eaiev' Dr. A.K.

Saxena

| ‘Ce
. ’ a : .

lial

CHEMISTRY Class IX
According to Latest Syllabus

for CLASS IX

Dr. A. K. Saxena
M.Sc., Ph.D., B.Ed,
Dehradun

Analated Dy

Mrs. Sakshi Chhatwal

M.Sc.,M.Phil,,.B.Ed
Dehradun

SHRI BALAJI ee ee
(EDUCATIONAL PUBLIGHERG & DISTHIN
AN 180 9001-2008 CERTIFIED ORGANIZATION
Muzaffarnagar (U.P) - 251001
 Pubdished by dp
SHR! BALAJ! PUBLICATIONS”
TOUCAMONAL PUBLISNERS & DISTRIBUTORS)
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Phone . 0131-2660440 (O)
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email : sbjpub@gmail.com

ISBN : 978-93-91065-69-0

Edition : 2024-25

Price: ¥ 450.00

: While all possible care has been taken in the editing, proof-reading and printing of tus book. in case of any ornnmmesion/rrastake
Note
which: igi tines cect Ree neler Gee author ner Sie pubiobers sel be held reesonaitte for ie seme The author & puokaher
shail feel grateful for the suggestions recerved from the readers tor further anprovernert book.
——
 With the blessing of Almighty | am delighted to introduce the fourth edition of “ICSE
Chemistry” for Class-IX. This book is written as text book for students of Class-IX studying
under Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CICSE). Text of the each
chapter is strictly based on the scope of syllabus issued by the council. In this text book
chemistry is presented in a simple, precise and interactive manner.
Salient Features of book are:

Text is illustrated in simple language for better understanding.

2

Figures are well labelled.

Questions in “Practice Makes Perfect” for topic — wise revision of concepts.
Ample number of objective questions for Part 1 of ICSE question paper.
a

Concept based questions to strengthen the concepts of the students.

a

Application based questions to use the concepts developed.

a

Crossword puzzles for better familiarity with definitions.

a
ca

Word search puzzles for scientific terms related to topics.

-> Some useful information gathered in the form of Appendix.
With the above mentioned salient features of the book | hope that this book will be very
helpful for ICSE students to score well.
| wish to express my sincere thanks to Miss Tanya Rastogi for preparing manuscript;
colleagues for constructive and helpful suggestions; my wife Mrs. Kavita Saxena and
daughter Khushi for valuable moral support.
| also welcome any constructive, creative criticism and valuable suggestion from all
learned teachers and genius students towards improving the present text book and will
duly acknowledge in the next edition.
At last | would like give special thanks to Mr. Neeraj Bhardwaj and Mr. Manoj Ruhela and
all the esteemed members of “Shri Balaji Publications” for their full support and cooperation
to complete this project.
A.K. Saxena
 Few Tips fora
Superb Academic
JOULNEY ws.
> Breath in the power of the universe.
> Breath out self doubt.
> Breath in confidence.
= Breath out feelings of failure.
= Breath in a resolve to think positively.
-~» Breath out resentment at the unfair world.
> Breath in the determination to succeed.
> Breath out the desire to own more than you need.
= Breath in forgiveness.
=> Breath out past insults and humiliations.
=> Breath in the wisdom to learn from your mistakes.
> Breath out regrets and self blame.
=> Breath in peace and harmony.
=» Breath out all anger.
-_»> Breath in the resolve to remember all that happens in your life.

Courtesy : Mr. Sumit Sharma

reece
Sr

NAMES AND SYMBOLS OF

CATIONS
1+ Valency (Monovaient)
Ammonium (NH{ ) Silver (Ag*)

Caesium (Cs*) Sodium (Na*)

Copper (D (Cu*) Thallium (1) (11")
Hydronium (H,0*) Hydrogen (H*)
Lithium (tt) Aurous or Gold (1) (Au)
Potassium (K*) Mercurous or Mercury (1) (Hg*)

i 2+ Valency (Divalent)

_ Barium (Ba?*) Magnesium (Mg**)

Cadmium (Cd?*) Manganese (II) (Mn**)
Calcium (Ca?*) Mercury (II) (Hg**)
Chromium (II) (crt) Strontium or")
Cobalt (I) (Co2*) Nickel (Ni**)
Copper (I) (Cu2*) Tin (II) (Sn?*)
Iron (I) (Fe2*) Zinc (Zn?*)
Lead (II) (Pb2*) Platinum (Pr2*)
3+ Valency (Trivalent)

Aluminium (Als*) Titanium (WD qre*)

Chromium (II) ce") Vanadium (III) cv3*)
Cobalt (11) (Co?*) Bismuth (Bi>*)
Iron (III) (Fe3*) Arsenic (As?*)
Lanthanum (Ln3*) Antimony (Sb3*)
Thallium (10) (TIe*) Auric or Gold (IID) (Au3*)
4+ Valency (Tetravalent)
i Manganese (IV) (Mn‘**) Stannic or Tin (IV) (Sn**)
| Plumbic or Lead (IV) (Pb**) Platinic or Platinum (IV) (Ptt*)
 NAMES AND SYMBOLS OF

1— Valency (Monovalent)
ANIONS
Acetate (CH,COO") Hydrogen sulphite (HSO3 )
Aluminate (AlO> ) Hydrogen sulphide (HS")
Bromide (Br) Hydroxide
Chlorate (C103 ) Hypochlorite
Chloride (cl) Iodide
Chlorite (C105 ) lodate
Cyanide (CN) Nitrate
Dihydrogen phosphate (HPO; ) Nitrite
Fluoride (F) Perchlorate
Hydride (H_) Permanganate
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO; ) Thiocyanate
Hydrogen sulphate (HSOz )

2— Valency (Divalent)

Carbonate (COz") Sulphate (SO4" )

Chromate (CrOq ) Sulphite (SOZ" )
Dichromate (Cr,05" ) Zincate (ZnO> )
Oxalate (C,04" ) Plumbite (PbOs )
Oxide (O*-} Manganate (MnOq" )
Peroxide (O5 ) Thiosulphate (S,03")
Sulphide (S2-)

Arsenate (AsOz ) Phosphate (POZ )

Arsenite (AsO3- ) Phosphide (p> )
Borate (BO; ) Phosphite (PO) |
Ferricyanide [Fe(CN),]* | Nitride (N* )
4— Valency (Tetravalent)

Carbide (c+) Ferro-cyanide [Fe(CN) ,]*

 contents
|
- The Language of Chemistry 1-40

| Eg Chemical Changes and Reactions 41-65

| gs Water 66
— 86

QZ} srcomic Structure and Chemical Bonding 87-116

GED The Periodic Table 117 - 143

)6 Study of the First Element - Hydrogen 144-169

a Study of Gas Laws 170 — 193

|
)| Atmospheric Pollution 194 — 216

r #) Appendix-1 : General Characteristics of Gases 217 - 219

| Te) Appendix-2 : Do You Know 220-221

)> Appendix-3 : Elements and their Discoverer 222 — 226

ED Appendix-4 : Some Useful Compounds and Formulae 227 — 230

[ #) Appendix-5 : Metric of SI Prefixes 231

&> Appendix-6 : Physical Constants, Prefixes and Conversion Factors 232

 SCOPE OF (4S ieee
Chemistry is a branch of science which deals with the study of composition, chernical properties and
conversion of matter into one form or another,
Chemistry plays a key role in our everyday life. Starting from our day since morning with we &
toothpaste and soaps till food we eat to get energy, fuels we use to travel frorn one place to another,
medicine or vitamin supplements we take, clean water we drink, clothes we wear, all connect each other
through a branch called chemistry.
Now a question generally comes to our mind : What is the use of studying chemistry? Or where wil our
future land if we study chemistry?
Chemistry has general five branches :

Organic
Chemistry

Analytical Physical
Chemistry Chemistry

Inorganic
Biochemistry Chemistry
 THE LANGUAGE OF CHEMISTRY

Scope of Syllabus | The language of chemistry is the symbol and

formula of elements and compounds respectively.
The Language of Chemistry
Every chemical change involves certain elements or
(i) Symbol of an element; valency; formulae of
radicals and formulae of compounds. Balancing of
compounds. It is difficult to represent the chemical
simple chemical equations. change in terms of story or word equation like 46 gm
Symbol : Definition; symbols of the elements used of sodium reacts with 71 gm of chlorine then form 117
often. gm of sodium chloride or two atoms of sodium reacts
Valency : Definition; hydrogen combination and with one molecule of chlorine to form two formula
number of valence electrons of the metals and non- unit of sodium chloride.
metals; mono, di, tri and tetravalent elements.
To overcome the above problem chemists use
Radicals : Definition; formulae and valencies.
Compounds : Name and formulae. symbols or formulas to represent a chemical change.
Chemical equation : Definition and examples of In this chapter we can learn about the symbol of
chemical equations with one reactant and two or element and formula of a compound and how to write
three products, two reactants and one product, two a chemical equation with required information.
reactants and two products and two reactants and
three or four products; balancing of equations. (By
hit and trial method). 1.1 SYMBOLS OF ELEMENTS
(ii) Relative atomic masses (atomic weights) and
telative molecular masses (molecular weights) ‘A symbol is an abbreviation or short
either-standard H atom or 1/12th of carbon 12 atom representation of a chemical element.’
Definitions The name of different elements normally
Calculation of relative molecular mass and originated from the name of discoverer, country of
percentage composition of a compound.
discoverer, nature of element or any other similar
—————
cause. For example, hydrogen word originated from
hydro meaning water and gen meaning forming in greek and symbol of hydrogen is taken H because it is
the first alphabet of the name. Similarly sodium is originated from the word soda in english which is
known as Natrium in Latin. That is why; its symbol is Na which is the first two letters in Natrium.
pl
(J
2
Latest clemonts discovered in 2016 und approved by [IUPAC are Nihonium and symbol Nh, for th,
. 7 r
clement LL8, Moseovium and symbol Me, for the clement 115, Tennessine and symbol I's, for the
clement 117, and Oganesson and symbol Og, for the element 118.

Chemical symbols are one or two letters from the Latin alphabet, but can be three when the element h,,
a temporary name, and are written with the first letter capitalized,
Table 1.1: Symbols of Elements and their Sources

Atomic Common Name Source of Symbol Symbol

Number
—S
1 Hydrogen hydro- and -gen, ‘water-forming’ (Greek) H

2 Helium helios, ‘sun’ (Greek) He

3 Lithium lithos, ‘stone’ (Greek) Li -

6 Carbon carbo, ‘coal’ (Latin)

7 Nitrogen ‘Nitron’‘-gen’, ‘niter-forming’ (Greek)

8 Oxygen oxy-, ‘sharp’ and ‘acid’,-gen, ‘acid-forming’ (Greek)

9 Fluorine fluere, ‘to flow’ (Latin)

10 Neon neos, ‘new’ (Greek) Ne

11 Sodium soda (English) or natrium (Latin) Na

12 Magnesium Magnesia, a district of Eastern Thessaly in Greece Mg

13 Aluminium alumina, a compound (originally aluminum) Al

15 Phosphorus phoosphoros, ‘carrying light’ (Greek) P

16 Sulphur sulphur, ‘fire and brimstone’ (Latin) Ss

17 Chlorine chloros, ‘greenish yellow’ (Greek) Cl

18 Argon argos, ‘idle’ (Greek) Ar

19 Potassium potassa, ‘potash’ (kalium in Latin) K

20 Calcium calx, ‘lime’ (Latin) Ca

25 Manganese corrupted from magnesia negra Mn

26 Iron ferrum (Latin) Fe

29 Copper Cuprum (Latin) Cu _

36 Krypton kryptos, ‘hidden’ (Greek) Kr =

 4
aae
rw ae
Ml
The Language of Chemistry He}

56 Barium barys, ‘heavy’ (Greek) Ba

47 Silver argentum (Latin) Ag

79 Gold aurum (Latin) Au

80 Mercury mercurius, named after the the Roman god (New Latin) Hg
hydrargyrum (Greek) hydr-, ‘water’, and argyros, ‘silver’

82 Lead plumbum (Latin) Pb

74 Tungsten tung sten, ‘heavy stone’ (W is wolfram, the old name of the Ww
tungsten mineral wolframite)

The name nihonium with the symbol Nh for element 113 was proposed by the discoverers at RIKEN
Nishina Center for Accelerator-Based Science (Japan); the name came from Nihon which is one of the two
ways to say “Japan” in Japanese, and literally mean “The Land of Rising Sun”.

INFORMATION CONVEYED BY SYMBOL

We can know about several facts from the symbols of an element. They can be as follows:
(i) We get to know about the name of the element.
(ii) The symbol represents one atom of that element.
(iii) Symbol represents the mass of that element which is equal to its gram atomic mass.
(iv) Symbol tells us that it has 6.023 x10”° (Avagadro’s number) atoms.
For example, N represents
(i) The element nitrogen.
(ii) One atom of nitrogen
(iii) The mass of nitrogen is 14 gm that is equal to its atomic mass.
(iv) 14 gm of nitrogen has 6.023 x10”" atoms.

SYMBOL OF ELEMENTS IN PERIODIC TABLE

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has released the following symbols as
per the latest version of the periodic table.
Each box of the periodic table contains information regarding elements. The following interpretation
key helps us understand the information provided.
41 —— Atomic
— Na number
ym
of Soment Toke
Siw
Atomi 23.0 Name of
omic ae ; ‘ element
 Modern Periodic Table (Long Form of Periodic Table)
The ugzag
kine
Non-metais teparatesre
(CMotalo metais from the
hor metas
Group NumBer
1
H Group Numeer
Hydrogen
10 2 14 15 16

3 4
Li Be
Lithium | Beryllium
69 9.0
11 Group NumBer

v
Na Mg
Sodium |Magnooiu
23.0 24.3 3 4 5 6 7 8
19 20 21 22 23 24 25
K Ca Sc Ti Vv Cr Mn
Potassium} Colclum Scandium Titanium Vanadiurn Chromium Mangjanosa
39.1 40.1 46.0 47.8 609 62.0 SAD
38 39 40 42 43
Sr Y Zr Mo Tc
Strontium Ytteum Zitcontlum Niobium Molybdonum} Tachnotium| Ru thenium Pal ladium Silver
67.6 68.9 91.2 929 05.0 (98) 1011 102.3 1 06.4 1079
57 72 73 74 78 79
La’® Hf Ta Ww Pt Au
Lanthanum Hafnium Tontalum Tungaton Rhonlum Plotinum Gold
138.0 178.5 161.0 103.9 106.2 1922 1 951 197.0

89
Fr Ac** 104 107 108 1 "1
Franclum Actinium Rf Bh Rg
Hthertoedinrn| R
(223) (227) | Dubnlum Sonborgumy Bohrlunn Honan iy Copemicwmn

Motals ~ “Non-Motals
68 69 60 64 62 63 64 65 68 70 71
*Lanthanoldes Co Pr Nd Pm sm Eu Gd Tb Ho Er Yb
Carlum Prrseodynhind Noodymiun| Proniot! tury
Lu
Samaiuny Curoplum Gadotiniuny Torblin Dysprosium Holiun Erbium
140.1 140.0 142 (140) 104 162.0 17.9 180.0 102.5 164.9 167.3
90 91 02 93. Od 05 96 Ly) 100 102
“*Actinoldes Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk
Thorium rolactinivtt Noptunium Plutonium
Fn - No
Uranium Aoriciun Cutan Dorkolium Calitornium Blnatonium
232,0 (251) (297) Formvum ndstaveiml Nodetiy
230.1 (242) (249) (24%) (248) 251 ) GS) (266) ch).
 1.2 VALENCY
Valency is referred to as the combining capacity of elements. Atom of each
element is reactive due to its incomplete octet. Therefore, they combine with
atoms of other elements to complete its octet. This combining capacity can be
explained in terms of valence electrons of atom of that element or in termes of
number of atom of monovalent element like hydrogen directly combining to
one atom of that element.

In Terms of Hydrogen Combination

“The number of hydrogen or chlorine atoms or any other monovalent atom which combine
with one atom of an element is called valency of that element.”
With the help of an example we can understand it much better.
For example :
ht

H,O: In this compound oxygen combines with two atoms of hydrogen. Therefore, the valency of oxygen
18:2.
il, i

H,S : In this compound sulphur combines with two atoms of hydrogen. Therefore, the valency of
i

sulphur is 2.
a

HC1: In this compound chlorine combines with one atom of hydrogen. Therefore, the valency of chlorine
is 1.
NaH : In this compound sodium combines with one atom of hydrogen. Therefore, the valency of sodium
is 1.
NH; : In this compound nitrogen combines with three atoms of hydrogen. Therefore, the valency of
nitrogen is 3.

In Terms of Valence Electron

The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. Valence
electrons of an atom are related to its combining capacity that is valency. Valency is defined as equal to the
number of valence electrons if there are up to 4 valence electrons and in case of more than 4 electrons it is
equal to eight minus valence electrons (8 — V.E.).
Electron orbit

Electron
 N 7
C.

2)
®

on
>

o
©

CRC
P 15;S 16 | Cl 17 | Ar 18

OOS
Pictorial representation of 1-18 elements with their electronic configuration.
Table. 1.2 Relation between Valency and Valence Electrons

Element Electronic configuration Valence Electrons Valency =H

Lithium 2.1 1 1 i

Beryllium 2.2. 2 2
Boron 2,3 3 3

Carbon 2,4 4 4

Nitrogen 2,5 5 8-5=3

Oxygen 2,6 6 8-6=2
Fluorine ea | ¥ 8-7=1

Neon 2,8 8 8-—8=0 (Inert gas)

Electrovalency
Electrovalency is defined as number of electrons gained or lost by an atom to form electrovalent
compound.
If an atom lose electron then electrovalency is equal to number of electrons lost by an atom with positive
electrons
sign. For example, sodium lose one electron therefore, its valency is +1. Magnesium lose 2
therefore, its valency is +2.
If an atom accepts electrons then electrovalency is equal to the number of electrons gained with the
accepts two
negative sign. For example, chlorine accepts one electron therefore; its valency is —1. Oxygen
electrons therefore; its valency is —2.
Variable Electrovalency
e d last)
The transition metals show variable electrovalency due to the involvement of penultimat (secon
+3 valency, copper with +1 and
shell in bonding along with the valence shell. For example, iron with +2 and
+2 valency, manganese with +2, +4 and +7 valency.
 Table 1.3

Element Symbol Valency lons Nomenclature

5 Cu" Copper [I] or Cuprous

Copper Cu 2 Cu* Copper [I] or Cupric

Sil - Ag" Silver [1] or Argentous

a Ag he Ag”’ Silver [II] or Argentic

Hg" Mercury [I] or Mercurous

Menmury Hg LA Hg” Mercury [II] or Mercuric

Res F as Fe™ Iron [II] or Ferrous

. , Fe* Iron [III] or Ferric

Sn** —_| ‘Tin [IT] or Stannous:

Ti
m aa ait Sn‘+ | Tin [IV] or Stannic
Pb** Lead [II] or Plumbous
Lead
= Eb i Pb** Lead [IV] or Plumbic

Covalency
Covalency can be referred to the number of electrons shared by the atoms to complete its octet and form
covalent bonds. Generally covalency is shown by non-metals.
For example : oxygen with 2, sulphur with 2, nitrogen with 3 and chlorine with 1 covalency.
Variable Covalency
Some non metals form compounds in more than one valency, like phosphorus form PCl 3 due to 3+
valency and also forms PC]; due to 5+ valency.
This is known as variable covalency.
Table 1.4 : Some Element and their Variable Covalency

Number of Element Variable Covalency Compounds

2+ H,S
Sulphur 4+ SF,
6+ SF,
3+ PCl,
Phosphorus
5+ PCl;
 Practice makes perfect
1. What is the importance of symbol of an element?
2. Write the symbol of following elements : Nitrogen, phosphorus, krypton, xenon and potassium
8. Define valency.
4. What is the difference between covalency and electrovalency?
5. What is variable covalency? Give example
6. Find the valency of underlined element or radical in following formula :
CaCl,, CaCO,, NH3, PCl3, Mg ,N2, CH;COONa

SO ¢
How many valence electrons are there in atom of nitrogen, oxygen and krypton? Also find the valency
~I
.

of each.
8. Which diagram represents the arrangement of the outer-shell electrons of a noble gas?

9. Choose the two correct statements about nitrogen.Tick (/) two boxes.
(i) Nitrogen molecules are monoatomic.

EE
(ii) All nitrogen atoms have seven protons.
(iii) Nitrogen atoms cannot be split into simpler substances by chemical means.
(iv) All nitrogen atoms have 14 neutrons.

FIL
(v) Nitrogen is 21% of clean, dry air.
10. Mention the symbol of 118 element in periodic table.

