DNA Repair Mechanisms

Photolyase: Uses light energy to repair UV-induced thymine dimers.

Base Excision Repair (BER): Fixes small, non-helix-distorting base lesions.

Steps: DNA glycosylase removes the damaged base -> AP endonuclease cuts the DNA -> DNA

polymerase fills the gap -> DNA ligase seals the nick.

Mismatch Repair (MMR): Corrects replication errors.

Steps: MutS recognizes mismatch -> MutL activates MutH to excise mismatch -> DNA

polymerase fills the gap -> DNA ligase seals the nick.

Nucleotide Excision Repair (NER): Removes bulky DNA lesions.

Steps: Damage recognition -> Excision of oligonucleotide -> Repair synthesis -> Ligation.

Non-Homologous End Joining (NHEJ): Directly joins broken DNA ends, prone to errors.

Homologous Recombination (HR): Uses sister chromatids for accurate repair, occurs during S and

G2 phases.

Sources of Gene Mutations

Spontaneous Mutations: Occur naturally during DNA replication (e.g., replication errors,

depurination).

Induced Mutations: Caused by external factors (e.g., radiation, chemicals).

Physical Mutagens:

Ionizing Radiation: Causes double-strand breaks (e.g., X-rays).

Non-Ionizing Radiation: Causes thymine dimers (e.g., UV light).

Chemical Mutagens:

Base Analogs: Resemble natural bases but pair differently (e.g., 5-bromouracil).

Alkylating Agents: Add alkyl groups to DNA (e.g., ethyl methanesulfonate).

Biological Mutagens:

Viruses: Insert their genetic material into the host genome.

Transposons: Mobile genetic elements that can cause mutations.

DNA Replication in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes:

Origin of Replication: Single origin (OriC).

Enzymes:

DNA Helicase: Unwinds DNA.

Primase: Synthesizes RNA primers.

DNA Polymerase III: Main replication enzyme.

DNA Ligase: Joins Okazaki fragments.

Topoisomerase: Relieves supercoiling.

Leading Strand: Continuous synthesis.

Lagging Strand: Discontinuous synthesis (Okazaki fragments).

Eukaryotes:

Origin of Replication: Multiple origins.

Enzymes:

DNA Polymerase alpha: Initiates replication with primase.

DNA Polymerase delta and epsilon: Main replication enzymes.

Telomerase: Extends telomeres.

Translation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes:

Initiation:
 Shine-Dalgarno sequence helps ribosome binding.

fMet-tRNA binds to start codon (AUG).

Elongation:

EF-Tu brings aminoacyl-tRNA to ribosome.

Peptidyl transferase forms peptide bonds.

Termination:

Stop codons (UAG, UAA, UGA) recognized by release factors (RF1, RF2, RF3).

Eukaryotes:

Initiation:

5' cap recruits ribosome.

Met-tRNA binds to start codon (AUG).

eIFs (e.g., eIF4E, eIF2) are involved.

Elongation:

eEF1alpha brings aminoacyl-tRNA to ribosome.

Peptidyl transferase activity of ribosome forms peptide bonds.

Termination:

eRF1 recognizes all stop codons.

eRF3 facilitates release of polypeptide.

Post-Translational Modifications:

Glycosylation: Adds carbohydrates (e.g., N-linked, O-linked).

Phosphorylation: Adds phosphate groups, regulates activity.

Ubiquitination: Tags proteins for degradation.

Lipid Modifications:

N-Myristoylation: Adds myristic acid to N-terminal glycine.

Prenylation: Adds lipid groups to cysteine residues.

Palmitoylation: Adds palmitic acid to internal cysteine residues.

GPI Anchors: Attach proteins to the cell membrane.

Key Concepts

DNA Repair: Maintains genetic integrity.

Mutations: Changes in DNA sequence that can lead to genetic variation or disease.

DNA Replication: Ensures accurate duplication of genetic material.

Translation: Converts mRNA into protein.