. Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scales .......................................................................48
Section 3: Studying the causal links between country of origin image, product image, and the
intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema: Hypotheses development ...................48
1. Cognitive country image, product image (movies) and consumer’s behavioral intention to watch a
domestic/foreign movie at the cinema ..........................................................................................49

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2. Affective CI, Overall movies image (product image), and consumer’s intention to watch a
domestic/foreign movie at the cinema ..........................................................................................51
3. The moderating role of Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism ..........................52
3.1. The moderating role of consumer ethnocentrism ...................................................................53
3.2. The moderating effect of consumer xenocentrism ..................................................................53
Section 4: Research’s conceptual models.......................................................................................55
Part II: Methodology and results ...................................................................................................56
Chapter 1: Methodology, data collection and data processing ........................................................57
Section 1: Research objectives and operational framework ............................................................57
1. Research objectives .................................................................................................................57
2. Epistemological approach ........................................................................................................57
Section 2: Preliminary exploratory study .......................................................................................58
1. Netnography...........................................................................................................................58
1.1. Entrée ..................................................................................................................................59
1.2. Netnographic data collection .................................................................................................60
1.3. Netnographic data analysis ....................................................................................................61
1.3.1. Variables related to the country of origin .............................................................................61
1.3.1.1. Movie choice based on the country of origin......................................................................61
1.3.1.2. Gender and movies/series preferences with respect to country of origin.............................63
1.3.2. Variables related to attitudes towards movies/series with respect to the country of origin .....63
1.3.2.1. Positive attitude towards foreign movies/series .................................................................64
1.3.2.2. Negative attitude towards foreign movies .........................................................................65
1.3.3. Variables related to Tunisian movies and series....................................................................65
1.3.3.1. Positive attitude towards Tunisian movies and series .........................................................66
1.3.3.2. Responsible consumption .................................................................................................66
1.3.3.3. National pride ..................................................................................................................67
1.3.3.4. Negative attitudes towards Tunisisan movies.....................................................................68
1.3.3.5. Percieved inferiority of Tunisian cinema ............................................................................69
1.3.3.6. Language issue with respect to Tunisian movies .................................................................69
1.3.3.7. Tunisian movies stereotype: Tunisian movies = Hammam...................................................70
1.3.3.8. Nostalgia .........................................................................................................................71
1.4. Ethics ...................................................................................................................................71
2. Semi-structured interviews ......................................................................................................72
2.1. Objectives.............................................................................................................................72

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2.2. Interview guide .....................................................................................................................72
2.3. Presentation of the interviewed sample .................................................................................72
2.4. Data collection......................................................................................................................73
2.5. Ethics ...................................................................................................................................73
2.6. Interview analysis..................................................................................................................73
Section 3: Data collection methods and survey administration........................................................76
1. Countries choice......................................................................................................................76
2. Data collection methods ..........................................................................................................76
3. Questionnaire structure...........................................................................................................77
3.1. Introduction questions ..........................................................................................................77
3.2. Variables related questions....................................................................................................77
3.3. Control variables related questions ........................................................................................78
3.4. Complementary questions.....................................................................................................78
3.5. Personal information questions .............................................................................................78
Section4: measurement scales ......................................................................................................78
Section5: Sample selection method...............................................................................................80
1. Relevant population and sampling method ...............................................................................80
2. Sample characteristics .............................................................................................................81
Section6: Data analysis processing ................................................................................................82
1. Exploratory analysis Data processing method............................................................................82
1.1. The Principle Component Analysis (PCA) .................................................................................82
1.2. The reliability evaluation ........................................................................................................82
2. Confirmatory analysis Data processing methods .......................................................................82
3. Structural analysis Data processing methods.............................................................................83
4. Verifying the moderating role process ......................................................................................84
5. Software used for the analyses.................................................................................................84
Chapter2: Analyses and results .....................................................................................................86
Section1: Measurement scale validation (PCA)...............................................................................86
1. PCA of the affective country image scale ..................................................................................86
2. PCA of the cognitive country image scale ..................................................................................87
3. PCA of the overall movies image (product image) scale .............................................................89
4. Exploratory analysis of the intention to watch a domestic/foreign movie at the cinema .............90
5. PCA analysis of consumer ethnocentrism scale .........................................................................90
6. Exploratory analysis of consumer xenocentrism ........................................................................91

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Section2: Confirmatory factorial analysis .......................................................................................93
1. The cognitive country image measurement scale ......................................................................93
2. The affective country image measurement scale .......................................................................96
3. The overall movies image measurement scale...........................................................................97
4. Consumer ethnocentrism measurement scale...........................................................................98
5. Consumer xenocentrism measurement scale .......................................................................... 100
Section 3: Preliminary study results............................................................................................. 103
1. Movies and cinema passion ................................................................................................... 103
2. Movies genres....................................................................................................................... 103
3. Tunisian, Turkish and Korean movies familiarity ...................................................................... 104
4. The intention to watch a Tunisian, Turkish or Korean movie at the cinema ............................... 105
5. Consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism level ................................................... 106
5.1. Consumer ethnocentrism level ............................................................................................ 106
5.2. Consumer xenocentrism level .............................................................................................. 106
6. The cognitive and the effective Tunisia, Turkey and Korea image ............................................. 107
7. The overall Tunisian, Turkish, and South Korean movies at the cinema ..................................... 108
Section4: Structural analyses and the testing of the structural model............................................ 109
1. The first structural model and hypotheses verification: Tunisian case ....................................... 109
2. The second structural model and hypotheses verification: Turkish case.................................... 111
3. The third structural model and hypotheses verification: Sub-Korean case................................. 113
4. The structural general model and hypotheses verification ....................................................... 115
5. Verifying the mediating role of the overall movies image......................................................... 117
Section5: Verifying the moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism and the consumer
xenocentrism............................................................................................................................. 119
1. Consumer ethnocentrism’s moderating role verification.......................................................... 119
1.1. Consumer clusters according to their ethnocentrism level ..................................................... 119
1.2. Verification of the consumer ethnocentrism’s moderating role.............................................. 120
1.2.1. The moderating role of the consumer ethnocentrism ......................................................... 120
2. Consumer xenocentrism’s moderating role ............................................................................. 121
2.1. Consumer clusters according to their xenocentrism level ...................................................... 121
2.2. Verification of the consumer xenocentrism’s moderating role ............................................... 122
2.2.1. The moderating role of the consumer xenocentrism........................................................... 122
Section6: Findings and discussion................................................................................................ 124
1. Findings discussion ................................................................................................................ 124

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1.1. Discussion of causal links findings ........................................................................................ 124
1.2. Discussion of mediating effects discussion ............................................................................ 128
1.3. Discussion of the moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism and consumer xenocentrism
128
2. Managerial implications......................................................................................................... 130
Conclusion................................................................................................................................. 133
General conclusion..................................................................................................................... 134
Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 138
Appendix 1: Questionnaire (English version) ................................................................................ 154
Appendix 2: The questionnaire (French version)........................................................................... 160
Appendix 3: Netnographic Data collection example...................................................................... 166
Appendix 4: Interview guide ....................................................................................................... 167
Appendix 5: Semi-structured interview (Amina, 26years old) ........................................................ 168
Appendix 6: Tunisian cultural industry figures .............................................................................. 171

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