1.3 RADICALS
The word radical in chemistry stand for “an atom or group of atoms behaving as a unit ina
number of compounds.” Radicals are reactive species which combine with other radical to form
compounds.
There are three types of radicals. They are :
Acidic radical : The part of salt which comes from acid is known as acidic radical. It is always
negatively charged therefore it is also called anion. It forms ionic compounds when join with cation. If
cation is hydronium ion or hydrogen ion then they form acid.
 y Till,
Aree
The Language of Chemistry |

Table 1.5 ; Names and Symbols of Some Anions

1— Valency (Monovalent)
Acetate (CH,COO-) Hydrogen sulphite
Aluminate (A105 ) Hydrogen sulphide
Bromide (Br’) Hydroxide
Chlorate (C103 ) Hypochlorite
Chloride (cI”) lodide
Chlorite (CIO3 ) lodate
Cyanide (CN) Nitrate
Dihydrogen phosphate (HPO; ) Nitrite
Fluoride (F-) Perchlorate
Hydride (H-) Permanganate
Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3 ) Thiocyanate
Hydrogen sulphate (HSOj )
2- Valency (Divalent)
Carbonate (CO3" ) Sulphate (SO3")
Chromate (cro?) Sulphite (SO3")
Dichromate (Cr,02- ) Zincate (Zn02" )
Oxalate (c,02- ) Plumbite (PbOs- )
Oxide (07) Manganate (MnOq" )
Peroxide (03-) Thiosulphate (6,027)
Sulphide (s*9
3- Valency (Trivalent)
Arsenate (AsOz” ) Phosphate (PO? )
Arsenite (AsO3- ) Phosphide (P?-)
Borate (BO?) Phosphite (PO3 )
Ferricyanide (Fe(CN) ,]>- Nitride (N*)
4— Valency (Tetravalent)
Carbide (c+) Ferro-cyanide [Fe(CN),]*
Basic radical: The part of salt which comes from base is known as basic radical. It is positively
charged and also known as cation. When they combine with anion then form ionic compounds and if anion
is hydroxide ion (OH), then they form base.
aa

| BB icse Chomistry-0
Table 1.6 : Names and Symbols of Some Cations
1+ Valency (Monovalent)
Ammonium (NH) Silver (Ag*)
Caesium (Cs*) Sodium (Na‘*)
Copper (I) (Ga) Thallium (1) (T1*)
Hydronium (H,0*) Hydrogen (H*)
Lithium (Li*) Aurous or Gold (1) (Au*)
Potassium (K*) Mercurous or Mercury (1) (Hg*)
2+ Valency (Divalent)
Barium (Ba2*) Magnesium (Mg*)
Cadmium (Cd2*) Manganese (II) (Mn?*)
Calcium (Ca2*) Mercury (ID) (Hg?*)
Chromium (I) (cr2*) Strontium (Sr**)
Cobalt (11) (Co?*) Nickel (Ni?*)
Copper (II) (Cu2*) Tin (11) (Sn?*)
Iron (11) (Fe2*) Zinc (Zn?*)
Lead (II) (Pb2*) Platinum (Pr**)
3+ Valency (Trivalent)

Aluminium (Als*) Titanium (II) (Ti?*)

Chromium (II) (cr3*) Vanadium (IID) (v3*)
Cobalt (II) (Co?*) Bismuth (Bi?*)
Iron (III) (Fe?*) Arsenic (As?*)
Lanthanum (ue) Antimony (Sb?*)
Thallium (1) (TI3*) Auric or Gold (IID (Au?*)
4+ Valency (Tetravalent)

Manganese (IV) Stannic or Tin (IV) (sn**)

(Pr**)
Plumbic or Lead (IV) (Pb**) Platinic or Platinum (IV)

of bond in molecular reaction

Free radical : The part of covalent compounds which form due to fission
They are neutral in nature therefore called free radicals. They are reactive due to presence of unpairec
electron. Two free radicals join to each other and form covalent compound.
 The Language of Chemistry MM} eee

Table 1.7 ; Some common free radicals

Name of free radical Formula

| (i) Hydrogen ng

| (ii) Methy) "CH,

(iii) Chlorine "Cl
(iv) Bromine ° Br
(v) Ethyl °C)H,

1.4 FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

A formula is a short representation of a compound with the help of symbols of the constituent elements,
For covalent compound it is known as molecular formula but in the case of ionic Compound it is
known as formula unit.
(i) Method to write a Formula:
Step 1: Identify the symbol of the cation (first part of the name) and the anion
Step 2: Identify the valency or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the symbol
Step 3: Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion. You may ask yourself
do the total positive charge and total negative charge add up to zero. If the answer is no, then ask how many
of each ion must we have in order to balance charge. We must have the same number of positive charges as
we do of negative charges. Another way of saying that is that they must add up to zero.
Step 4: Once you have determined the number of units of the cation and anion those become the
subscripts which are placed right after the respective symbol.
__ Tron(II)hydroxide _
ail Fe sm

ale ae
the charge F@OWs
Calcium Nitrate
Ca** NOE: —> CaDNxgQ) ——+ Ca(NOz3)o

Aluminium Hydroxide
1 Als* OH” —> AlSeH! —> Al(OH);
s) Barium Sulphate
Ba** SO} —+ BafS@l —+ Ba,(SO,)2—+>BaSO,
Must reduce
subscripts
sotpuatnenger
 il
CJ
|e 12
Sedivn Phosphate

Na” +
PO;
wy a
>» Nag-PQ",
Imppyrl
> Na,PO,
>

Only uae paronthosis

ith polyatomic
Witnasiin Sulphate ME OLR TO rH tone
K r+ So;
17) 2
——>
af
K'se*
r| M
—~K,80,
Can't reduce
polyatomic formula

Example 1: Formula of copper (1) oxide.

Identify the symbols of the cation and anion : Copper is Cu and oxide is O
tdentify the charge for each and place above the symbol in parenthesis :
For copper (1) that would be 1+ and for oxide that would be 2—
Balance the positive
and negative charges :
aiid each copper is 1+ and each oxide is 2— then it will take
two Cut to balance one oxide with a 2_ 8
that 2(1+) +1(2-) = 0. The numbers outside the parenthesis become the subscripts in
the formula.
Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol
they go with.
Cu,0
Notice that we don’t worry to place subscript 1 after the Oxide symbol. That is because
a subscript one js
understood to be so.
Example 2: Formula of calcium chloride.
Identify the symbols of the cation and anion : Calcium is Ca and chloride
is Cl
Identify the charge for each and place above the symbol in parenthesis
:
For calcium that would be 2+ and for chloride that would be 1—
Balance the positive and negative charges :
Since calcium is 2+ and each chloride is 1— then it will take two Cl- to balance one calcium ion with a2+
so that 1(2+)+2(1-) = 0. The numbers outside the parenthesis become the subscripts in the formula.
Write the formula placing the subscripts right after the symbol they go with
CaCl,
Notice that we don’t worry to place a subscript 1 after the calcium symbol. That is because a subscript
one is understood to be so.
Example 3: Formula of ethane.
Step 1: When two free radicals combine then we get molecule of covalent compound. Methy] free radical
CH, contains one unpaired electron.
Step 2: Another methyl free radical also contains one unpaired electron.
Step 3: Unpaired electrons of both free radicals share their unpaired electron and form covalent bond.
Then we get CH;—CHs3.
Example 4 : Formula of methy! chloride.
Step 1: Methyl free radical CH, contains one unpaired electron.
Step 2: The chloride free radical Cl also contains one unpaired electron.
Step 3: Unpaired electrons of both free radicals share their unpaired electron and form covalent bond
Then we get CH; —Cl.
(ii) Information conveyed by a formula :
It gives us some information about the compound. They can be listed as follows:
 The Language of Chemistry IB «} ee.

(i) The formula tells us about the different elements present in that compound.
(1i) It tells us about the number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of that compound.
(iii) It represents one molecule of that compound.
(iv) It represents a definite mass of that compound which is equal to the molecular weight of that
compound.
(v) It also tells us about the mass of each element involved in one molecule of that compound.
For example. if we take KMnO,, the various facts which we collect from this formula are as follows:
(i) It tells us that potassium, manganese and oxygen are present in this compound.
(ii) It also tells us that there is one atom of potassium, one atom of manganese and four atoms of
oxygen are present in one molecule of potassium permanganate.
(iii) It represents only one molecule of potassium permanganate.
(iv) The definite mass represented by it is 39+55+4 16 =158 gm
(v) This tells us that one molecule of KMnO, contains 39 gm of potassium. 55 gm of manganese and
64 gm of oxygen.
Table 1.8 ; Name and Formula of Some Common Compounds

| Cation Anion Formula Name |

| NH; (Ammonium ion) | Ci” (Chloride ion) NH.Cl | Ammonium chloride |

Cu*~ (Cupric ion) Cl” (Chloride ion) CuCl, Copper (II) chloride or cupric chloride

K (Potassium ion) NO? (Nitrate ion) KNO, Potassium nitrate |

Na™ (Sodium isn) | SO (Sulphate ion) Na,SO, Sodium sulphate

z Fe*~ (Ferrous ion) Cl” (Chloride ion) FeCl, Iron (I) chloride or ferrous chloride |
| | Fe* (Ferric ion) SOZ (Sulphite ion) Fe,(SO;); ‘| Iron (IID) sulphite or ferric sulphite |

) H” (Hydrogen ion) S* (Sulphide ion) H,S Hydrogen sulphide

'Cu* (Cuprous ion) O- (Oxide ion) Cu,0 Cuprous oxide or copper (1) axide
i Al (Aluminium ion) 'Cl- (Chioride ion) i AIC] 3 | Aluminium chloride

NH] (Ammonium ion) | OH~ (Hydroxide ion) NH,OH | Ammonium indinide |

Az” (Silver ion) I- (lodide ion) Agi | Silver iodide

H” (Arydrogen ion) F (Fluoride ion) | HF Hydrogen fluoride

| Na” (Sodium isn} |CO2- (Carbonate ion) | NasCO; | Sodium carbonate |

: Mn?" (Manganese ion) {|SOZ (Sulphate ion) | Mnso, | Manganese sulphate |

K™ (Potassium ion) HCO; (Hsdrogen carbonate) | KHCO, Potassium hydrogen carbonate or

i Potassium bicarbonate
Fe

ec (Covalens 4) | Cl- (Chloride ion) CCl, | Carbon tetrachloride

ee
ee ») @ ICSE Chemistry-9

Na‘ (Sodium ion) ZnO% (Zineate ion) Na, ZnO, Sodium zincate _,

Na‘ (Sodium ion) Si0F (Thiosulphate ion) Na.S,05 Sodium thiosulphate me,
=
K* (Potassium ion) [Fe(CN),|" (Ferroeyanide ion) | K,{Fe(CN),] | Potassium ferrocyanide __

Na* (Sodium ion) CN~ (Cyanide ion) NaCN Sodium cyanide i.

O}” (Peroxide ion) H,O, Hydrogen peroxide ~

H* (Hydrogen ion)
94 ‘ ‘ 2 ‘ ° aie.
Mg** (Magnesium ion) SO; (Sulphate ion) MgSO, Magnesium sulphate

Ca** (Calcium ion) C,07° (Oxalate ion) CaC,0, Calcium oxalate =

Al®* (Aluminium ion) N*~ (Nitride ion) AIN Aluminium nitride 4

ra er : 3- ; ae:
Na®* (Sodium ion) BO; (Borate ion) Na, BO, Sodium borate
———~

Practice makes perfect

1. What is acidic radical? Give two examples.
2. Write the formula of the following compounds:
(i) Potassium sulphite (ii) Magnesium oxalate
(iii) Sodium hydrogen carbonate (iv) Bismuth nitrate
(v) Zinc nitrate
3. Write the name of the following compounds:

(iii) HgSO, (iv) Fe,(SO,)s

(v) CuCl
4. Write the formula and name of five compounds which contains atleast one cation and anion from the
given list.
Ba2*, Ca2*, Mg”*, Lit, Cl-, COZ, SOF, NO3
5. Give the formula of the following radicals:
(i) Oxalate ion (ii) Peroxide ion
(iii) Thiosulphate ion (iv) Hydrogen carbonate ion

(v) Cyanide ion

6. Give the names of the following ion :
(i) [Fe(CN),]* (ii) ZnOF-
(iii) CO (iv) SOF
(v) S
 Py

The Language of Chemistry fH 1} eal

7. The electronic structures of atoms P and Q are shown:

Key
® = electron

P and Q react to form an ionic compound.

What is the formula of this compound?
(a) PQs (b) P,Q (c) P,Q (d) FQ,
8. A molecule contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. For every carbon atom there are twice as many
hydrogen atoms but the same number of oxygen atoms.
What is the formula of the molecule ?
(a) C,H,O (b) C,H,O, (c) C,H,0, (a) C,H,0,
9. Complete the following table while using appropriate symbols.
Acidic Radicals
—> | Cl~ Cor OH™ NO; S* so? o?- PO?- H-
Basic Radicals /
Na* NaCl
Mg”*

Fe?*

Al**

Kt

Zn2*

1.5 CHEMICAL CHANGE

Chemical change is defined as one or more substance converted into new substance under
certain conditions like temperature, pressure, concentration, etc.

REPRESENTATION OF A CHEMICAL CHANGE

Certain chemical changes can be represented in terms of the word equation or in form of a story but,
that is not a convenient way. Therefore, we use symbols of elements involved in the chemical equation or
formula of a compound involved as reactants or products in a certain format. This format of representation
is known as chemical equation. A balanced chemical equation gives various important informations to us.
In a chemical change one reactant can give two products, two reactants combine to form one product,
and various other possibilities. The few chemical change given below helps us to understand different kinds
of chemical equation. The representation of a chemical change with the help of formula and
symbols is known as skeleton equation. The following points should be kept in mind to write a skeleton
equation.
(i) Write the molecular formula/symbol of each reactant in the left side of the arrow.
(ii) Write the molecular formula/symbol of each product in the right side of the arrow.
(iii) Atoms of metals are represented by their symbol only like copper (Cu), calcium (Ca), etc.
Hee )| ICSE Chemistry-9

(iv) Diatomic non metallic elements are written in molecular form. There are seven diato,,
lig
elements that is hydrogen (H,), nitrogen (N.), oxygen (O4), fluorine (F,), chlorine (Cl,), bromj,
(Bry), iodine (1).
TYPE OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
Combination reaction ; The direct combination of any two elements or compounds is calles
combination reaction.
H2(g) +Cl3(g) —» 2HCKg)
Hydrogen Chlorine Hydrogen chloride

Decomposition reaction : The breaking down of a compound into its constituents due to heating ;,
called decomposition reaction. ;
CaCO, —» Cad + CO,
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide Carbon dioxide

Single displacement reaction : When the anion of one compound goes and combines with any othe,
element present in the reaction mixture is called single displacement reaction.
CuSO, + Zn —-+ ZnSO, + Cu
Copper sulphate Zinc Zinc sulphate Copper

Double displacement reaction : When the anion of the first compound joins the cation of the second
compound and the anion of the second compound combines with the cation of the first compound is calleg
double displacement reaction.
AgNO, + NaCl — AgCl + NaNO;
Silver nitrate — Sodium chloride Silver chloride Sodium nitrate

Redox reaction : Out of the two compounds in the reaction mixture one is oxidised and the other is
educed is called redox reaction.
2KMn0O, + 8H,SO, + 10FeSO, —~+2MnSO, + K,SO, +5Fe.(SO,)3 +8H,O
Potassium permanganate Sulphuricacid Iron (ID sulphate Manganese Potassium Iron (II) Water
sulphate sulphate sulphate

INFORMATION CONVEYED BY A CHEMICAL EQUATION

From the chemical equation we can get many facts. They can be listed as followed:
(i) The equation tells us about the reactants involved and the products formed.
(ii) It tells us the names of the reactants and products.
(iii) It tells us about the number of molecules taking part in the reaction and the products formed.
(iv) It also tells about the mass of the compounds reacting and forming after the chemical] change.
(v) It gives us a standard relationship between the reactants and products in term of mass and
volume.

HOW TO MAKE CHEMICAL EQUATION MORE INFORMATIVE

We can make our equation more informative by adding only a few small details about the conditions of
the reaction and the reaction mixture. They can be listed as follows:
(i) Giving the physical states of the reactants involved and the products obtained. This can be
conveyed by (J) for liquid, (s) for solid and (g) for gas.
 The Language of Chemistry ll eas

(ii) Providing the temperature and pressure conditions required for the reaction to continue above
and below the arrow.
(iii) Specifying the concentration of the reactants and products by adding (dil.) for dilute solutions
and (cone.) for concentrated solutions.
(iv) Telling about the heat absorbed or evolved. For exothermic reactions we write (+ Heat) and for
endothermic reactions (~ Heat) on the product side of the reaction.
(v) If there is any gas evolved in the reaction we represent it by the upward arrow ( ).
(vi) If there is a precipitate formation we represent it by the downward arrow ( L).

BALANCE THE CHEMICAL EQUATION

A balanced equation is more useful because it provides us actual relation between the number of
molecules of the reactant and the product formed on the basis of law of conservation of mass. Net mass of
the reactant is equal to the net mass of the product. It means total number of atoms of each element in
reactant and product side must be equal. This is also known as principle of atom conservation. To write the
balance chemical equation, we can follow the following methods.

Hit and Trial Method

This method is also known as trial and error method or inspection method. This is useful for simple
equations. We just see reactants and products and start balancing each element by inspection method.
On the observation we can follow the following steps to balance the equation.
Step 1: First balance the element other than oxygen and hydrogen.
Step 2: Then balance hydrogen and oxygen.
Step 3 : Check all the elements.
Example 1:
Chemical Change : Combustion of methane gas.
Word Equation: Methane + Oxygen ——> Carbon dioxide + Water
Chemical Equation : CH, +O, —> CO, +H,0
Balance the equation :
Step 1 : Check carbon atom in both sides, that is equal.
Step 2 : Check oxygen atom, in left side = 2, right side = 3
In left side to increase one molecule then oxygen atom becomes 4 and in right side we increase one water
molecule then, oxygen atom becomes 4.
CH, +20, —~+ CO, +2H,0
Now, check hydrogen atom, in left side = 4, right side = 4. Therefore, it is equal.
Step 3: Therefore, the balanced equation is
CH, +20, —> CO, +2H,0
Example 2:
Chemical change : Sodium sulphite reacts with hydrochloric acid to form sodium chloride salt and
water with the evolution of sulphur dioxide
Word equation :
Sodium sulphite + Hydrochloric acid —-> Sodium chloride + Water + Sulphur dioxide
 Chemical Equation : Na, 80, + HC) »NaCl+ H,OFBO,
Ralance the equation |
Step 1: Check sodium, left side = % atoma, right side = 1 stom,
Therefore, incrense one molecule of NaCl in the right aide,
Na SO, 4 HCI » 2NaCl + HLO+80,
Check chlorine, left side= 1, right side = 2. Therefore, increase one molecule of HC) in the Jeft side
Na,SO,, + 2HC).—-» 2NaCl + H,O+80,
Check sulphur, both sides equal,
Step 2: Check oxygen atom, in left side = 4, right side = 3, Therefore, it is equal.
Now, check hydrogen atom, in left pide = 2, right side = 2. Therefore, it is equal.
Step 3: Therefore, the balanced equation is :
Na,SO., + 2HC] —» 2NaC] + H,O0+80,

Partial Equation Method®

This method is helpful for complicated chemical changes which take place in various steps. Thes
equations cannot be balanced by simple hit and trial method. We can follow the following steps and balan
the equations. These steps will help us in solving our problem in a simple manner.
Step 1: Write the chemical change in a word equation.
Step 2: Write the skeleton equation associated to the above chemical change.
Step 3 : Now, divide the above chemical equation in possible partial equations.
Step 4: Then, balance each partial equation by simple multiplication.
Step 5 : Now, link each partial step with the previous step in terms of reactant and product.
Step 6 : Add all the partial steps and set the balanced equations keeping in mind that similar reactant;
and products must be cancelled.
Example 1:
Chemical change : Zinc and nitric acid react together to form zinc nitrate, ammonium nitrate an¢
water,
Word equation : Zinc + Nitric acid —> Zinc nitrate + Ammonium nitrate + Water
Skeleton Equation : Zn+ HNO, —> Zn(NO,). +NH,NO, +H,O
Possible partial steps:
1. Zinc initially reacts with nitric acid to give zinc nitrate and nascent hydrogen
Zn+ HNO, —+ Zn(NO,), +{H] v(l
2. Now, the nascent hydrogen produced reduces the nitric acid in the reaction mixture.
HNO, +[H] —> NH, +H,0 ld
3. The ammonia being basic in nature reacts with nitric acid and form salt.
NH, + HNO, —> NH,NO, veld
Balancing the partial equations :
Balance the above partial equations
In equation (1) : Zn+2HNO, —- Zn(NO,), + 2[H] veld
In equation (2) : HNO, + 8[H]——> NH, +3H,O mA)
In equation (3) : NH, + HNO, —> NH,NO, (already balanced) wll
* Not included in latest ICSE syllabus
 The Language of Chemistry [|] meee

Since, in equation (5) we need 8 nascent hydrogen so we multiply equation (4) by 4

[Zn +2HNO, —> Zn(NO,), + 2(H)] «4
4Zn+8HNO, —> 4Zn(NO,), +8 [HI]
Therefore, the final balanced partial equations are as follows :
4Zn + 8HNO, —> 4Zn(NO,), +8[H]
HNO, +8[H] —> NH, +3H,0
NH, +HNO, —> NH,NO,
4Zn+10HNO, —> 4Zn(NO3). + NH, NO, +3H,O
Example 2:
Chemical change : Potassium permanganate reacts with zinc and sulphuric acid to give potassium
sulphate, manganese sulphate, zinc sulphate and water.
Word equation:
Potassium permanganate + Sulphuric acid + Zinc ——> Potassium sulphate
+ Manganese sulphate + Zine sulphate + Water
Skeleton equation : KMnO, +H,SO, + Zn —> K,SO, + MnSO, + ZnSO, +H,O
Possible partial steps:
1, Zinc initially reacts with sulphuric acid to give zinc sulphate and nascent hydrogen.
Zn+H,SO, —> ZnSO, +2[H] seal)
2. Now, potassium permanganate is reduced by sulphuric acid to give manganese sulphate, potassium
sulphate, water and nascent oxygen.
KMn0O, +H.SO, —> K,SO, +MnSO, +H,0+[0] wash)
3. Nascent oxygen reacts with nascent hydrogen to give water
2[H]+[O] —> H,O ...(3)
Balancing the partial equations: Balance the above partial equations
In equation (1): 5Zn+5H,SO, —— 5ZnSO, +10[H] ---(4)
In equation (2) : 2KMnO, +3H,SO, —> K,SO, +2MnSO, +3H,0+5[O] sas(5)
In equation (3) : 10[H]+5[O] —-> 5H,O ...(6)
Therefore, the final balanced partial equations are as follows :
5Zn+5H,SO, ——+ 5ZnSO, +10[H]
2KMnO, +3H,SO, —> K,SO, +2MnSO, +3H,0+5[0]
10[H]+5[O0] —+5H,O
2KMnO, +8H,SO, +5Zn —~> 5ZnSO, + K,SO, +2MnSO, +8H,O

Illustrative Question
Balance the following equations by partial equation method :
(i) Zn+ FeCl, —> ZnCl, +FeCl,
(ii) KI+H,SO, +H,O0, —+>K,SO,+H,O+1,
(iii) Cl, + NaOH —> NaCl+NaClO+H,0
 Il
Q
pes 20 Keser

Answer : (i) Skeleton equation :

Zn + FeCl, > ZnCl, + FeCl,
Possible partial equations:
Reaction takes place in acidic medium
Zn + HCl —> ZnCl, +[H]
Hydrogen reduces the FeCl,
FeCl, +[H] —> FeCl, + HCl
Balanced partial equations :
Zn+2HCl —> ZnCl, +2[H]
2FeCl, +2[H] —-> 2FeCl, +2HCl
Balanced equation : Zn+2FeCl, —+> ZnCl, +2FeCl,

(ii) Skeleton equation: KI+H,SO,+H,0, —> K,S0, +H,O+1,

Possible partial equations:
KI+ H,SO, —> K,SO, + 2HI
H,O0, —~» H,O+[0]
HI+[0] —> H,O+I,
Balanced partial equations:
2KI+H,SO, —> K,SO, +2HI
H,0O, —> H,0+[0]
2HI+ [0] —> H,0+I,
Balanced equation : 2KI+ HO, +H,SO, —> K,SO, +2H,O+I],
(iii) Skeleton equation :
Cl, +NaOH —> NaCl+ NaClO+ H,O
Possible partial equations:
Cl, +H,0 —> HCl+HCI1O
HCl]+ NaOH —> NaCl+H,0
HC1O+ NaOH —> NaClO+H,O
Balanced partial equations:
Cl, +H,O0 —> HCl+ HClO
HCl+ NaOH —> NaCl+ H,O
HC1O+ NaOH —> NaClO+ H,O
Balanced equation : Cl, +2NaOH —> NaCl+ NaClO+ H,O0
 Mt) !

| Practice makes perfect

1. Define chemical change.
2. How can you make chemical equation more informative?
3. Balance the following equations by hit and trial method :
(i) Al+ HC1—-+ AIC), + Hy,
(ii) CH, +O, —+ CO, +H,O
(iii) HzO —-+ Hg +O,
(iv) Al,(SO,); +NaOH —-> Al(OH), +Na,SO,
(v) HJ +O, —+H,0O
4. Write the balanced chemical equations for the following:
(i) Barium chloride + Zinc sulphate ——> Zinc chloride + Barium sulphate
(i) Magnesium + Oxygen —-> Magnesium oxide
(ii) Aluminium oxide + Sodium hydroxide —> Sodium aluminate + Water
(iv) Sodium chloride + Sulphuric acid —> Sodium hydrogen sulphate + Hydrochloric acid
(v) Sodium hydroxide + Nitric acid ——> Sodium nitrate + Water
5. How can you show the following facts in a chemical equation?
(i) An aqueous solution (ii) A concentrated solution
(ii) Liquid (iv) Gas evolved
(v) Precipitate (vi) Temperature of 300 K
(vii) Pressure of 2 atm

1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS

The atomic mass or the mass of an atom is actually very-very small because atoms are extremely small.
Today, we have sophisticated techniques e.g., mass spectrometry for determining the atomic masses fairly
accurately. But, in the nineteenth century, scientists could determine mass of one atom relative to another
by experimental means, as has been mentioned earlier. Hydrogen, being lightest atom was arbitrarily
assigned a mass of 1 (without any units) and other elements were assigned masses relative to it. However,
the present system of atomic masses is based on carbon-12 as the standard and has been agreed upon in
1961. Here, carbon-12 is one of the isotopes of carbon and can be represented as 12 C. In this system, 12 Cis
assigned a mass of exactly 12 atomic mass unit (amu) and masses of all other atoms are given relative to
this standard.
“One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth of the mass of one
carbon-12 atom.”
1 amu =166056x10"4 g
Mass of an atom of hydrogen = 16736 x10~** g
Thus, in terms of amu, the mass of hydrogen atom =1.6736 x 10~"*g /1.66056 x10-**g
= 1.0078 amu = 1.0080 amu
Similarly, the mass of oxygen-16 (80) atom would be 15.995 amu. Today, ‘amu’ has been replaced by
u’,
4
 This is Known as unified mass.
. Mass of one atom
Relative atomic mass = ——~- Ma 88 of on eames
+3 of the mass of one atom of C-12

GRAM ATOMIC MASS

“Atomic mass when calculated in grams is known as gram atomic mass of an element,”
This amount of an element is also known as one gram atom or one mole.
Example,
(i) Atomic mass of magnesium = 24 amu
Gram atomic mass of magnesium = 24 gm
(ii) Atomic mass of sulphur = 32 amu
Gram atomic mass of sulphur = 32 gm
(i) Atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5 amu
Gram atomic mass of chlorine = 35.5 gm
(iv) Atomic mass of oxygen = 16 amu
Gram atomic mass of oxygen = 16 gm
Table 1.9 : Atomic Weights of Common Elements

Atomic number Name Symbol Atomic weight ee

1 Hydrogen H 1 —_

2 Helium He 4 i
3 Lithium Li 7

4 Beryllium Be 9 _

5 Boron B ll
, 6 Carbon 12
7 Nitrogen N 14

8 Oxygen O 16
9 Fluorine F 19
10 Neon Ne 20

11 Sodium Na 23
12 Magnesium Mg 24 —_

13 Aluminium Al 27 —

14 Silicon Si 28 _

15 Phosphorus P 31 —

16 Sulphur S 32 ——
 ey
ae (3

The Language of Chemistry i! BRR

17 Chlorine Cl 35.5

18 Argon Ar 40
—_—
19 Potassium KK 39
_
20 Calcium Ca 40

MOLECULAR MASS
“It is the number which indicates how many times the mass of one molecule of the substance
(element or compound) is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12.”
Molecular masses are found by summing atomic masses. They are often called molecular weights.
Thus, the mass of 1 molecule of water, H,O, would be
2 x (molar mass of H) +1 (molar mass of O)
OR
[(2 x 1.008 amu) + (1x 16.00 amu)] = 18.02 amu.
18.02 amu means 1 molecule of water is 18.02 times heavier than 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12.

GRAM MOLECULAR MASS

“When molecular mass of a substance is expressed in gram, it is called gram molecular mass.”
This amount of substance is called one gram molecule or one mole.
Thus, the mass of 1 molecule of water, H,O, would be
2x (gram atomic mass of H) + 1x (gram atomic mass of O)
OR
[(2 x 1.008 gm) + (1x 16.00 gm)] = 18.02 gm = 18 gm

Table 1.10 : Molecular Weight of Some Common Compounds

S.No. Name Molecular formula Atomic weight of Molecular weight

constituent elements

i. Carbon dioxide co, G=12,:0'=16 12 +(2x16)=44

2: Carbon monoxide co C=12, O=16 12+16=28

3. Methane CH, C=12, H=1 12+(1x 4)=16

4, Ammonia NH, N=14, H=1 14+(1x3)=17

5. Phosphorus trichloride PCl, P=81, C]l=35.5 31+(3 x 35.5) =137.5

6. Phosphine PH; P=31, H=1 31+(1x 3)=34

i Hydrogen sulphide H,S H=1, S=32 (1x 2)+32=34

8. Sulphur dioxide SO, S=32, O=16 32 +(2 x 16) =64

9. Sulphur trioxide SO, S$ =32, O=16 32 +(3 x 16) =80

10. Hydrogen chloride HCl H=1, Cl =35.5 1+ 35.5 = 36.5
 11. ‘Nitnagon atoside NO» N =14, O=16 14 +(2«16)=46

Fo | Nitrogen monoxide NO N=14, O=16 14+16=30

5g: Nitric acid HNO, H=1, N=14, O=16 14+ 14+4+(3*16)=63

14. Sulphuric acid H,SO, H=1, S$=32, O=16 (2«1)+32+(4 21@mo9”

a a

FORMULA WEIGHT
Ionic compounds such as NaCl do not contain molecules. Their formulas give the relative numbers df
each kind of atom in the sample. What we mean by the molar mass (or the molecular weight) of an ionig
compound is really the formula weight, The formula weight is the sum of the atomic masses in the formula
Mass of 1 formula unit of sodium chloride, NaCl, would be :
1 x (gram atomic mass of Na) +1 x (gram atomic mass of Cl)
OR
{Q x 23 gm) + (1 x 35.5 gm)] = 58.5 gm
Table 1.11 : Formula Weight of Some Common Units

S.No. Name Formula unit Atomic weight of Formula weight |

constituent elements

1. Potassium chloride KCl K =39, Cl=35.5 39 + 35.5 = 74.5 _

2. | Magnesium chloride MgCl, Mg =24, Cl=35.5 24 +(2x 35.5) =95

3. _ | Lithium chloride LiCl Li=7, C1=35.5 7+35.5=42.5 |
4 Potassium bromide KBr K=39, Br=80 39 +80=119 |

5. Sodium carbonate Na,CO, Na =23, C=12, O=16 = |(2x 23) +12+(3x16)=106

6. Calcium carbonate CaCO, Ca=40, C=12, O=16 40+12+(3x16)=100 ]

i 7 Sodium sulphate Na,SO, Na =23, S=32, O=16 |(2x23)+32+(4x16)=142 |

7 8. | Calcium sulphate CaSO, Ca =40, S=32,0=16 |40+32+(4x16)=136 |

: 9. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO3;)> Ca =40, N=14, O=16 |40+[2x(14+(3x16))] =164

a 10. Magnesium sulphate MgSO, Mg =24, S=32, O=16 |24+32+(4x16)=120

1.7 CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMPOUNDS

“Amount of each element in 100 gm of the given compound is known as percentage
composition of that compound.”
For the calculation of percentage of each element in the given compound the following steps should be
followed:
Step 1 : Find the atomic weight of each constituent element from the periodic table.
Step 2: Calculate molecular weight of the compound.
Step 3 : Find the total amount of element with respect to molecular weight of that compound.
Step 4: Find the amount of element with respect to one gram of compound.
 The Language of Chemistry 4) eae

Step 5 : Find the amount of element with respect of 100 gm of compound. This amount of element is
known as percentage of element.
We can understand the above steps with the help of the following example :
Calculate percentage of sodium in sodium carbonate (Na,CO,).
Step 1: Find the gram atomic weight of each constituent element from the periodic table.
Na = 23 gm, C = 12 gm, O= 16 gm
Step 2: Calculate molecular weight of the compound.
Molecular weight = (2 x 23) + 12 + (8 x 16) = 106 gm
Step 3 : Find the total amount of element with respect to molecular weight of that compound.
Na = 2x 23 = 46 gm
Step 4: Find the amount of element with respect to one gram of compound.
Amount of sodium in 1 gm Na,CO, = a = 0.4339 gm
Step 5: Find the amount of element with respect of 100 gm of compound. This amount of element is
known as percentage of element.
Amount of sodium in 100 gm of Na,CO, = 0.4339 100 = 43.39
Therefore, percentage of sodium in sodium carbonate is 43.39%.
Similarly, we can calculate percentage of carbon and oxygen in sodium carbonate in simple manner.
106 gm of Na,CO, contains 12 gm carbon.
1 gm Na,CO, contains = gm carbon.

100 gm Na.CO, contains “ag «100 = 11.32%

‘* 106 gm of Na,CO, contains 48 gm oxygen.
1 gm Na,CO, contains gm oxygen.

100 gm Na,CO, contains ns x100 = 45.28%

Therefore, composition is : Sodium = 43.39%, carbon = 11.32%, oxygen = 45.28%.

Check Point : Sum of percentage of all elements should be 100.
43.39% + 11.32% + 45.28% = 99.99% = 100%
Solved Example 1 : Find the percentage of carbon in methane (CH,).
Molecular formula : 12 + (4x 1) =16 gm
Total weight of carbon in CH, =12 gm
16 gm of CH, contains 12 gm carbon.
1 gm CH, contains = gm carbon.

100 gm CH, contains = 100 = 75%

Solved Example 2 : Calculate the percentage of each element in glucose (C,H,.0,).

Molecular Formula : (6 x 12) + (12 x 1) + (6x 16) = 180 gm
Total weight of carbon in C,H,,0, =6x12=72 gm
 Total weight of hydrogen in CyH),O,g =14%12 = 12 ym
Total weight of oxygen in C,H, 0, =6%16 © 96 gm
180 gm of Cyl ),O, contains 72 gm carbon,
1 gm CyH,,0, contains aa gm carbon.
¢

100 gm C,H,,0, contains - *x100= 40%

180 gm of CgH,,0, contains 12 ym hydrogen.

‘

1 gm C,H,,0, contains a gm hydrogen,

©)

100 gm C,H,.0, contains x100 = 6.66%

180 gm of C,H,,0, contains 96 gm oxygen.

1 gm C,H,,0¢ contains es gm oxygen.

100 gm C,H,,0, contains Me *x100 = 53.33%

Solved Example 3 : How much nitrogen is obtained from 100 gm of ammonia (NH;)?
Molecular Formula : 14+(3x1)=17 gm
Total weight of nitrogen in NH, = 14gm
17 gm of NH, contains 14 gm nitrogen.
. 4 :
1 gm NH, contains = gm nitrogen.

100 gm NH, contains = x100 = 82.35 gm

Solved Example 4 : How much nitrogen is supplied to soil through 10 kg of urea (NH,CONH,/
10 kg = 10000 gm
Molecular Formula : 14+ (2x1)+12+16+14+(2x 1)=60 gm
Total weight of nitrogen in NH,CONH, =14x2 = 28gm
60 gm of NH,CONH, contains 28 gm nitrogen.
. 28 ‘
1 gm NH,CONH, contains 60 &™ nitrogen.

10 kg (10000 gm) NH,CONH, contains “ x10 1000 = 4666.66 gm = 4.66 kg

 Practice makes perfect

1. Calculate the molecular or formula weight of following :

HCl, H,80,, H,PO,, NaNO,, Na,O
2. Calculate the percentage of underlined elements in following compounds :
CaCO,, Na,SO,, Cy~Hy,0,,;, NH,, HO
3. How much zinc metal can be extracted from the 100 kg of zinc sulphide ore.
4. Calculate the percentage of carbon in following hydrocarbons :
CyHe, C.H,. C;Hg, C,Aio, C5H iz
5. Arrange the following compounds in the increasing order of hydrogen percentage :
CH,, CzH,, CzHy, C,Hio, CsHiz

aa
\) e
__Revise Twice, Score Well
e So
|
eet

The symbol and formula of elements and compounds respectively is called the language of)
chemistry.
An abbreviation or short representation of a chemical element is called symboL
Chemical symbols are one or two letters from the Latin alphabet, but can be three when the element!
has a temporary name, and are written with the first letter capitalized. }
Information conveyed by a symbol: ;

* Name of the element. ]

|
+ One atom of that element.
« Mass of that element which is equal to its gram atomic mass. |‘
\

+ One atom of the symbol represents 6.023«10™ (Avagadro’s number) atoms.

The combining capacity of elements is referred to as Valency. }
U

5
The number of hydrogen or chlorine atoms or any other monovalent atom which combine with one’ |
atom of an element is called valency of that element. i
The electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons.
U

Valency is defined as equal to the number of valence electrons if there are up to 4 valence electrons|
and in case of more than 4 electrons it is equal to 8 minus valence electrons (8 — VE).
The number of electrons gained or lost by an atom to form electrovalent compound is known as its
electrovalency.
The transition metals show variable electrovalency due to the involvement of penultimate shell in!
bonding along with the valence shell.
Covalency can be referred to the number of electrons shared by the atoms to complete its octet and
form covalent bonds. Generally covalency is shown by non — metals.
_ non-metals form compounds in more than one valency or it shows variable covalency .
phosphorous form PCI, due to 3+ valency and also forms PC], due to 5+ valency. &
J Radical is an atom or group of untoms behaving as a unit in a compound.
U Radicals can be mono, di, tri and tetravalont.
Q The part of salt which comes from acid is known as acidic radical.
Q Acidic radicals are negatively charged (anion).
Q The part of salt which comes from base is known as basic radical.
Q Basic radical is positively charged (cation).
2 The part of covalent compounds which is formed due to fission of bond in a molecular reaction
called free radical. is
2 Free radicals are neutral and reactive due to presence of unpaired electron.
3 A formula is a short representation of a compound with the help of symbols of the Constituen,
elements.
4 Covalent compounds are represented by molecular formula and ionic compounds by formula unit
Q Method to write a Formula:
¢ Identify the symbol of the cation (first part of the name) and the anion.
¢ Identify the valency or charge of each symbol and place it in parenthesis just above the symbol.
* Balance the total positive and negative charge on the cation and anion with appropriate numbe,
of units.
* These numbers of units of the cation and anion become the subscripts which are placed
right sii
the respective symbol. |
Q Information conveyed by a formula:
* Different elements present in that compound.
Number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of that compound.
¢ +

One molecule of that compound.

* Definite mass of that compound which is equal to the molecular weight of that compound.
+
Mass of each element involved in one molecule of that compound,
a Chemical change is defined as one or more substance converted into new substance under certain
conditions like temperature, pressure, concentration, etc.
d The representation of a chemical change with the help of formula and symbols is known as Skeleton
Equation. |
4 Points to remember while writing a skeleton equation:
Q Write the molecular formula/symbol of each reactant in the left side and product on the right side J
the arrow.
4 Atoms of metals are represented by their symbol only like Copper (Cu), Calcium (Ca), ete. |
4 Diatomic non-metallic elements are written in molecular form like Hy, Ny, Oy, Fy, Clo, Bro, lo. |
Reactant 1 + Reactant 2 + ......... —> Product 1 + Product 2 + .............. |
4 Types of chemical reactions : |

* Combination reaction
* Decomposition reaction
|
¢ Single displacement reaction 3
 The Language of Chemistry #4!) pee

* Double displacement reaction

* Redox reaction
4 Information conveyed by a chemical equa
tion :
* Reactants involved and the products formed.
Names of the reactants and products,
* Number of molecules taking part in the reaction and the products formed.
Mass of the compounds reacting and forming after the
chemical change.
¢

It gives us a standard relationship between the reactants and products in term of mass and
*

volume.
4 Balance the Chemical Equation ; Hit and Trial Method :
This method is also known as trial and error method or inspection method. This is useful for simple
equations. We just see reactants and products and start balancing each element by inspection method.
On the observation we can follow the following steps to balance the equation.
Step 1: First balance the element other than oxygen and hydrogen.
Step 2: Then balance hydrogen and oxygen.
Step 3 : Check all the elements.
Q Relative atomic mass is defined as a mass exactly equal to one twelfth of the mass of one carbon-12
atom.
Mass of one atom
Relative atomic mass = ;
rr of the mass of one atom of C- 12

Q Atomic mass when calculated in grams is known as gram atomic mass of an element. This amount
of an element is also known as One gram atom or one mole.
Q Molecular mass is the number which indicates how many times the mass of one molecule of the
substance (element or compound) is heavier than 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C-12.”
Q Gram molecular mass is the molecular mass of a substance expressed in gram. This amount of
substance is called one gram molecule or one mole.
Q Calculation of percentage composition of compounds :
+ Find the atomic weight of each constituent element from the periodic table.
* Calculate molecular weight of the compound.
+ Find the total amount of element with respect to molecular weight of that compound.
Find the amount of element with respect to one gram of compound.
+

Find the amount of element with respect of 100 gm of compound. This amount of element is
*

known as percentage of element.

 Assignment-Section A
Question 1. Fillin the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within brackets.
Veo cee Of compound shows the simplest ratio of the number of different type hia Prege,
in one molecule ofa compound, (molecular formula / amps formu,
ee represonts a chemical change in a short way. (chemical reaction / ahemical Chang,
ee ee isa charged atom or a group of atom. radical ANio,
6 BB casssenscisscvcosnes Is A Negative radical AN occ is a positive radical. (cation / anion
5. An element having more than one valency is termed to have v...ccccceee eee valency.
(constant / variah),
6. Molecular formula of ferrous sulphate is cocccccccceeeceeeees « [FeSO, / Fe,(S0,),
7. Molecular formula employs .....ccccccccceeees BF sic casaces BING ssescisssweccauareees to denote a compound
(elements, symbols, number,
8. Name of FeClig is:...csccceosseessaces ‘ (Ferrous chloride / Ferric chlorid,
9. The compounds on the left side of a chemical reaction are kKnOWN AS .......1c-ese0eeee* ‘
(reactants / product,
10. The compounds on the right side of a chemical reaction are known @S .....-.:-e:-000+08++
(reactants / products
11. The valency of +3 has the suffix ..................... and +2 has the suffix ............::ee0 ‘ (—ous /~i¢

~ =e

1. Empirical formula 2. Chemical reaction 3. Radical 4. Anion, cation 5. Variable 6. FeSO, 7. Symbols, elements,
numbers 8. Ferric chloride 9. Reactants 10. Products 11. —ic, -ous

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. Basic radical is also known as :
(a) Cation (b) Anion (c) Both (a) and (b) ~— (d) None of these
2. Acidic radical is also known as :
(a) Cation (b) Anion (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
3. An element which does not show variable valency :
(a) Iron (b) Tin (c) Sodium (d) Fluorine
4. Electrovalency is observed in :
(a) Elements (b) Ionic compounds
(c) Covalent compounds (d) Compounds
5. Covalency is observed in :
(a) Elements (b) Ionic compounds
(c) Covalent compounds (d) Compounds
 The Language of Chemistry HR) es

6. Unbalanced chemical equation is known as equation,

(a) Chemical (b) Skeleton (c) Empirical (d) None of these
7. The products are found in side of the reaction.
(a) Left (b) Right (c) Center (d) None of these
8. The reactants are found in side of the reaction.
(a) Left (b) Right (c) Center (d) None of these
9. The formula which tells us the simple ratio between the different elements is known as eeeeEC SO OEOCOSeOeECS

formula.
(a) Chemical (b) Skeleton (c) Empirical (d) None of these
10. The reaction which liberates heat is known as:
(a) Endothermic (b) Exothermic
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
11. The reaction which absorbs heat is known as:
(a) Endothermic (b) Exothermic
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

a4lal2zi/om)3!lolalolslolelo| z (b) | 8 | (a) | 9% (c) 40. | (b)

41. | (a) Por4

Question 3. [A] Match the following compounds in column A to their names in column B :

Column A Column B
A |Fe,0, P| Sodium hydroxide
B_ |H.SO, Q_ | Magnesium chloride
C |HgO R= | Sulphuric acid
D |MgCl, S| Iron (II) oxide
E |NaQH T | Mercury (IJ) oxide

[B] Match the following radical names in column A to their radicals in column B.

Column A Column B
A | Ferrous ion P | Ag”
B_ | Ferric ion Q | Fe?"
C | Stannic ion R |Sn?
D_ | Stannous ion S |Sn*
E | Argentous ion 7 {Pe
Ge 2 CS
[C] Match the following radical names in column A to their radicals in column B.
Column A Column B ee
A | Nitrate ion Pp |s* Re
B | Nitride ion Q | NO} came et
Cc Sulphate ion R SO;- a.
D Sulphide ion S | N* eee
E
> | Sulphite
Satpnite ion
j T |sovf ee

[A] A—S, B—R, Cc —T,

~
aE
D—Q, E—P
——

[B] A— Q, B—T, ¢— §; D—R, E—P

[Cc] A—Q, B-—S, C-—T, D—P, E—R

Question 4 : Name the following :

1. A charged ion or group of ions.
2. A reaction which absorbs heat.
3. A reaction which liberates heat.
4, Combination of these things is called molecular formula.
5. More than one valency seen in an element.
6. Negative radical.
7. Other name of anion.
8. Other name of cation.
9. Other name of electrovalency.
10. Positive radical.
11. Unbalanced chemical equation.

Cad Answers
1. Radical; 2. Endothermic; 3. Exothermic; 4. Symbols and numbers; 5. Variable valency; 6. Anion; 7. Acidic radical;
e
8. Basic radical; 9. Ionic valency; 10. Cation; 11. Skeleton equation.
 it
= 3:

CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS

1. Give the name of the elements represented by the following symbols:
(i) Bi (ii) Sn
(iii) Sb (iv) Al
(v) Si
. Give the difference between Cl and Cl).
wh

. Name the symbol of one liquid metal and non-metal.

CHANIA

. Give the symbols of two elements which have equal number of valence electrons.
. Why sodium and potassium show +1 valency and chlorine shows —1 valency?
Give name and valency of two metallic elements.
. Define basic radical. Give two examples.
. Give two differences between acidic and basic radical.
. Give the molecular formula of the following molecules:
(i) Lead sulphide (ii) Iron (IJ) sulphide
(iii) Sodium hydrogen sulphite (iv) Hydrogen sulphide
10. Write the formula of sulphates of the following elements:
Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium
Fe. MoO
11.N, 7° + 3H,T == @NH,T
150°C

List the informations provided by the above equation.

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. Complete the following table:
Symbol Name of ion
Aurous
Mn2*
As*
Vanadium (IIT)
Auric

2. Complete the following table:

Symbol! Name of ion
$05"
Phosphide
Ferricyanide
N=

HCO;
 |

3 . Give the names and formula of compounda formed by the following ton
Ba®’..He™ 0" Nim Al™,, MnO, CIO’ , ZHOP ,ABOT , POS
4 . Give the valeney of the radicnts of slements involved in the following formula:
Na ,PO,, FeBO,, AlLj(8O,),, NallsO,, KMn0,
5 - Balance the following equation by hit and trin} method:
(i) N,O, +H,O —> HNO,
(ii) PSO, +3H,0 —> H,PO,
(iii) Ca(NOs). —> Ca0+ NO, +0,
(iv) Fe(OH), + HC] —> FeCl, + H,O
(v) NH,C]+Ca(OH), —> CaCl, +H,O+ NH,
- What is free radical? Which free radicals are involved in the following covalent compounds ?
CH,, CyHg, C.H,Cl, C3H,, C,H Br
7. Give the name and formula of carbonates of the following metals:
Aluminium, magnesium, nickel, barium, calcium
8. Write the formula of the acetate, thiocyanate, permanganate, thiosulphate, plumbite of sodium,
. Give the name and formula of oxalate, arsenate, dihydrogen phosphate, chromate, perchlorate,
aluminium.
10. Urea (NH,CONH,) is an important fertilizer which contains 46% nitrogen, If cultivator used 150}
urea for his crop field then calculate amount of nitrogen supplied to crop field.
11, Write the word equation for following chemical equations :
(i) Na,CO,; + H,SO, —> Na,SO, +H,0+CO,
(ii) NaHCO,
——> Na,CO,; + H,0+CO,
(iii) Zn(NO.). —7> ZnO0+4NO, +O,
(iv) CuO+H,SO, —> CuSO, +H,O
(v) NaOH+H,SO, —> Na,SO, +2H,O
3 VX
Practice is the Key to Success
XN
Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. Complete the following table on the basis of the first example:
S.No. Name of element Symbol of Atomic Electronic configuration Valency
element number
(i) | Sodium Na 11 2,8,1 +1
(ai) Cl 2,8,7
Qu) | Oxygen 2,6
(iv) Mg 12
(v) 9 -1
(vi) 2,1 +1
(vii) | Neon
10
(viii) N 2,5
(ix) | Aluminium +3
(x) Ca 20
(xi) | Carbon
2,4
(xii) S +4
Q. 2. Give reason for the following:
(i) Symbol of sodium is Na.
Ans. Symbols of the elements are generally derive
d fro m their Latin names. Latin name of sodium is
Natrium. That is why its symbol is Na.
(ii) Magnesium is divalent but sodium is monovalent.

Ans.

Q. 3. Write the formula of the following compounds:

(i) Bismuth sulphate
Ans. Bi,(SO, ).
(ui) Zine carbonate
Ans.
(in) Magnesium sulphite
Ans. _
(iv) Silver fluoride
Ans.
 Ht
C)
Ee 36
(v) Cuprous oxide
Ans.

Q. 4. With the help of the following cations and anions write the name and formulae of atleast fiy,
compounds;
Na*, Ca’, Se*", Br, SOZ-, C,07°
@) Na SO, . (ii) _, (iv) _ (iii) . (v)
Q. 5. Balance the following equations by hit and trial method:
(i) CsHg +O, —> CO, + H,O
Ans, 2C.,H,, + 70, —»+ ACO, +6H,O
(ii) Mg + HCl —+ MgCl, +H,

Gui) FeSO, + NaOH —-> Fe(OH), + Na,SO,

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wos ¥GHSTASSio dS CL#SRAU ONEScegernn
nnesmnc EUESxUbwiA pCaeslleace
so
Q. 6. Calculate the molecular mass or formula weight of the following compounds:
(i) HBr Atomic weight of H = 1 gm & Br = 80 gm
Ans, 1 + 80 = 81 gm
(ii) NaHSO, Atomic weight of Na = 23 gm, H =1 gm, S = 32 gm & O= 16 gm
PONE oss tc see owe RAEI aN is eee auN Sard aada sa vexecaneous decaenetbened ieee eee
Gil) H;PO, Atomic weight of H = 1 gm, P= 31 gm & O= 16 gm
BIDS. oa eos a scsssesssscenssecsssssensnnsstcssssecenssntsecesunesssescessussessnssssssussssnsessnuessnusssnisssuveraussutisiubesibeeteeessees
eeceeeeccesee
cee
(iv) Ca(NO3), Atomic weight of Ca = 40 gm, N= 14 gm & O= 16 gm
AIS. oosssisessessssstseecesnsssescnssssssscosunesconsnasesecnsasensnsssssssnsesestinacesssnssessanestsnustatuessibsesibeasieesibestieeeseee
eseeeccece
cece
(v) FeCl, Atomic weight of Fe = 56 gm & Cl = 35.5 gm
Ans
Q. 7. Calculate the percentage of underlined element in the followi
ng compounds:
(i) Na,CO,
Ans. Molecular mass of Na,,CO., =(2 = 23)+12 +(3 x 16)=106 gm
Total mass of sodium = 2 x 23 =46 zm
106 gm of Na,CO, has 46 gm of sodium
) gm of Na,CO, has 46/ 106 gm of sodium
. AG
100 gm of Na,CO, =- » «100 = 43.39
. 106
Percentage of sodium is 43.39%
 The Language of Chemistry IF] (5)

(in) PHy

Ans,

(iv) H,S
Ans,

(v) CgH20,
Ans.

Q. 8. Write the names of the following compounds:

(i) MgCO,
Ans. Magnesium carbonate
(ii) AgNO,
Ans.
(iii) KMnO,
Ans.
(iv) CdSO,
Ans. . , : sem vah es e ais ——s . are ctiarax
a eance Lay NeRTMUNKNHTINGRESERISD
(v) (CH,COO), Pb
Ans.
Q. 9. Find the valency of underlined element or radical:

(i) MgCl,
Ans. Valency of magnesium is +2

(i) PCI;
Ans.
(iii) AIN
Ans.

(iv) Fe,(SO,),
Ans.
 (v) Na, SO,
Ans,
Q. 10. Explain the following:
() Iron forms FeCl, and FeCl, but magnesium can form only MgCly.
Ans, lron shows variable
covalency due to involvement of penultimate shell in bonding but it magne
hp
Blu
tises only valence electrons and shows +2 valency. Therefore,
Lron forms compound in +2 and +3 state like 4

FeCl, and FeC),.

(u) Sulphur forms compounds like SF, and SF, but this is not true for oxygen.
ORR ciehizeimrmmneeeesa erste eres ct uct ucts epeamers ncsteginavaiediasseecaGieetiommiorotbereecepnnnseasrrcemaconeronneceeacacxetexeete

PAS, wrssnssseeseetecintnstabeneenrtnctansanenstnsennspuaeenenenessonasbnhvss
inisibébaetnnseaiaibishtndibbtsensieneemeeeee, ;

Ans. Calcium Carbonate =CaCO, =40+12+4+3x16=100 gm

100 gm calcium carbonate consists of 40 gm
calcium
1 gm calcium carbonate consists of (40/100) gm
10 gm calcium carbonate consists of (40/100)
x10 =4 gm calcium
(ii) Calculate the percentage of carbon in 1 molecule
of sugar (C,,H 90), ).
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artlvosnbisiauasasivbbtnsicééseccssesscccc.
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 The Language of Chomistry HF} :] shy

ENJOY CHEMISTRY
Solve the crossword puzzle and cheek your LQ.
The Language of Chemistry

iis aa (a 10

Across
1. Combination of symbols and numbers to denote a compound.
3. The positive and negative charge present on an ion or group.
4. Representation of a chemical reaction.
7. A letter representing an atom.
8. A reaction showing the transaction of heat.
9. Valency of ionic compounds,
1 . Unbalanced chemical equation.
Down
2. Formula showing only the simple ratio between the constituent elements.
5. Name of the reaction absorbing heat.
6. Name of the reaction releasing heat.
10.0 Valency of covalent compound.
APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
15 Minutes _- Genius
20 Minutes _ Very good
25 Minutes — Good
 Word Search Puzzle
Find the following words in given grid and improve your familiarity with terms involy
this chapter:
Molecular formula, Empirical formula, Valency, Chemical equation, Electrovalency, Variable Valen,
Radical, Covalency, Endothermic, Exothermic, Cation, Anion, Symbol, Thermochemical.

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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
10 Minutes _ Genius
15 Minutes — Very good
20 Minutes =. Good
ooo
 ~ CHEMICAL CHANGES
AND REACTIONS
2.1 CHANGES AROUND US
Scope of Syllabus
Chemical changes and reactions “Change is a universal truth of nature.”
(i) Types of chemical changes : You must have observed various changes around
Direct combination yourself in your daily life. These changes are integral part
Decomposition
Displacement
of our life. Few changes are noticed very easily but some are
Double decomposition not. You eat breakfast in morning then that is a result of
(The above to be taught with | suitable certain physical and chemical changes taking place in your
chemical equations as examples). kitchen. Think for a minute for yammy-yummy Maggi.
(ii) Energy changes in a chemical change : We can observe heating of water from room temperature to
Exothermic and endothermic reactions with
examples—evolution/absorption of heat, boiling point, hard raw noodles become soft when dipped in
light and electricity. boiling water, change in colour on addition of flavouring
mixture but we cannot observe the molecular changes that
are taking place in a single strand of noodle but that is also a fact of entire change.

eres. pe: >

Fig. 2.1 Yummy-yummy maggi

When we think over various changes around us as a chemist then, we can classify those as physical
and chemical change.
Bex ‘Via ICSE Chomistry-9

PHYSICAL CHANGE an i=) Q

While preparing our breakfast we observed that there . Folding
¢ pi
he fr Breaking Mixing Shredding
were no 5) changes, on the front of colour, nature, taste of water Glass Candies Paper Paper
during the boiling or heating because chemical composition
remauis same, Water at room temperature is compound
with molecular formula H,O and remains as it is (HO) at — : y UP
high temperature in vapour state. Chopping —- Cutting Dry Ice Bolling Breaking
Wood Hair Sublimation Water Ege
“A change in which the chemical composition of a
substance Fig. 2.2 Physical changes
remains same but physical properties are
changed is known as physical change,”

CHEMICAL CHANGE
Once again think about the preparation of
yummy-yummy maggi where we observed some of the S an
chemical change like the change in colour of maggi rune Rotting omine? peronsl
from white to yellow or softening of the noodles when
dipped in boiling water. These changes were due to
some of the changes that were taking place in the ~ AG
molecular level of the noodles. Thus, this change is
permanent and cannot be reversed by any of the Digests ee om eee eae ee
physical means. Fig. 2.3 Chemical changes
“A change which leads to a change in the
molecular composition of a substance along with the possible physical change is called Chemical
‘‘hange.”

explanation
Since, every substance is made up of small particles that are atoms or molecules. These constituent
particles join to each other through certain chemical bonds. During the chemical change bonds of the
reacting species are broken and form reactive ions like atoms or ions. These atoms or ions join through
chemical bonds and form new substance. The new set of bonds in product causes the entirely different
properties with respect to reactants and energy change during chemical change.
For example, when highly combustible hydrogen reacts with oxygen then form water molecule; in this
change hydrogen molecule convert into hydrogen atom and oxygen molecule convert into oxygen atom due
to bond fission. Then hydrogen atom joins with oxygen atom for the formation of water molecule.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHEMICAL CHANGE

4 It is a permanent change.
The chemical properties along with the physical properties change.
Oov oa

New substances are formed.

There is always an exchange of energy, i.e., either heat is absorbed or released.
This change is irreversible.
 Chemical Changes and Reactions @ *} oa,

Table 2.1 : Difference between physical and chemical changes

Physical change Chemical change

A change which involves the change in the] A change in which both the physical and chemical
physical properties of a substance while chemical composition changes,
composition remains same.
paw
No new substance is formed. New substance is formed.

Avis generally a temporary change. It is a permanent change.

No or very little absorption of energy is required| Absorption or evolution of energy takes place in
for physical change to occur. chemical change.

It is reversible. It is irreversible in nature.

CONDITIONS REQUIRED FOR CHEMICAL REACTION TO TAKE PLACE

Chemical reactions can take place anywhere on Earth. Every chemical reaction requires certain
possible conditions to make that chemical reaction happen. For example, if you need to light a candle, you
need to provide ignition temperature to the match stick to burn candle. Similarly, if you need to cook food at
home, cooking gas is required. So here are the following conditions required for chemical reactions to take
place:
(a) Close contact: For breaking of old bonds and making new bonds in reactants, you need to bring the
reactants to come and contact. Reactant taken in separate test tubes cannot combine to form new
products, until you make them to come close and react.
For example : ;
1. Burning of magnesium ribbon: 2Mg +0,—>2MgO
2. Burning of wood: C+0,—>CO,
(b) Solution form: Salts in solid state do not react till they made into solution form. Precipitation is an
example in which salts are first dissolve in solvent and then allowed to react.
0.8. AgNO.,(aq) + HCl(ag)——> AgCl(ppt.) + HNO,
(c) Heat: There are some reactants which require heat to form products. Mostly decomposition of
reactants to form product needs heat for a reaction to occur. Such type of reactions are known as
thermal decomposition reaction.
e.g., CuCO3(s)—>
CuOQ(s) + CO4(g)
(d) Light: Some chemical reactions take place in the presence of Light. Plants need sunlight to make
food during the process known as photosynthesis.
e.8., 6CO, +12H,O—+C,H,.0,+6H,O
Glucose

Note: Silver nitrate and hydrogen peroxide is always stored in dark colored bottles as in the presence of
light it will decompose. Such types of reactions are known as photolytic reactions.
(e) Electricity: Certain chemical reactions like decomposition takes place in the presence of
electricity.
e.8., 2H,O(1)— 2H, (g) + O0(g)
Such types of reactions are known as Electrolytic reactions.
Can you answer: If you keep the white colored powder of silver nitrate in sun for some time, it
turns into grey colored substance. Why?
 iT et
t toe

renetant neods fo be com prenned with high pressure (mainly jn gaseous state) "a
(fn) Prossure; Some

that they can come close toyethor and reat,

’ ’ AHO HOOPC, Fe and Mo
eg. Syntheam of Ammonia gas, NoGaa SEG) - *2NH
f wh) w(K) 200.4100 aten a

(zw) Catalyst: Catalyat isn substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction without undergoin,
any change.
ee

: ial complax
7
Potential energy («J)

—(hey pe

Fig. 2.4 Catalyst

As you can observe from the above picture that catalyst lowers the demand of energy known a
activation energy and makes the reaction quickly to happen. They are known as positive catalyst.
50-500°C,Fe and M
No(g)+3H,(g) = ae = 2NH,
Here in the formation of ammonia, Fe acts as a catalyst. Iron provides the surface for reactan
iolecules to sit and interact to from products.
Molybdenum (Mo) is used as a promoter which enhances the catalytic activity of iron.
There are some catalysts which may retard the rate of reaction and hence known as negative catalyst.
+ Alcohol acts as a negative catalyst in the oxidation of sodium sulphide.
4 Phosphoric acid H,PO, serves as a negative catalyst in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxid:
H,O>.

CHARACTERISTICS TO SHOW CHEMICAL CHANGE

Visit to Chemistry Lab and Perform the Following Practical in
Assistance to Your Teacher.
(a) Evolution of gas: Take salt of any carbonate or bi-
carbonate and add sulphuric acid to it. You will observe that
CO, gas comes out which turns lime water milky. CO, gas
comes out as effervescence which is a formation of bubbles
when you open any cold drink bottle.
Sulphuric acid
CaCO, + H,SO,—>+CaSO, +H,0+CO, Calcium carbonate

Fig. 2.5 Evolution of gas

 —— a,
Chemical Changes and Reactions m4] pod

(b) Change of color: Heat a little salt of copper curbonate ina clean dry test tube and see the change
in color.
Cuco, —>CuO +CO,
Wack
Green

You will observe that green colored copper carbonate on heating changes to black colored copper
oxide.
Similarly, add iron fillings in blue color copper sulphate solution and note down the color change.
(c) Formation of precipitate: Make aqueous solution of silver nitrate and sodium chloride and mix
them well.
AgNO(aq) + NaCiaqg) —> AgC\(ppt.)+ NaNO,(aq)
White

You will observe that white colored precipitates will be formed on mixing the above two solutions.
Precipitates are insoluble substance formed after mixing the two solutions.
Add potassium iodide in lead nitrate solution and note down the color of precipitates formed. Also
mention the products formed during the reaction.
(d) Change of state: Dip a piece of cotton separately in
ammonia and hydrochloric acid and place it like shown in
the Fig. 2.6.
You will observe the white dense fumes made in the
middle of the reacting substances.
NT ‘ —>

Similarly. you can perform the electrolysis of acidulated

water and note down you observation.

EXAMPLES
Burning of wood : For burning a piece of wood it
should be heated till its ignition temperature which leads to
its combustion. On combustion it liberates carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, water vapour and ash. Thus, burning of
wood is an irreversible chemical change which leads to
production of light and heat energy.

Fig. 2.7 Burning of wood

a

Formation of yogurt from milk : Yogurt is formed as

a result of bacterial action on milk, When certain bacteria,
are added to warm milk and is allowed to ferment, lactic
acid is formed. The formation of lactic acid causes the milk
to curdle. It is a chemical change because a new substance
is formed, and slightly pungent odour is evolved.

Fig. 2.8 Yogurt from milk

Preparation of alcohol from grapes : Alcohol is prepared by the fermentation of grape jy;
Fermentation is an anaerobic chemical reaction in which simple sugars are converted to ethyl alcohol, és
carbon dioxide is formed as a by-product. It is a chemical change characterized by the emission of g ‘
(carbon dioxide), change in colour, along with the formation of a new substance. -

Baking a cake : When you mix cake ingredients and put it in the
oven, the baking soda or sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3) breaks down
to form sodium carbonate (Na,CO,) and bubbles of carbon dioxide.
This makes the cake fluffy and soft. In addition to this, the heat
causes protein molecules in the egg yolk to form new bonds. Baking a
cake is an irreversible process. Also, it leads to the formation of a new
substance, and hence, is a chemical change.

Rusting of iron : Rusting is the undesirable oxidation of an

iron piece when left in the presence of air and moisture. Several
times you must have noticed that the surface of an iron piece
changes into reddish brown coloured powdery substance. This is
iron oxide which is made from iron due to air and moisture. This
is a chemical change which is irreversible and we observe a
change in colour.
Fig. 2.10 Rusting of iron
 j
}

Chemical Changes and Reactions @}] pare

WY Vy
. | y
Bursting of crackers : When crackers are burst then light, —\\ ft
heat and sound energies are produced. These energies are =~

released due to the some compounds which react due to the rise in
temperature and produce new compounds. As soon as, you light a
cracker the temperature of the compounds inside it rises and they
react with each other.

Fig. 2.11 Bursting of crackers

Practice makes perfect

1. What is a chemical change? Give two examples.
2. Why are the following changes considered as chemical change:
(i) Burning of LPG gas.
(ii) Rusting of iron.
(ii) Baking of biscuit or cake.
3. Why chemical change is permanent in nature?
4. Copper sulphate gives blue coloured solution on dissolution in water. Is it a chemical change? Justify
your answer.
5. When sodium chloride solution is mixed with silver nitrate solution, then we get white precipitate. Is
it a chemical change? If yes, justify your answer.
6. Differentiate the following into physical or chemical change:
(i) Boiling of an egg.
(ii) Bursting of fire cracker.
(iii) Cutting of paper.
(iv) Cutting of vegetables.
(v) Cooking of food.
(vi) Dissolution of salt.
7. Identify the role of catalyst in any suitable chemical reaction. What will happen to the catalyzed
chemical reaction when promoter is added to it?
8. Give reasons:
(i) Silver nitrate solution is stored in dark colored bottles.
(ii) Boiling of water is not a chemical change.
(iii) Formation of ammonia gas needs surface of iron.
(iv) Formation of ammonium chloride in lab is a reversible reaction.
9. Write any chemical reaction in which:
(i) Heat is required.
(ii) Heat is evolved.
(iii) Gas is evolved.
 Ov) Change in atate
(VW) Chane in color,
(1) Formation of preeipitates,

2.2 TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTION

There are generally four types of chemical renetions
shown below: &: 2 Synthesis es

1. Synthesis or Combination Reaction

Synthesis or combination reaction in whieh two e® OTT al = r ®
elements or compounds react to form one single
compound,
Most of the combination reactions are generally
ee + e
—m > CO+@
Single
displacement

exothermic in nature @?:-a@e Eee S228

Double
Note: Exothermic reactions are those reactions in displacement
which heat is released. (exo means exit, thermic Fig. 2.142 4 main types of chemical reactions
word corresponds to heat).
What will happen to the beaker when you add water to calcium oxide (quicklime)?
CaO +H,0 —-+Ca(OH), + heat
This calcium hydroxide is lime water which is used for testing of
carbon dioxide gas. When CO, gas pass into the solution, it turns
milky. You know why? Can you guess the product formed?
Ca(OH), +CO,—> CaCO, +H,O
(Insoluble)

What will happen if you keep passing CO, gas in lime water?
Name the product formed.

2. Decomposition of Reactions:
These are the types of chemical reaction in which one substance
or compound breaks down into some simpler substances in the
presence of energy.
Energy can be supplied in the form of heat, light or electricity.
Generally, decomposition reactions are endothermic in nature. Fig. 2.13

Endothermic reactions are those which needs energy to change

into products.
 Chemical Changes and Reactions 49 seat

Types of Endothermic Reactions

Decomposition Reaction

Thermolysi 8 | Hlectrolysis | Photolysis |

(a) Thermolysis is a type of decomposition reaction in which heat is required,
For example: 2KCIO, —>2KCI +30,
CaCO; —+Ca0+CO,
What will be the chemical reaction when lead nitrate would be heated in lab? Can you
record your observations?

(b) Electrolysis is a type of chemical reactions in which electricity is

needed for the formation of products.
For example: Electrolysis of water. 2H,O—>
2H, +O,
Can you tell why the volume of hydrogen gas collected is
doubled to that of oxygen gas?

Fig. 2.14 Electrolysis of water

(c) Photolysis is a another type of decomposition reaction in which light is

required for the reaction to take place.
CH, +Cl, —+CH,Cl
2AgNO, —>2Ag +2NO, +0,
2H,0, —>2H,0+0,
Can you guess why silver nitrate (AgNO 3) is stored in dark coloured
bottle.

3. Displacement Reaction
Lab activity: Take a iron nail and dipped in blue colour copper sulphate solution
for some time. You will observe that blue colour fades away.
This is because iron is more reactive than copper and displace it
from salt solution.

Blue Green .
CuSO,
Hence, displacement reaction is type of chemical reaction in
which more reactive metal displaces the less reactive metal from its FeSO,
Salt solution.
Fig. 2.16 Displacement reaction
pee 1 | ICSE Chemistry-9

4. Double Displacement Reaction

Lab activity: Take silver nitrate and dissolve it in water to make a solution. Then slowly é
hydrochloric acid drop wise. What would you observe? q
A white precipitate of silver chloride will be formed.
AgNO, (aq) + HCKag) —> AgCl(ppt.) + HNO,
White

Fig. 2.17 Double displacement reaction

Double decomposition reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which two compounds exchang,
their ions to form new compounds.

Do it yourself Just add lead nitrate in potassium iodide solution. Can you write the chemical reaction involved in jt
What would be the colour precipitates formed?

2.3 ENERGY CHANGE IN A CHEMICAL CHANGE

Each and every chemical change involves bond fission and bond formation. The fission of bonds of th.
reactant molecules due to absorption of energy is equivalent to the bond energy of specific bonds. It mean,
energy absorbs in reactant side. On the other side products are formed due to the formation of new bond
and energy released equivalent to bond energy. The total difference between amount of energy released ip
product side and energy absorbed in reactant side is equal to net energy change during the chemical
process.
Total Energy Released in Product Side (Q,)— Total Energy Absorbed in Reactant Side (Q,)=
Energy Change
The energy change in a particular chemical change may be in different forms like heat, light and
electricity.

ENERGY CHANGE IN FORM OF HEAT

The net heat during the chemical process may be absorbed or released. On the basis of heat change we
can classify it as follows:
Evolution of Heat : A chemical change in which there is release of heat is called exothermic
change, In exothermic change the total heat released in product side is higher than total energy absorbe¢
in reactant side (Q, > Q,) and written as (+ Heat) in product side.
C+O, —> CO, + Heat
 Absorption of Heat: A chemical change in which there is absorption of heat is called eerie
change. In endothermic change the total heat absorbed in the reactant vide is higher than the total energy
released in the product side (Q, < Q)) and written as (+ Heat) in the reactant po.
N, +O,
+ Heat - » 2NO

ENERGY CHANGE IN FORM OF LIGHT

Evolution of Light : There are certain chemical changes which evolve light like combustion. For
example. combustion of magnesium ribbons.
2Mg +0, ——» 2MgO + Light
Absorption of Light : There are certain chemical changes which absorb light to execute. For example,
photosynthesis.

6CO, +6H,O+ Light —> C,H,,0, +60,

ENERGY CHANGE IN FORM OF ELECTRICITY

Production of Electricity : During

electrochemical process chemical energy convert
into electrical energy. On the basis of redox pees
reaction, loss of electron takes place at anode and (ammonium chloride
gain of electron takes place at cathode. Therefore, "4 Zine chionde)
anode is electron rich and cathode is electron ome
deficient centre. When we join cathode and anode Se
then electron transfers from anode to cathode. This
is the cause of generation of electricity. For
example, dry cell that is batteries of mobile, car,
inverter, etc.

Effect of Electricity (Electrolysis) : When we pass the

electrical current in an electrolyte then chemical change takes
place because electrolyte decompose into its constituents at the
electrodes.
For example, electrolysis of acidulated water gives hydrogen
at cathode and oxygen at anode.
 y-9

BURNING
Burning is a very common chemical change which takes place
around us. Burning is also known as combustion. Any
substance is burned then it gives light energy and heat energy to
its surroundings. Therefore, burning is considered as a chemical
change. If we think over the substance which is involved in
burning then we find oxygen is the only one substance which is
necessarily involved in this process and the product is oxide.
Chemically, burning is addition of oxygen it means that is
oxidation.
“Burning is a chemical process in which a substance Fig. 2.20 Burning
reacts with exvgen and form oxides along with large
4 rmount of heat and light energy.”
Respiration is considered as slow combustion because when we inhale oxygen then it oxidise
carbohydrates into carbon dioxide and release energy which is consumed by our body.

CONDITIONS OF BURNING
The following conditions are necessary for any substance to burn :
Combustible substance : Presence of combustible substance is primary condition for burning
combustion. Chemically they get oxidised during the process. For example, carbon oxidises into carbo
dioxide and magnesium give magnesium oxide on combustion. Carbon containing compounds normally ge
oxidised and produce large amount of heat energy along with light energy and are also known as fossi
fuels. For example, petrol, diesel, LPG, coal, wax, wood, etc.
Supporter of combustion : Oxygen is the only substance which supports the combustion. It mean
without oxygen nothing can burn. In combustion, combustible substance gets oxidised and release lot ¢
energy in the form of heat and light. Chemically, oxygen acts as oxidising agent.
Ignition temperature : When we heat any combustible substance in the presence of supporter ¢
combustion then heat energy is released in the form of radiations and produce flames. Actually, this stag
is known as burning. This stage varies for substance to substance as per their chemical nature. “Thi
temperature at which combustible substance catches fire is defined as its ignition temperature.
The ignition temperature of various substances varies from low to high range. If ignition temperature !
less, it means substance catches fire very easily. You can observe LPG gas catches fire with the help of on!
spark of the lighter and petrol or paper can burn with the help of match stick only but log of wood canné
burn with the help of match stick. This is due to difference of ignition temperature of substance.
One very interesting example in our life is burning of white phosphorus which floats on water can &
observed as miracle for a lay man but the scientific reason behind it is low ignition temperature that is¢
30°C of white phosphorus.

WAYS TO EXTINGUISH FIRE

If we remove any one cause of burning then fire can be extinguished. It means we can follow three way
1. Removal of combustible substance.
2. Removal of supporter of combustion.
3. Decrease the temperature of burning substance below its ignition temperature.
 iyo
Chemical Changes and Reactions f+ es

Table 2.2 ; Comparison betwoen respiration and burning

Respiration Burning

Slow Mast

Tomperat ure At body tempernture At ignition temperature

Liberation of hent Slow that is why body tompernture remains Mast thatia why the surroundings are heated up
unchanped

Energy change No change Heat and Jight energy is evolved

—

Place Inside human bady Outside human body

_

EXPERIMENT 1
Aim : To show the burning of magnesium ribbon and weight gain during the proc
Material required : Magnesium ribbon, source of fire, tongs.
Reaction involved :
2Mg +0, —> 2MgO
Procedure : Take a piece of magnesium ribbon and weigh with the
help of chemical balance then hold the piece with the help of tongs and
bring it near to the flame of a bunsen burner. Burning of magnesium
ribbon starts with intense and extremely bright flame. Now, collect the
ash and weigh it.
Observation : Intense and bright flame with lot of heat. The grey
coloured ash is formed.
Conclusion / Inference : On the basis of above observations we
can conclude the following :
(i) Burning of magnesium ribbon is a chemical change.
(i) The total weight of ash is more than the weight of the
magnesium ribbon burned.
Fig. 2.21 Buming of magnesium ribbon

Combustion of candle : Combustion of candle involves two processes at a time. First is melting of wax
and second is burning of wax. We know that melting is physical change and burning is chemical change. It
means overall change is combination of physical and chemical change.
Chemical
Physical

Chemical
Physical

Fig. 2.22 Burning of candle

 EXPERIMENT 2 : COMBUSTION OF CANDLE
Alm: Vonhow the weight yain during the chemical change like combuation of candle (y ax,
Material required ; Candle, funnel, dolivory tubes, lout Lubes, cobalt chloride paper, lime We tep
ee —v ————" ig

To pump

Je
aT Cobalt
chloride ;
—— Burning \ paper oo Lime water
candle
Fig. 2.23 Cornbustion of candle

Reaction involved :
Paraffin wax. (Hydrocarbon) + Oxygen —~» Carbon dioxide + Water
Procedure ; lirst weigh the candle, cobalt chloride paper and lime water which is to be used in the
experiment, Now, set the apparatus as shown in the figure. When we light the candle, it gives some fume
which passes through the delivery tube to the test tube containing cobalt chloride paper. The rest of the
vapours again pass through the delivery tube and reach the test tube containing lime water. Now, weig}
the candle, cobalt chloride paper and lime water again.
Observation : The following changes are observed in the above experiment :
(i) The colour of cobalt chloride paper changes from blue to pink.
(ii) The lime water turns milky.
(iii) The weight of cobalt, chloride paper increases,
(iv) The weight of lime water increases,
(v) The weight of candle decreases.
Conclusion/ Inference : I'rom the above observations we conclude that the difference in the weight of
candle is equal to the net weight increase in cobalt chloride paper and lime water.

Practice makes perfect

1. What is burning? Give its essential conditions.
2. Why fire extinguishes when water is poured over it?
3. What is exothermic chemical change? Give an example.
4. Give the form of energy in which energy released in a chemical change.
5. Why electrolysis considered as a chemical change?
6. Complete the given combination reactions:
(a)H, +Cly —> (b) C+O,—>
(c) Mg +0, —> (d) Fe+S—3>
 Chemical Changes and Reactions #7} ees

oo
mer eee

_,Revise Twice, Score Well

Ps PS

<2
- \)

2 Achange in which the chemical composition of a substance remains same but physical properties are
changed is known as physical change.
4 A change which leads to a change in the molecular composition of a substance along with the
possible physical change is called chemical change.
4 Characteristics of a chemical change :
¢ It is a permanent change.
> The chemical properties along with the physical properties change.
° New substances are formed.
> There is always an exchange of energy, i.e., either heat is absorbed or released.
+ This change is irreversible.
Condition for chemical change :
+ The reacting species when comes in close contact then number of collisions between them
increases which causes chemical change.
In the chemical change, bond fission of reactant and bond formation to —— new substances
causes net energy change.
In some chemical changes the released amount of energy convert into light energy. This causes
flames in combustion.
* Electricity provides electrons which get involve in chemical change for various redox reaction.
+ In gaseous reactants the reacting species comes close to each other with the help of high pressure
which causes required chemical change.
Catalyst change the rate of reaction involved in a particular chemical change but, it cannot
initiate the chemical change.
Few examples of chemical change:
* Burning of wood due to formation of new substances and release of energy.
Formation of yogurt from milk due to formation of new substance by bacterial action.
Preparation of alcohol from grapes due to formation of new substance with release of gas and
energy change.
Baking of a cake due to formation of new substance and change in colour.
¢

Rusting of iron due to the formation of new substance and change in colour.
¢

Bursting of crackers due to heat and light release along with new substances.
+

Burning of magnesium ribbon due to the formation of new products and release of heat and light
e*

energy.
Ripening of bananas due to formation of new substance.
Burning of sugar due to formation of new substance along with change in colour.
Burning of LPG gas in a stove due to formation of new substance and release of heat and light.
Digestion of food due to energy change with formation of new substance like COy.
Photosynthesis in plants due to formation of new compounds in plants.
BS Ft ICSE Chemistry-9
—_——
—
a Types of chemical changes :
In direct combination two or more compounds combine directly to form new substances,
* In decomposition reaction reactants break down to form two or more new substances.
* Indisplacement reaction an element displaces the anion of a compound to combine with its Catig,
and form a new compound.
« In double displacement reaction more reactive anion of a compound displaces the less reactiy,
anion of other compound to form a new product.
* In redox reaction a compound reduces the other compound and itself get oxidised at the sam,
time.
+ In photochemical reaction two or more substances react with each other due to the presence yy
light.
Energy change = Total energy released in product side (Q,) — Total energy absorbed in reactant sid,
(Q2)
A chemical change in which there is release of heat is called exothermic change (Q, > Q,).
Cm oO

A chemical change in which there is absorption of heat is called endothermic change (Q; < Q,).
Effect of electricity on chemicals (electrolytes) is known as electrolysis.
Electrolysis is chemical change which takes place due to the passage of electricity and decompose:
mM

the electrolyte into its constituents at the electrodes.

Burning is a chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen and form oxides along with
large amount of heat and light energy.
Conditions of burning :
+ Presence of combustible substance.
+ Presence of supporter of combustion, i.e., oxygen.
+ Heating of combustible substance up to ignition temperature.
The temperature at which combustible substance catches fire is defined as its ignition temperature.
Fire can be extinguished if we remove any one cause of burning out of the following three causes:
+ Removal of combustible substance
+ Removal of supporter of combustion, i.e., oxygen
+ Decrease the temperature of burning substance below its ignition temperature.
 |

Question 1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within brackets.
De seeceseeeeseeesereens is a process of changing a volatile liquid into vapour, (vaporisation / boiling)
ee change is one that can change the physical attributes but not the chemical attributes.
(physical / chemical)
B.A cresesvesesneeenens change is one that changes not only the physical attributes but also the chemical
attributes. (physical / chemical)
4. Anatural chemical change occurring in all the living organisms at all times is called 0... eceeeee ;
(photosynthesis / respiration)
5. Anatural chemical change occurring in green plants is called ...........::000+ .
(photosynthesis / respiration)
6. A reaction with both oxidation and reduction is known AS ......2.c..eeeeeeeeee reaction. (redox/ reduction)
7. Addition of oxygen into a compound is called ..............000000+ » (oxidation / reduction)
8. Addition of water is called ..................... reaction. (reduction / hydrolysis)
9. Breaking up of a compound due to heat is KNOWN AS eseessssseseesseeees ‘
(decomposition / thermal decomposition)
10. Decomposition of a compound due to electricity is called .........:0s.0-00+- :
(thermal decomposition / electrolytic decomposition)
11. Reaction of acid and base is called .......cccccce0c0-.-. reaction. (addition / neutralisation)
E ta t a. | 7
ee - be

Bias,
rs z FR;
foie ae < S Set ee z ;

1. Vaporisation 2. Physical 3. Chemical 4. Respiration 5. Photosynthesis 6. Redox 7. Oxidation 8. Hydrolysis

9. Thermal decomposition 10. Electrolytic decomposition 11. Neutralisation

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. A catalyst :
(a) Increases the rate of reaction (b) Decreases the rate of reaction
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
2. A permanent change :
(a) Evaporation (b) Condensation (c) Curdling of milk (d) None of these
3. Burning of candle is a :
(a) Chemical change (b) Physical change
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
4, Electrochemical reactions occur in the presence of :
(a) Sunlight (b) Electricity (c) Heat (d) None of these
5. Photochemical reactions occur in the presence of :
(a) Sunlight (b) Electricity (c) Heat (d) None of these
 vill
‘Ost
HBSS
Qi ey
6. Process by which a solid on heating changes into gaseous state directly :
(a) Evaporation (b) Sublimation (c) Condensation (d) None of those
7. Process of changing liquid into vapours state at constant temperature :
(a) Vaporisation (b) Boiling (c) Sublimation (d) None of these
8. Process of changing volatile liquid into vapour at room temperature :
(a) Vaporisation (b) Boiling (c) Sublimation (d) Evaporation
9. Process of conversion of water and carbon dioxide into carbohydrates by plants :
(a) Respiration (b) Combination (c) Photosynthesis (d) None of these
10. Reaction between acid and base is known as :
(a) Direct combination (b) Redox
(c) Neutralisation (d) None of these
11. The reaction involving both oxidation and reduction :
(a) Direct combination (b) Redox
(c) Neutralisation (d) None of these

4. | (c) | 2. | (c) | 3. | (©) | 4 | (0) 7. | (bo) | 8. | (@) | 9 | () | 10. | (

11. | (b)

Question 3. [A] Match the following reaction in column A to their names in column B :
Column A _ Column B

A |2Mg+0O, —> 2Mg0 P| Displacement reaction

B_ |Ca(OH), —> Ca0+H,0 Q | Double decomposition reaction
C |2K+H,O —> 2KOH+H, R_ | Decomposition reaction
D |NaCl+AgNO, —> NaNO, + AgCl S_ | Redox reaction
E |PbO+H, —> Pb+H,0 T | Direct combination reaction 7

[B] Match the following word equations in column A to their names in column B :
Column A Column B

A Bromine reacts with hydrogen sulphide to give} P _ | Displacement reaction

hydrogen bromide and sulphur.
B Calcium reacts with water to give calcium] Q_ | Double decomposition reaction
hydroxide and hydrogen.
C | Copper sulphate reacts with hydrogen sulphide} R_ | Decomposition reaction
to give sulphuric acid and copper sulphide.
D_ | Zinc carbonate on heating gives zinc oxide and| S_ | Redox reaction
carbon dioxide.
E | Zine and oxygen on heating gives zinc oxide. T | Direct combination reaction
 O
59 jae
Aa B-R GC2P p—Q £—=—#
plA—S, B-P, C=Q@ D-—R P—T
Question 4 : Name the following :
1. A catalyst that increases the rate of reaction.
. A reaction which absorbs heat.
we

. A reaction which generates heat.

SCantnawn we

. Addition of hydrogen in a compound

,
mem

. Chemical change in which combustible substances react with oxygen to prod

uce oxides.
. Chemical reaction going on in living organism
s when they breathe in air.
. Loss of hydrogen in a compound.
. Process by which plants make carbohydrate
s.
- Reaction in which two reactants combine to form one product.
10. The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire.
11. The reaction in which the products can react together to make reactants again.

1. Promoter; 2. Endothermic; 3. Exothermic; 4. Reduction; 5. Combustion or burning; 6. Respiration; 7. Oxidation;

8. Photosynthesis; 9. Direct combination; 10. Ignition temperature; 11. Reversible reaction.

ment-Section B
CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS
1. Explain endothermic chemical change with an example.
2. Substance obtained after a chemical change shows different chemical properties with respect to the
origina] substance. Why?
3. Define the following:
(i) Direct combination reaction (ii) Photochemical reaction
(iii) Decomposition reaction (iv) Respiration
(v) Combustible substance
4, What is the difference between respiration and burning?
5. Why weight is increased during the combustion of any substance?
6. How can the fire be extinguished?
7. Discuss the different conditions for a chemical change.
 ailli

8. Classify the following reactions into its types of chemical change:

(i) 2H, +O, —> 2H,O
(ii) 2KClIO, —> 2KC]+30,
(ii) BaCl, +H,SO, ——~> 2HCl+ BaSO,
(iv) CH, +Cl, —> CH,Cl+ HCl
(v) Zn+CuSO, —> ZnSO, +Cu
9, What is the main cause behind energy change during any chemical change?
10. What is a catalyst ? Why do we need it ?
11. How do the following factors help in bringing out a chemical change :
(i) Pressure (ii) Heat
(iii) Light (iv) Electricity

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. Why combustion is considered as exothermic chemical change?
2. Identify the chemical changes from the following changes and give reason also :
(i) Boiling of milk
(ii) Combustion of magnesium ribbon
(iii) Cutting of wooden logs
(iv) Growing of plant into a tree
3. Why oxygen is considered as supporter of combustion?
4. Strong heating of ammonium chloride gives ammonia and hydrogen chloride gas. This change is sai;
to be a physical change as well as chemical. Identify both changes as separate step in the aboy;
change.
5. Heat is liberated when water is added to concentrated sulphuric acid or calcium oxide. But dilution:
| sulphuric acid consider as a physical change while the reaction on calcium oxide involves a chemica
change. Explain.
6. When you eat something and digest it, in this process, a physical change as well as a chemical chang
takes place. Identify the changes and justify your answer.
7. There are two substances “A” and “B” starts heating at same time. Substance “A” catches fire firs
than B. Which has lower ignition temperature ?
8. Give the three properties of milk which verify curd formation from milk is chemical change.
9. Give the observation which can record during any chemical change takes place around us.
10. Explain why combustion of candle is considered as physical as well as chemical change?
11. A substance X is burned in the presence of oxygen to get a substance Y. Is this a chemical change
Justify your answer. Is there a difference in weight between X and Y ? Give reason.
 \ Practice is the Key to Success ——
Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. Justify the following as chemical change :
(i) Burning of paper
Ans, When paper if burnt then chemin! chime takes place becuse we can observe the following changes
la] Formanon of new substinces im the form of ash and gas evolution
[b] Evolution of hent

le] Evolution of light,

(ii) Baking of cookies

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Q. 2. Give reason for the following:

(i) Chemical change is considered as permanent change,
Ans. Chemical change is considered as permanent change because bond fission takes place in reactant
side to form reactive species like atom or ions which combine with each other and form another compound
known as product and these product are stable. Therefore, cannot be converted back into reactant easily
(ii) Chemical and physical properties are changed during chemical change.
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PIAS: crear co smer eae epseerncestaraw esr Sak Gee aa oS N ANG CU TNL NE db Ne eile ss kg stécai- a kegecacacncns

Q. 3. Study the following chemical equations and classify on the basis of involved chemical change:
(i) CaCO, —> Ca0+CO,
Ans. Decomposition reaction
(ii) Pb(NO, Jo + NaCl — PbCl, + NaNO,
 (ii) Fo + CuSO, > FesO, + Cu
Ans,

(iv) Cyl + Cly —Y>

Cy HCl + HG!
Ans,
(v) Hy +Cly —> 2HCl

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Q. 4, (a) Magnesium ribbon burns in the presence of oxygen with intense and extremely bright flan,
and leaves grey coloured ash.
Answer the following questions on the basis of above observation:
(i) Is it a chemical change?
Ans. Yes. itis a chemical change,
(ii) If yes, then give reason.
Ans, It is a chemical change hecause it releases heat, light and form new substance in the form of as:
(iii) Represent the above chemical change in terms of balanced chemical equation.
Ans. 2Mg +O, ——> 2Mg0

(iv) Mention the type of chemical change involved.

Ans. Direct Combination
(v) Why bright flame is observed?
Ans. Bright flame is observed because heat energy is released in the form of hight.
(b) White precipitate is formed when colourless solution of lead acetate is mixed with colourles|
solution of sodium chloride,
Answer the following questions on the basis of above observation:
(i) Is it a chemical change?

Ans.

ANS, oe 25 SSSR EIUS SU BEAENS CeO ISS GUN GU dni cco nmmroncoroe sean ymoumecomeenewseco nse

Q. 5. Define the following:

(a) Exothermic reaction
Ans. A chemical reaction which takes place with the release of heat energy is called exothermic reach
 (i) Endethermic reaction

Ans,

Gn) Burning
Ans.

Q. 6. Explain the following:

(@) Flame is extinguished when water is poured over
it,
Ane. When waveric pounwdienai a’ amu theicaarbin vaporiaes snd absorh heat from ote sia: which
duces the temperature of the combustible substance below tts ignition temperature. This tauses the
flame to be extimeuished.
(u) When burning candle is placed inside the closed
gas jar then it extinguishes.
Ans.

(iii) The gaseous product obtained from burning candle is passed through
cobalt chloride paper then it turns
pink.
Ans. BAS 6 SS Gua aerte at Sincerea eyeyensee sou dea inenantueidew eset ASC a RON CSE URNA OCAA SW WabiaUB NaN ESET LUSROANT SAR eORKOENEN KNEE

(iv) If paraffin wax is burned and the gas produced is passed through lime water then it turns milky.
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 ENJO’ CHEMISTRY
Solve the crossword puzzle and check your LQ,
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Temporary change
Substanes that alters the rate of reretion
. A renction whieh) absorbs heat,
A resetion in which electrical energy is absorbed.
A natural chemical reaction occurring in green plants,
Down
Substance that enhances the working of a catalyst.
Permanent change,
A reaction that liberates heat,
A reaction that occurs in the presence of light
A natural chemical reaction occurring in all living organisms.
Process of changing a hquid into vapours,

APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
18 Minutes — Genus
20 Minutes — Very good
26 Minutes -- Good
 Chemical Changes and Reactions
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Word Search Puzzle

Find the following words in Kiven grid and improve your familiarity with terma involve in
this chapter:
Physical change, Chemical change, Vaporisation, Evaporation, Decomposition, Displacement,
Reversible, Neutralisation, Hydrolysis, Oxidation, Reduction, Irreversible, Exothermic, Endothermic,
Electrochemical, Respiration, Catalyst. @
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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken 1Q Level
10 Minutes — Genius
15 Minutes —- Very good
20 Minutes — Good
000
 =
es

Scope of Syllabus WATER

3.1
Water
(i) Water as a universal solvent “Water is life”
Solutions as ‘mixtures’ of solids in water, saturated Without water, we cannot imagine life. It,
solutions.
Qualitative effect of temperature on solubility (e.g.,
extended over 70% of Earth’s surface in the form,
solutions of calcium sulphate, potassium nitrate and sea water, rivers, lakes, ice, ground water e
sodium chloride in water). ponds. 97% of the total water available on ear,
(ii) Hydrated and anhydrous substances. surface is salt water and stored in the oceans. Or
(a) Hydrated substances :
3% freshwater is suitable for drinking but 68%,
Water of crystallisation — meaning and examples
total freshwater is locked up in the icecaps:
(b) Anhydrous substances :
Meaning and examples only Antarctica and Greenland, 30% is in the ground, a
(c) Properties : only 0.3% is contained in surface waters such ;
© Efflorescence lakes and rivers. Above one billion people lack act
® Deliquescence to safe drinking water worldwide.
® Hygroscopy
® Removal of hardness WATER@CYCLE
(i) By boiling
(ii) By addition of washing soda
(Definition and examples of each of the above)
(iii) Drying and dehydrating agents
Meaning and examples only
(iv) Soft water and hard water
® Meaning (in terms of action of soap)
® Types and causes of hardness
® Advantages and disadvantages of soft water and
hard water
Fig, 3,1 Water cycle
 Water is thea only substance that exists
arth in|
naturally on [arth al | three physical states of matter—gas,
; + Water from surface get vaporiseg
liquid, and solid and regularly
. 4
changes its state to maintain wee
o
ona
¥
ait
‘ 4 ‘ “4d INsBe ler certain conditions and results
into vapours and collect in the form of cloud then clouds are conde
as rainfall. ; ar e human body
body is contained insid e
In our body about 70% of body mass is water. Most of the water in t
our cells. In fact, our billions of cells must have water to live.
Molecular formula: H,O
Gram molecular weight : 2x1+16=18 gm
: Structure : a or V-shape
Lewis structure
~0 a

8* | ef °
~104.5°
ie

~ ~0.28 nm
Fig. 3.3 Bent shape of water
Fig. 3.2 Lewis structure of water

Water molecules have two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom with molecular formula H,0.
This structure is responsible for unique properties of water. The bond between each hydrogen atom and the
oxygen atom results from a pair of electrons shared between the two atoms.
Water shows unique physical and chemical properties which plays very important role in our life.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Colour : Colourless
Odour : Odourless
Taste : Tasteless
Density : 1 gm/em®
Boiling point : Pure water boils at 100°C. But, drinking water boils below 100°C because of the
dissolved salts as they act as impurities.
Melting point : Melting point of ice is 0°C.
Action on litmus : Water is neutral to litmus that is red litmus remains red and blue litmus remains
blue.

3.2 WATER AS UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

Water acts as a universal solvent because it can dissolve various organic and inorganic compounds
due to its unique properties like its polar nature and high dielectric constant.

Polar Nature
In water, the electrons in the shared pair are not shared equally between }
the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atom has a high electronegativity ae % 5
with respect to hydrogen atom, and the electrons in the O—H bond are more
f - . Fig. 3.4 te
attracted to oxygen. The unequal sharing in the O—H bond results in oxygen me B46. Polar nein cheer
 Chemistry-9

acquiring a partial negative charge (—8) and hydrogen a partial positive charge (+6). The H—O—H bon
angle in water is 104.5, which means that the molecule has a bent shape. This bent geometry anq th,
accumulation of electrons on the oxygen side of the molecule cause the water molecule to have a negatiy,
charge on the oxygen atom, and a positive charge on the hydrogen atom. Molecules with negative charg,
and positive charge are called polar molecules. Water molecules are polar molecules.

Dielectric constant

The dielectric constant of a solvent is measure of its capacity to ionise a solute. The dielectric constant y
water at 20°C is 80.1 due to its high polar nature.

3.3 SOLUTION
A homogeneous mixture of two or more than two substances is known as solution.
If two or more chemically inert substances on mixing form a homogeneous mixture, then a mixturej
known as solution. Every solution contains a solvent and one or more solutes. A solvent is that componen,
of the solution which is present in larger amount than the other component, J.e., solute.

Aqueous Solution
The solution, in which water is the solvent, is called aqueous solution and the solution, j;
which water is not the solvent, is called non-aqueous solution. The solvents in the non-aqueous solution:
can be benzene, toluene, ether, carbon tetrachloride, alcohols, etc.
Solvent : The substance which can accommodate another substance between its inter-moleculz
spaces.
Solute : The substance which is accommodated in inter-molecular spaces of solvent.
For example : solution of water and sugar, solution of water and salt, solution of water and alcohol, etc.
Characteristics of Solution

Q Solute particles are very small.

QO It is a homogeneous.
Q Its particles are not visible through naked eyes.
QO It is clear and transparent.
2 Its particles filter rapidly through filter paper and parchment paper therefore, cannot be separated.
Type of saturation : On the basis of dissolved amount of solute, solution is classified as follows:
Q Saturated solution : A solution which cannot dissolve any more solute in its solvent is called?
saturated solution.
In saturated solution inter-particle spaces of the solvent are fully accommodated by solute particles.
Therefore, we cannot dissolve more quantity of solute. Inter-particle spaces depend on temperaturt.
therefore, if we increase the temperature then inter-particle spaces also increase means we Ca!
dissolve more solute. Similarly, if we decrease the temperature then inter-particle spaces decreasé)
and the solute particles which are accommodated are separated out as crystals. Overall, saturatio"
of solution is temperature dependent. |
Q Unsaturated solution : A solution in which more solute can be dissolved in the solvent is called
unsaturated solution. _
In unsaturated solution, the inter-particle spaces are not fully accommodated by the solute particles
 Therefore, we can dissolve more solute in the solvent. As the temperature of a saturate
increased, its inter-par
d stlutior. yz
ticle spaces increases and it becomes an unsaturated solution.
4 Supersaturated Solution : Supersaturated solution is a solution which contains more af the
dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal conditions of tern perature and
pressure. This state can easily be found by increase in temperature of a solution. We already knom
that inter-molecular spaces of solvent are based on temperature. These spaces can increase by
increase in temperature. It means at high temperature more inter-molecular spaces means racy
solute molecules can dissolve.
In order to understand the concept of satu
rated and
unsaturated solutions, let us perform
a practical.
1. Take half a spatula of NaC] (solu
te) and dissolve
it ina test tube half filled with wate
r (solvent).
What will you observe? You will obse
rve that the
solute dissolve in a solvent. This type of solution
is known as an unsaturated solution.
Hence, unsaturated solution is a type of (a) (>)
solution in which solute can be easily dissolved. (4
Fig. 3.5 (a) Unsaturated solution more solute cisscives
2. Now, add some more amount of solute in it. Keep (2) Saturated sonar ce More See
on adding till it stops dissolving. This type of (c) Supersaturated solution becomes unstable, crystals form
solution thus obtained is known as saturated solution. Hence, saturated solution is a type af
solution in which no more solute is added in a given amount of solvent.

Can you guess what will happen when you heat saturated solution? Just rememb
er how your mother
makes sugar solution in kitchen while making “Halwa”
.
3. Supersaturated solution is a type of solution which contains more of the dissolved maternal thar.
could be dissolved by the solvent under normal conditions of temperature and preseure
Crystallisation of solute can be achieved when you cool the supersaturated solution.

Dilute solution is a type of solution which can be prepared in lab by adding solvent to the solute. It is.
typeof sollutiow
in which the amount of solvent is very high as compared to amount of solute.
Concentrated solution is a type of solution in which the amount of solvent is almost negligible as compared to the
amount of solvent.
Allthe acids which we buy for the lab are in concentrated form and we dilute it in the lab while adding solvent to it.

3.4 QUALITATIVE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON SOLUBILITY

We know that solubility of any salt is directly proportional to temperature of solution but this effect ix
not uniform in case of various salts. This is due to different nature of constituent ions of salt with solvecz
water. When salt dissolve in water then partially positive part of water attracts negative part of the salt
and partially negatively charged oxygen side attracts the positive part of salt. These forces play
the
important role to separate ions of the salt. Each salt have unique inter-ionic forces. Therefore. the sotuiiliry
of each salt is different in similar solvent, like water at different temperature.
We can understand this behaviour of different salt with the help of solubility curves of few salts
The amount of solute that dissolves in 100 g of solvent to form a saturated solution at 2 particular
temperature is called solubility.
we 70 ide Gaetan

A solubility curve is a grapbical representation between the solubility of a solute in

a solvent again,
the temperature.
Solubility of KNO, In Water
in cold Way,
On the basis of solubility curve in Fig. 3.6 we can say that potassium nitrate Jess soluble
but it is highly soluble in hot or boiling water, In the graph, y-axis shows the solubility in grams (gms) De,
100 mL (gm/100 mL) of water and x-axis shows the temperature in celsius. From the graph, we Can fi,
nitrate is 13 gm/100
that at 0°C the solubility of potassium mL which gradually increases with rige i
temperature and reaches 240 gm/ 100 mL at 100°C.
Potassium nitrate KNO,

200 ye
150
100 =
50
——
T T T T T T T T T T T
0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 60°C 70°C 80°C 90°C 100°C

Fig. 3.6 Solubility curve of potassium nitrate

Solubility of NaCl in Water

On the basis of solubility curve in Fig. 3.7 we can say that sodium chloride is soluble in cold water but it
solubility does not change highly with the increase in temperature like potassium nitrate. This can be see,
in the following graph where y-axis shows the solubility in grams (gms) per 100 mL (gm/100 mL) of wate:
and x-axis shows the temperature in celsius. From the graph, we can find that at 0°C the solubility
sodium chloride is 35.65 gm/100 mL which gradually increases with rise in temperature and reache:
38.99 gm/100 mL at 100°C.
Sodium chloride NaCl

36.5
36 a

35 = T T T T T T T T T T
0°C 10°C 20°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 60°C 70°C 80°C 90°C 100°C

Fig. 3.7 Solubility curve of sodium chloride

 1
Solubility of CaSO , in Water

ee
On the basis of solubility curve in lig. 3.8 we can say that solubility of calerum sulphate shows entirely
different behaviour with respect to other salts, On the basis of graph we can observe initially the solubility
in crease with temperature but above 40°C it decreases gradually.
From the graph, belies a ied =
o°C the solubility of calcium sulphate is 0.223 gm/100 mL which gradually increases with nse in
temperature and reaches 0.265 gm/ 100 mL at 40°C and after this it starts decreasing and at 100°C ut is
0.205 gm/100mL. This observation can be explained on the basis of interaction of hydrated calcium
sulphate with water which is an exothermic process. Exothermic change 1s opposed by high temperature.

Calcium sulphate CaSO, * 2H,0

0.27
0.26
Pa &
te A ~~
0.23 ri ™

ag. | \
0.21 \
»
0.2 T T T T
orc =610°C «= 20°C = 30°C 40°C OPC. 80°C: 100°C

Fig. 3.8 Solubility curve of calcium sulphate

Practice makes perfect

1. What is the shape of water molecule?
2. What is the effect of water on litmus?
3. Define the following:
| (i) Solution (ii) Solvent
| (ii) Solute (iv) Saturated solution
(v) Unsaturated solution (vi) Supersaturated solution
i 4, What happens when we increase the temperature of a saturated solution?
5. Discuss the effect of temperature on the solubility of potassium nitrate in water.

3.5 HYDRATED AND ANHYDROUS SUBSTANCES

Water is also found in nature in the combined state with some substances. These substances are known
as hydrated substances which on heating or some other method we can remove these water molecules. The
appearance of remaining substances is now different and substances are known as anhydrous substances.
Each hydrated substance combine with certain number of water molecules.
Water of crystallisation : Some water soluble salts crystallise from aqueous solution in the hydrated
State, i.e, they contain some water molecules in their crystal. These chemically combined
water molecules
are termed together as water of crystallisation.
 For example -
Glauber's salt (sodium sulphate deeahydrate, Na SO, -LOH,O)
Washing soda (sodium carbonate decahydrate, Na CO, -10H,O)
Borax (soduim tetraborate decahydrate, Na »B,O,; 10H,0)
Epsom salt (Magnesium sulphate heptahydrate, MgSO, «7H,O)

Anhydrous Substances
Anhydrous means ‘without water’. Hydrated salts when exposed to dry atmosphere or hig,
temperature then chemically combined water molecules are removed. The remaining substance is know,
as anhydrous substance. The physical appearance of an anhydrous salt is normally different with respect t,
hydrated salt. We use (anh.) in short to represent an anhydrous salt.
Hydrated salt + Heat or dehydrating agent ———> Anhydrous salt
For example,
CuSO, -5H,0 + Heat —> CuSO,+5H,O
Blue White

CuSO, -5H,0 + H.SO, —->CuSO,+5H,O

Blue Cone. White

Conc. sulphuric acid acts as dehydrating agent in the above equation.

Properties of Hydrated and Anhydrous Substances

Efflorescence : Some salts, when exposed to the atmosphere, lose their water of crystallisation. Thi
phenomenon is known as efflorescence and the substances which exhibit this property are known
efflorescent substances.
For example:
4 Sodium sulphate (Na SO, -10H,O)
+ Sodium carbonate (Na,CO, -10H,O)
On exposure to the dry atmosphere,
Na,CO; -10H,0 —> Na,CO,-H,0+9H.O
Deliquescence : Some water soluble salts, when exposed to the atmosphere, absorb moisture from ait
and finally form a saturated solution. This phenomenon is called deliquescence and the substances which
exhibit this property are called deliquescent substances.
For example :
Calcium chloride (CaCl, ) Calcium nitrate [Ca(NO3).]
Copper nitrate [Cu(NO,).] Iron chloride (FeCl, )
Magnesium chloride (MgCl, ) Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sodium nitrate (NaNO,) Zine chloride (ZnCl, )
Zinc nitrate [Zn(NO3;),]
Hygroscopic substances : Some substances absorb physically combined moisture from othe!
substances. These substances are called hygroscopic substances. These are generally used as drying agents
For example:
Calcium chloride (CaCl,) Calcium oxide (CaO)
Ethanol (C,.H;0OH) Phosphorus pentoxide (P,0; )
 Silica gel (H»Si,0, -xH 0)
Sulphuric acid (H,8O,)
Drying or desiccating agent : Certain substances
remove moisture from other substances is called
arcing agents or desiccating agents.
For example:
Phosphorus pentoxide (P,0,)
Calcium chloride (CaCl, )
Calcium oxide (CaO)
But, these Sulphuric acid (H280,)
While choossubst
ing aances
dryingremo ve moist
agent ure which is physically combined.
to dry the substance through direct physical contact then
certain points
must be remember :
3 The drying agent and the substance
3 A basic drying agent should be used toto bedrydried shoulsubs
d not
a basic tancreact
e andwithan each
acidicother.
drying agent should be
used to dry acidic substance.
For example:
3 Ammonia dried through calcium
oxide but not over phosphorus pent
anhydrous calcium chloride. oxide, conc. sulphuric acid or
3 Hydrogen chloride gas is passed through conc. sulphuric acid but not over calcium oxide or any other
basic drying agent.
Dehydrating agents : Certain substances remove chemically combined water molecules from
different compounds are called dehydrating agents.
For example : Conc. sulphuric acid (H,SO,)
All dehydrating agents are drying agents but all the drying agents are not dehydrating agents.
Table 3.1 : Difference between drying and dehydrating agent
—
Drying agent Dehydrating agent
Remove moisture from other substances. Remove chemically hydrogen and water in the form of
{ water.

Used to dry gases like chlorine, sulphur dioxide, etc. Also| Used to prepare substances like carbon monoxide, charcoal,
used in desiccators.
etc.

Physical change Chemical change

Example: Example:
Phosphorus pentoxide (P,0, ) Cone. sulphuric acid (H,SO, )
| Calcium chloride (CaCl, )
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Conc. sulphuric acid (H,SO, )

3.6 SOFT AND HARD WATER

We know that water is a good solvent means it can dissolve different substances from its surroundings.
Therefore, various reservoir of water contains various impurities. The divalent ionic impurities in water
are responsible for their behaviour with soap or detergent. On the basis of this behaviour we can divide
water in two types.
ae
i ?
ey 1] ICSE Chemistry-9

(i) SoM water: The water which produces lather with sonp or detergent easily. It is basically wate, fre,
with divalent ions, For example salts of calcium, magnesium, ete.
(i) Hard water: The water which does not lathers with soup or detergent easily. This water Contaj,
hy
high concentration of dissolved salts of calcium, magnesium, ete. ‘The hardness of water is of two types.
+ Temporary hardness
J Permanent hardness

Removal of Temporary Hardness

Boiling : During boiling, the soluble Mp(HCO,), is converted into insoluble Mg(OH), and Ca(HCg. i
is changed to insoluble CaCO,. These precipitates can be removed by filtration. Filtrate thus obtainedy,wil
be soft water.

Me(HCO,), —“““*y Mg(OH), 1 +2C0, 7

Ca(HCO;). “5 Caco, 1 +H,0+CO, T
Removal of Permanent Hardness

Treatment with washing soda (sodium carbonate) : Washing soda reacts with soluble calcium an,
magnesium chlorides and sulphates in hard water to form insoluble carbonates.
MCI, +Na.CO, —>+ MCO, +2NaCl (M = Mg, Ca)
MSO, +Na,CO, —> MCO,++Na,SO,
\dvantages of Soft Water
4 Itis easy to wash off the soap using soft water.
4 Soft water reduces the danger of skin disease.
4 Clothes rinsed in soft water have a longer shelf life than clothes washed in hard water.
3 The crockery and utensils retain their original colour when washed off by soft water and the dirt als,
washes off quickly.

Disadvantages of Soft Water

Due to the lack of beneficial salts and minerals, it causes serious heart ailments and coronary diseases.

Advantages of Hard Water

According to a study of the National Academy of Sciences drinking hard water is good for health, as it
supplements the necessary amounts of minerals like calcium and magnesium.

Disadvantages of Hard Water

4 Hard water makes the top surface of the skin dry and rough.
Q The clothes lose their shine as the minerals in hard water combine with dirt in clothes to form an
insoluble soil.
Q Washing hair with hard water means that your tresses will eventually attain a natural reddish tinge.
a) The electricity consumption increases on heating hard water due to lime scale.
4 The main disadvantage of hard water is it deposits calcium carbonate on pipes, especially hot water
pipes. This is called “scale formation”. It may cause blockage of pipes and reduce boiler efficiency.
Activity Based on Hard
and Soft Water
1. Take a watch glass and put some tap water over it. Strongly heat the watch
glass over the flame in
lab till all the water molecules
evaporate,
9. Repeat the same procedure with distilled water/RO water available in your lab.
3. Record your observations.
4. You will observe that concentric rings will
be formed with hard water. No rings will be
visible with
soft water.
5. The ring formation in while boiling hard water is due to the presence of dissolved salts in it.

Hardness of water is due to the presence of bicarbonates, chlorides or sulphates of calcium or magnesium,

Testing with Soap Solution

Soaps are the salts ofa long chain of fatty acids. Detection of hard and soft water can also be
done with soap solution.
1. Take two conical flasks as shown below in a Fig. 3.9. As hard water in one flask
and soft water in
another.
2. Add a few drops of equal amount of soap solution in both the flasks.
3. You will observe that a curdy white less dense precipitat
es called scum are formed in hard water
and foam is formed in soft water.
4. Scum formation is hard water due to the presence of salt, while no salt is present in soft water.

Hard water Soft water

Fig. 3.9 Results for test on hard and soft water

Hence hard water is water which contains dissolved salts, and which will not produce lather with soap solution. Soft
water is water free from salt and will produce lather with soap solution.

Can you tell us what will happen when you use detergent instead of soap with the sample of hard and
soft water?
 mg "
ma see | a,

Practice makes perfect

1. Classify the following as efflorescent, hygroscopic, deliquescent or drying and dehydrating agent.
(i) Sodium sulphate (Na.SO, -10H,O)
(ii) Copper nitrate [(Cu(NOs;)o]
Gii) Iron chloride (FeCl,)
(iv) Phosphorus pentoxide (P,0;)
(v) Calcium oxide (CaO)
(vi) Conc. sulphuric acid (H,SO,)
- How soft water is useful for us?
& bh

- What type of hardness is found in water? How can we remove it?

oe,

- Give the difference between dehydrating and drying agent.

- What do you understand by water of crystallisation? Explain with the help of example.
ae
 lin HT

———
ue
» Revise Twice, Score Well ae —
J Water is a colourless, odourloss and tasteless compound,
U Its molecular formula ig HO and molecular weight 18 gm,
U Its molecule is in bent or V-shape and it contains two hydrogen and one oxygen atoms.
UW Pure
water boils at 100°C and freozes at OPC. But,
drinking water boils below 100°C because of
the
dissolved salts as they act As impurities.
J Water is neutral to litmus that is red litmus remains red and blue litmus remains blue.
Q Water acts as a universal solvent due to its unique properties like its polar nature and high dielectric
constant.

4 Water is a polar compound because highly electronegative oxygen is directly bonded with less
electronegative hydrogen,
The dielectric constant of water at 20°C is 80.1 due to its high polar nature.
& &
Ooo

A homogeneous mixture of two or more than two substances is known as solution.

The solution, in which water is the solvent, is called aqueous solution.
The substance which can accommodate another substance between its inter-molecular spaces is
called solvent.
The substance which is accommodated in inter
-molecular spaces of solvent is called solute.
O

Characteristics of solution :
O

* Solute particles are very small.

It is a homogeneous,
4

Its particles are not visible through naked eyes.

¢

It is clear and transparent.

+¢

Its particles filter rapidly through filter paper and parchment paper therefore, cannot be
¢

separated,
Q A solution which cannot dissolve any more solute in its solvent is called a saturated solution.
Saturation of solution is temperature dependent.
4 A solution in which more solute can be dissolved in the solvent is called unsaturated solution.
4 Supersaturated solution is a solution which contains more of the dissolved material than could be
dissolved by the solvent under normal conditions of temperature and pressure.
4 Solubility of any salt is directly proportional to temperature of solution but this effect is not uniform
in case of various salts.
Q The solubility of potassium nitrate and sodium chloride gradually increases with rise in
temperature.
Q The solubility of calcium sulphate gradually increases with rise in temperature and reaches its
maximum at 40°C and after this it starts decreasing and is found to be minimum at 100°C. This is
due to exothermic process of solution formation. Exothermic change is opposed by high temperature.
4 The chemically combined water molecules with another compound are termed together as water of
crystallisation. For example: Glauber’s salt (Na,SO,-10H,O), Washing soda (Na,CO, -10H,0),
Borax (Na,B,0, -10H,O), Epsom salt (MgSO, -7H,0).
= The substance lett when hydeated salts
are exposed to dry atmosphere or high
remove chemically combined water molecules is temperature ig!
known as anhydrous substance. For example,
CuSO, -5H,0 4 Heat —— CuSO ,+5H,O
ue White

Some salts, when exposed to the almosphure,

lose their water of crystallisation. This phenomenon is
known as efflorescence and the substances which exhibit
this property are known as effloresce,,
substances. For example: Sodium sulphate(Na,SO,
-10H,O), Sodium carbonate(Na,CO, -10H,0)
Some water soluble salts, when exposed to
the atmosphere, absorb moisture from air and final),
form a saturated solution. This phenome non is called Deliquescence
and the substances whiect
exhibit this property are called Deli quescent substances.
For example: Calcium chloride CaCl,
Calcium nitrate [Ca(NO,),], ete.
Some substances absorb physically combined moisture from other substances. These substances
ay,
called hygroscopic substances. These are generally used as drying agents. For
example: Calciuy
chloride (CaCl, ).
The substances which remove moisture from other substances is called drying agents or desiccating
agents. For example: Phosphorus pentoxide (P,O;), Calcium chloride(CaCl, ), Calcium oxide (CaO),
The substances which remove chemically combined water molecules from different compounds ar;
called dehydrating agents. For example: Conc. sulphuric acid (H,SO ,).
All dehydrating agents are drying agents but all the drying agents are not dehydrating agents.
The water which produces lather with soap or detergent easily is called soft water.
The water which does not lathers with soap or detergent easily is called hard water.
The hardness of water can be temporary or permanent.
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling.
Permanent hardness can be removed by treating with washing soda (sodium carbonate)
Advantages of soft water:
* It is easy to wash off the soap using soft water.
% Soft water reduces the danger of skin disease.
¢ Clothes rinsed in soft water have a longer shelf life than clothes washed in hard water.
% The crockery and utensils retain their original colour when washed off by soft water and the dit!
also washes off quickly. |
Soft water lacks beneficial salts and minerals, and causes serious heart ailments and coronal!
diseases.
Drinking hard water is good for health, as it supplements the necessary amounts of minerals like
calcium and magnesium. |

Disadvantages of hard water :

* Hard water makes the top surface of the skin dry and rough.
* Theclothes lose their shine as the minerals in hard water combine with dirt in clothes to form 4!
insoluble salt. . 7
Washing hair with hard water means that your tresses will eventually attain a natural reddis
tinge. .
The electricity consumption increases on heating hard water due to lime scale.
It deposits calcium carbonate on pipes, especially hot water pipes. This is called “scale formation A
may cause blockage of pipes and reduce boiler efficiency. wel
 Question 1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within bracnats.
1. IS gmisthe...,, sPheareiRedbsics of wate (gram molecular weight / gram atomic weight)
r.
., Pure water is ssccsccccicccc to litmus (acidic / nenstral)
$.. Water iS sccsccciscis, solvent (nelec / univer
ted sal)
$2 Water GF ssiicssiccc. pecenes are the water molecules chemically combined with the molecules A the
compounds. (crystallisation / cryatala)
5. Water molecule is a .....00.0000..... molecule. ipolar/'ngn-polar)
6. Blue litmus paper turns into ......cccccccecceces colour due to water. (red / blue)
7. Drinking water boils ........0. cc. 100°C, (abovel below)
a solute.
(combine / ionize)
®. were salts have water molecules in them. (hydrated / anhydrous)
40. spcsertiecnsies salts lose their water of crystallisation when exposed to atmosphere.
(deliquescent / efflorescent)

Lag Answers
1. Gram molecular weight 2. Neutral 3. Universal 4. Crystallisation 5. Polar 6. Blue 7. Below 8. lonise 9. Hydrated
10. Efflorescent.

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. Action of pure water on litmus :
(a) Acidic (b) Basic (c) Neutral (d) None of these
2. Amount of water present in the human body :
(a) 80% (b) 70% (c) 50% (d) 90%
3. A solution which cannot accommodate more solute at a particular temperature :
(a) Super saturated (b) Unsaturated (c) Saturated (d) None of these
4. Chemically combined water molecules in a given compound :
(a) Water (b) Water of crystallisation
(c) Crystals (d) None of these
5. Dielectric constant of water at 20°C :
(a) 80.1 (b) 80.5 (c) 10.8 (d) 50.8
6. Drinking water boils :
(a) At 100°C (b) Greater than 100°C
(c) Less than 100°C (d) None of these
7. Shape of the water molecule :
(a) Linear (b) Bent (c) Tetrahedral (d) Octahedral
8. Salts which absorb moisture from the atmosphere and form a saturated solution :
(a) Efflorescent (b) Deliquescent (c) Hygroscopic (d) Nonev6f these
il
ae
9. Substance which absorb the chemically combined water from the substance :
(a) Dehydrating agent (b) Drying agent
(c) EMorescent (d) None of these
10. Salts which do not have water molecules in them :
(a) Deliquescent (b) Hydrated (c) Anhydrous (d) None of these
11. Water is also known as :
(a) Universal solute (b) Universal solvent
(c) Universal solution (d) None of these

Seen (c) [eee (b) [Gis] (c) |e (b) 7. | (b) | 8. | (b) | 9% | (a) | 10. |
11. | (b)

Question 3. Match the following reactants given in column A which on reaction with water gives the Produc,
in column B:
a>
Column A Column B
; —|
A_ | Water molecules in a salt P| Drying agent
B_ | No water molecules in a salt Q_ | Dehydrating agent
C |Substance that remove physically combined| R_ | Anhydrous salt
water molecules
D |Substance that remove chemically combined] S_ | Dessicating agent
water molecules
EE | Other name of drying agent T | Hydrated salt

te
[A] A—T, B—R, C—P, D—Q, E—S
Question 4 : Name the following :
1. A solution with water as a solvent.
2. Chemically combined water molecules in a compound.
3. Colour of aqueous copper sulphate.
4. Gram molecular weight of water.
5. Nature of a water molecule.
6. Shape of water molecule.
7. Substance which absorb the physically combined water from the other substances.
8. Substance which lose their water of crystallisation when exposed to the atmosphere.
9. Substance which remove the chemically combined water molecules from the substances.
10. Substance which remove the water from the other substances.
11. The reason for the different solubility of different salts.
|
ag Answers —)

1. Aqueous; 2. Water of crystallisation; 3. Blue; 4. 18 gm; 5. Polar; 6. Bent or V-shape; 7. Hygroscopic substance,
8. Efflorescence; 9. Dehydrating agent; 10. Drying agent; 11. Inter-ionic forces.
 Assignment-SectionB
CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS
1. Define the following:
(i) Soft water (ii) Hard water
2. Give the advantages and disadvantages of hard water.
3. Define the following with examples:
(i) Hygroscopie substance (ii) Efflorescence
(iii) Deliquescence
4, Why water is considered essential for life?
5. Draw the electron dot structure of water molecule.
6. What is the value of dielectric constant of water at 20°C?
7, What is the difference between aqueous and non-aqueous solution?
8. What happens when we cool the supersaturated solution to room temperature?
9. Discuss the solubility of calcium sulphate in water with respect of water.
10. Why solutions are considered as mixture but sometimes energy is released during the formation of
solution?
11. What is the difference between hygroscopic and deliquescent substances?

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. Boiling point of water is 100°C but drinking water boils below 100°C. Why?
2, White coloured anhydrous copper sulphate becomes bluish when exposed to water vapour. Why?
3. The white coloured compound A is exposed to dry atmosphere then it loses partial water of
crystallisation. Name the nature of substance A.
. Why water is considered as universal solvent?
. Why water molecule is polar?
oo

. Solutions are transparent. Why?

. Give reasons for the following:
a

(i) Why sugar particles are not visible in sugar solution?

(ii) Each sip of sugar solution gives the same sweetness. Why?
8. Why hard water is better than soft water for drinking purpose?
9. How can you get anhydrous copper sulphate from hydrated copper sulphate?
10. Why calcium sulphate does not show the same effect on the rise of temperature as potassium nitrate?
11. What happens when we increase the temperature of the aqueous solution of sodium chloride?
 8)

wey Practice is the Key to Success ic

Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. Define the following :
(i) Polar nature of water
Ans. Water molecule contains hydrogen-oxygen polar bond in which oxygen is more electronegative th,
hydrogen. Therefore, shared pair of electron is shifted Lowards oxygen atom, Consequently, oxygen at,
gains partial negative charge and hydrogen atom gains partial negative charge.
(ii) Dielectric constant
BIS. cecessersenenresecsentonesaecnenneonentvsseensonenesovennsseedencenaucrseenanentussnsstssenenieentenseoevunonsasvanenceseneessasonassnnonsasseeeettenteans

AMIS: ssiiesiccwwarenssseunses secs esc eae ei AUNTS EES SU UE RSUNN INGEST BS 0 ASE ESSERE GLUE A GN NEN EC RRESS ORSTUER CAND A OSS OROR EIT OREN TERIA Dae

eeeeseanls
a bees e eee seceseressseseeseeeseesseseese erases eeereeeeserreRrnseree ees erneececsesessesesesecssoveraressersnessesssesssssaascsacesesesorssrneseresersser

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Q. 2. Give reason for the following:

(i) Pure water is tasteless and odourless.
Ans. Pure water is tasteless because it is free from ions or minerals. It is odourless due to the absence:
organic impurities.
(ii) Water has high dielectric constant.

nennenneennssos
ATS. ccccccscccsscsssecesessecesucecnsesnucesvecsuessnveesusessacsscsncesnsccnnsssiessiccnscessssenesnessnesssersneqnceanersessaceacansca
 Q. 8. Explain the following;
(i) Crystals of sodium decahydrate convert into white powder on exposure bo the dry atmosphere.
Ans. Due to eMorescence, crystals of sodium deenhydrate eanvert into while powder an exposure to the

dry atmosphere
(ii) Ammonia gas is dried by calcium oxide but not by phosphorus pontaoxide.
hai tiie

Ams. oe eink eUBESUAREANONREHRRCUNTS

ae

VAG, cconscsonssusesveseananaesassiesveeeie
05a bir cide POpRSLOA SS ESiind Sa ema Lua Te Rav aReN SRoRRRAERON EEE PRtneRNTeRpennnense®

PRTG, ssaesasiskcntestensnnncenonenonnenamynvexennempunenvenaanmeen
anennavevenntencansnorsreemenkann s¥esbhS OER AS ROULETTE ACCT UBT

Q. 4. Give two main differences between the following pairs:

(i) Hard water and soft water
Ans.

S.No. Hard water Soft ware

1. | Does not produces lather with soap and] Produces lather with soap and detergent.
detergent.
2. | Presence of divalent ions. Absence of divalent ions.

(i) Permanent hardness and temporary hardness

Ans.

S.No. Permanent hardness Temporary hardness

iv

2:

(iii) Drying agent and dehydrating agent

Ans.

S.No. Drying agent Dehydrating agent

1,
2.
 (iv) Deliquescent nature and hygroscopic nature
Ans.
S.No. Deliquescent nature Hygroscopic nature

1m
2.

(v) Hydrated salts and anhydrous salts

Ans.
S.No. Hydrated salts Anhydrous salts

i.
2<<.

(vi) Saturated solution and unsaturated solution

Ans.
S.No. Saturated solution Unsaturated solution

1:
2.

(vii) Solute and solvent

Ans.

S.No. Solute Solvent

1.
2.

Q. 5. Classify the following substances as efflorescent and deliquescent:

Sodium sulphate decahydrate, Sodium carbonate decahydrate, Copper nitrate, Sodium hydroxide, Ferri
chloride, Zinc nitrate.
Ans. (i) Zinc nitrate Deliquescent salt
(ii) Sodium carbonate decahydrate
(iii) Copper nitrate
(iv) Sodium hydroxide
(v) Ferric chloride
(vi) Sodium sulphate decahydrate
Q. 6. “Solubility of salt in water is a on i teperiare” Give itis, effect of temperature
solubility of following salts:
(i) Sodium chloride
Ans. Sodium chloride is very much soluble in cold water on increasing its temperature the s
gradually increases gradually.
(ii) Potassium nitrate
AWA). seca.
 ENJOY CHEMISTRY
Solve the crossword puzzle and check your 1.Q.
Water

3 2 5 ld

0 10

Across
1. Compound present in all the three forms in nature.
2. Shape of the water molecule.
4. Colour of water.
6. Solution with water not as a solvent.
8. Saturated solution which can accommodate more solute at high temperature.
Down
2. Colour of hydrated copper sulphate.
3. Nature of water molecule.
5. Constant for the capacity of solvent to ionise a solute.
7. Solution which can accommodate more solute.
9. Substances which lose their water of crystallisation when exposed to air.
10. Substances which remove moisture from the other substance.
APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
15 Minutes — Genius
20 Minutes — Very good
25 Minutes — Good
 Word Search Puzzle
words in given grid and improve your familiarity with terms NVOLLe |
Find the following f

this chapter: | ™
Aqueous, EMorescence, Deliquescence, Hygroscopie, Water ofcryatallaation, Water, Universa Solver,
Non-polar, Polar, Anhydrous
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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
10 Minutes _ Genius
15 Minutes —— Very good
20 Minutes -- Good
000
 wWiinl
ATOMIC STRUCTURE
AND CHEMICAL BONDING
Each and every substance is made by very tiny
| Scope of Syllabus particles called atoms. These atoms are actually
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding building blocks of each and every thing found in
(i) Structure of an atom, mass number and atomic this universe. The wood used in chair is made by
number, isotopes and octet nule. small atoms like carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The
* Definition of an atom.
* Constituents of an atom — nucleus (protons, neutrons) chalk is made by combination of atoms of calcium,
with associated electrons, mass number, atomic carbon and oxygen in a certain ratio in the
number. compound calcium carbonate. The water which we
+ Electron distribution in the orbits - 2n* rule, octet drink various times in a day is made by hydrogen
rule, reason for chemical activity of an atom.
and oxygen.
* Definition and examples of isotopes (hydrogen,
carbon, chlorine). The detail physical, chemical and nuclear
(ii) Electrovalent and covalent bonding, structures of properties of a substance are based on chemical]
various compounds -— orbit structure. bonding between atoms of constituent elements.
(a) Electrovalent bond :
But properties of that element are based on
¢ Definition
* Atomic orbit structure for the formation of atomic structure of an atom of that element. The
electrovalent compounds (e.g., NaCl, MgCl», physical properties of an element are based on the
CaO). atomic weight, chemical properties are based on
(b) Covalent bond : number of valence electrons and nuclear properties
* Definition
are based on number of particles inside the
* Atomic orbit structure for the formation of
covalent molecules on the basis of duplet and) nucleus.
octet of electrons (examples : hydrogen, chlorine, For better understanding of these physical,
oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, water, chemical and nuclear properties we must know
ammonia, carbon tetrachloride, methane).
about atoms. The developmental studies about
atoms are very important for us. The details of historical view is summarised as follows:
 mL

Bs LB ICSE Chomistry-0
4.1 DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
In 1808, dohn Dalton, proposed first recognised atomic theory to explain about the atom. This theory ,
based on difforent observations recorded by John Dalton. The essential postulates of the theory are:
1. Matter is made up af small, indivisible particles called atoms.
2, Atoms of tho same clemont are identical in mass and other properties,
3. Atoms of different cloments are different in properties.
4. Atoms can neither be crented nor be destroyed.
5, Since atoms ave indivisible they combine in small whole numbers to form ‘compound atoms’ Calley |
molecules.
Dalton's atomic theory has been modified in the light of new information on atomic structure. Accordiy
to the present knowledge, the following facts are established which are contrary to postulates of Dalton;
atomic theory.
. The atom is composed of still smaller particles like electrons, protons and neutrons. Therefore, the’
atom is not the ultimate particle of matter and atoms are thus divisible.
2, The existence of isotopes (i.e., atoms of the same element with different masses) clearly indicate; |
that atoms of the same element can have different masses.
3, Atoms of different elements can have the same mass. Such atoms are called isobars.
4, It is true that atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed in chemical reactions. But in nuclear |
reactions, like fission and fusion, atoms are destroyed, created or transformed.
hus, souree of the postulates of Dalton are incorrect or partially correct. Nevertheless, Dalton’s atomi:
theory forms the foundation on which the edifice of modern chemistry is built.
Constituents of an atom :; Atom was considered to be indivisible. However, it is known that the atom.
is not a single entity, but is made up of different subatomic particles. Again, though atoms of differen
elements exhibit entirely different chemical and physical properties, all the atoms of the elements consistof
the same type of subatomic particles. At present about thirty five subatomic particles are known. Of these,
only three subatomic particles are known as fundamental particles as only they are responsible for the
characteristic properties of the atom. These fundamental particles are protons, electrons and neutrons.

4.2 DISCOVERY OF ELECTRON

In 1878, an English physicist named William Crookes — Air at very
showed that when a glass tube of 0.6 m long, fitted with two _ tube METRES Green glow
electrodes and an opening to create vacuum in the tube was “Sy 7
set up. This tube was filled with a gas at low pressure aren , |
approximately 10°° atmospheres and high voltage current of — ae |
Cathode
about 10,000 volts was generated. At this potential difference |
and high temperature, electricity begins to flow and eB vacuum pump |
fluorescent light was seen behind the anode. “High voltage generat |
After observing this experiment it was concluded that
some rays are emitted from cathode and travel towards anode Fig. 4.1 Cathode rays tube
which generate this fluorescent light. Since, these rays are |
generated from cathode, so they were named as cathode rays. |
 Atomic Structure and Chemical Bon

On the basis of various experiments, in 1897 Sir J. J. Thomson observed the following properties of
euthode rays:
(i) The cathode rays travel in a straight path as they travel in a straight line from cathode to anode.
Mherefore shadow of an object placed in their path is formed at the back of the tube.
yy .
Ly iJ . > fT, >

Cathodo

Shadow of the
Anods metal cross
(Metal cross)

Fig. 4.2 Cathode rays travel in a straight line

(ii) These rays are negatively charged as they were attracted towards external anode which was
added outside the glass tube,

Cathode ea | Anode

eae »—— Electric field

Cathode rays
Fig. 4.3 Cathode rays get deflected due to external electrodes

255 — 1
(iii) These rays have constituent particles which possess kinetic energy E mo? | We know that mass

is characteristic property of a particle.

This can be seen when these rays are allowed to strike the blades of a pinwheel, they start to
rotate. This rotation is a mechanical effect caused by the particles of these rays.
Light paddle
Cathode rays Wheel
Cathode

Fig. 4.4 Cathode rays causes the pinwheel to rotate

(iv) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles.

(v) The nature of cathode rays is not affected by the gas taken in the glass tube.
(vi) Cathode rays produce fluorescence on the glass surface.
(vin) Cathode rays ionise the gas through which they travel.
(viii) Cathode rays travel at a speed which is equal to the speed of light.
(ix) When cathode rays fall on the metals like copper, X-rays are produced.
(x) The mass of the particles of the cathode ray is very small as compared to the mass of the atom
produced.
 On the basis of the properties of cathode rays we can conclude these are beams of negatively Chary,,
particles instead of rays. These negatively charged particles were further named as electrons.
Thomson's Model of Atom : After the discovery of sub-atomic
particle electron, the first model of the atom, proposed in 1898 by the
English physicist Thomson, that pictured atoms as uniform spheres of
positively charged substance with negative electrons embedded in it.
It is also known as Plum-Pudding model or water melon model.

Fig. 4.5 Thomson's model of zt,

4.3 DISCOVERY OF NUCLEUS

After the discovery of electron, atom has considered as group of sub-atomic particles. Rutherf,.
proposed the concept of nucleus on the basis of a-particle scattering experiment in 1911.
Rutherford a-Particle Scattering Experiment : a-particle is positively charged ion of helium gas. +
beam of these a-particles was incident on a thin foil of gold (0.0004 cm thick) and across the foil, a screen,
ZnS was kept. In this experiment following observations were recorded :

Observations
3 Most of the a-particles went straight through the gold foil.
2 Only some of them got deflected by large angles.
3 About one (1) in twenty thousand (20,000) a-particles gets deflected by 180° and retraced their path
ZnS Screen
Lead plate

radioactive substance scatlered

Fig. 4.6 Rutherford a-scattering experiment

On the basis of above observations following facts were deduced:

Conclusions
Q Most of the atom is empty. So a-particles go across straight.
Q The positive charge is concentrated in a very small place in the atom, which deflected the positivels
charged a-particles. This small and heavy positively charged centre is called nucleus.
3 a-particles that happen to travel in line with the nucleus get deflected by 180° due to direct strike 0
the dense positive centre.
Rutherford proposed model of atom on the basis of his findings in a-particle scattering experiment
 4.4 RUTHERFORD'S
J An atom consists of a positively charged heavy part
called nucleus, where most of the mass of the atom is
concentrated. Protons and neutrons are present in the
nucleus.
U Size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of
MODEL OF ATOM
Pa
# he sizo of a nuclous of an atom is very amall,
ie, about 10°! m. If we compare the nucleus
with reapect to whole atom then we find atom
is one lakh times bigger than its nucleus, For
visualiaation of difference between nucleus and
é
atom ia like a poa in the middle of a racetrack,

4
the atom.
Around the nucleus, there is extra-nuclear part in
Sar
which there are electrons,
U Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits like planets around the sun and they are
called planetary electrons.
Failure of Rutherford’s model : Rutherford’s model could not explain the stability of atom, The fact
behind it is electromagnetic theory of radiations which was stated by Clarke Maxwell, that a charged
particle under acceleration continues to lose energy in the form of electromagnetic radiations. An electron
being a charged particle under acceleration around the nucleus, therefore, should lose energy continuously.
It should move closer and closer to the nucleus due to loss of energy and ultimately should spiral down into
the nucleus. So the atom should collapse. But atom by itself is stable.
Further stability of atom and how electrons revolve around the nucleus is explained in Bohr’s atomic
model by Neils Bohr in 1913 on the basis of Quantum Mechanics.

£
Practice makes perfect
1. Give the main postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.
2. Why Dalton’s atomic theory does not explain the occurrence of isotopes?
3. Give the main conditions for discovery of cathode rays in cathode ray tube.
4, What is a-particle?
5. How the negatively and positively charged particles are distributed in an atom according to
Thomson’s model?
6. Give the main observation of Rutherford a-particle scattering experiment.
7. Why Rutherford’s atomic model does not explain the stability of atom?

4.5 BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM

The following postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are as follows:
1. In an atom the centre part consist of nucleus and the electrons revolve around it.
2. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain, fixed circular, concentric orbits, which
are known as stationary orbits. As long as the electron remains in these stationary orbits, it will not
radiate energy. In other words, the energy of the electron remains constant (stationary, Lé.,
non-changing) as long as it remains in the same orbit. This particular state of the electron is known
as ground state.
mei OSE Chemistry-)

The stationary orbits are also entled enerpy

. ; levels becnuse cach orbit ia associated with na efin
energy. These stationary orbits are non-radinting or closed orbits, ”
Ah) Pees
This argument helped us to understand as lo why the utom does not collapse,
The stationary orbits are only those in which the angular momentum of the electron in that opt Mb},
. . Oh
an integral multiple of | == | If “m’ ‘is the mass of an electron, ‘v’ is its velocity and ‘r’ in the radiuy y
qt
the electron orbit, then the angular momentum is ‘mor’
Condition for a stationary orbit is,
nh
mur =—
2m
. Energy is absorbed when electron jumps from lower to higher shel] means if electron shifts Pres,
second shell to third shell then it gain energy.
. Energy is released when electron jumps from higher to lower shell means if electron goes from third
shell to second shell then it loses energy.

4.6 ATOMIC NUMBER

The total number of proton in an atom is called atomic number of that element. Every element has jt;
unique atomic number. Atomic number is generally represented by the letter Z.
Table 4.1 Atomic number of first twenty elements

| Atomic number Common name Atomic number Common name i;

1 Hydrogen 11 Sodium

2 Helium 12 Magnesium

3 Lithium 13 Aluminium

4 Beryllium 14 Silicon

5 Boron 15 Phosphorus

6 Carbon 16 Sulphur

7 Nitrogen 17 Chlorine

8 Oxygen 18 Argon |

9 Fluorine 19 Potassium os
peed

10 Neon 20 Calcium gl

4.7 MASS NUMBER

The sum of the number of neutrons and protons of an atom is called mass number. It is also called (

atomic mass or atomic mass number. For example, the mass numbers of some common elements are
 ‘
t

; |

Table 4.2 Mass numbor of first twonty olements

Pe Name Mass number Name Mass number

aydrogen 1 Sodium 24 ~~
Heviom 4 Magnesium 24 |

Lithium 7 Aluminium 27
Beryllium 9 Silicon 28
Boron 11 Phosphorus 3]

Carbon 12 Sulphur 32
| Nitrogen 14 Chlorine 35
Oxygen 16 Argon 40

Fluorine 19 Potassium 39
Neon 20 Calcium 40

Mass Number (A) = Number of protons (p) + Number of neutrons (n)

4.8 ELECTRON
’ The negatively charged particle revolving around the nucleus in an atom is called electron. It is
represented bye.
For an element the total number of electrons are equal to the atomic number of that element.
Number of electrons (e) = Atomic Number (Z)

4.9 PROTON
The positively charged particle residing inside the nucleus of an atom is called proton.
For an element the total number of protons are equal to the atomic number of that element.
Therefore,
Number of protons (p)= atomic number (Z) = number of electrons (e)

4.10 NEUTRON
The neutral particle residing inside the nucleus with the proton is called neutron.
The number of neutrons of an element is equal to the difference between the mass number and atomic
number.
Number of neutrons (m) = mass number (A) ~ atomic number (Z)
All the particles which reside in the nucleus are known as nucleons means proton and neutrons
are referred to as nucleons.
 Table 4.3 Properties of sub-atomic particles
ee ——— NO a.

Subatomic particles Symbol Unit charge Unit mass Charge in coulomb Mass in arm,

Proton Pe 4) 1 +1602 7107" 1.00764:

a an on ea
Neutron in 5) ] 0) L.OUBEES

Nleetron (e —1 Negligible ~1602 710°" 5ARY ~ 104

SS SS = ae

REPRESENTATION OF MASS NUMBER AND ATOMIC NUMBER

AX,
where, A= mass number, Z = atomic number, X = symbol of element
For example,
(i) Ky
39 = A = mass number of potassium
19 = Z= atomic number of potassium
Therefore, Number of electrons,e=19 ; Number of protons, p =19
Number of neutrons, n = 39-19 = 20

4.11 ISOTOPES
The term isotope is originated from the two Greek words-isos (“equal”) and topos (“place”), meaning “tt,
same place” in the periodic table. The different isotopes of element have same atomic number which is us,
as characteristic property in the periodic table to place the element. Isotopes are different to each other
terms of mass number. It means they have different number of neutrons. Thus, it can be defined as;
The atoms of elements with the same atomic number but different mass number are calle,
iwotopes of that element.
Table 4.4 Isotopes of some elements

Isotopes Atomic Mass number | Number of protons | Number of electrons | Number of neutrons
number

Protium ('H,) 1 1 1 1 0
Deuterium (*H,) ] 2 1 1 1

Tritium (“H, ) 1 3 t 1 2
Carbon-12('*C,) 6 12 6 6 6
Carbon-13('°C,) 6 13 6 6 7
Carbon-14 (1 C,) 6 14 6 6 8
Chlorine-35(* Cl,7) 17 35 17 17 18
Chlorine-36 (**Cl,,) 17 36 17 17 19
Chlorine-37 (*7Cl,7) 17 37 17 17 2000
 ‘i
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding Hf: es

:
There are 81 cloments
.
with stable isotopes; the largest number of stable isotopes 1s observed by Tin
oN ¥ P : The
which has eleven (11) isotopes. Xenon, cadmium and mercury have nine isotopes. The number of isotopes of
.

some elements is given below:

Table 4.5 Number of isotopes of some elements
Atomic number Name of the element Number of isotopes

50 Tin (Sn) Jd
48 Cadmium (Cd) 9
54 Xenon (Xe) 9
80 Mercury (Hg) 9
52 Tellurium (Te) 8
42 Molybdenum (Mo) 7
20 Calcium (Ca) 6
36 Krypton (Kr) 6
| 44 Ruthenium (Ru) 6
! 76 Osmium (Os) 6
is Titanium (Ti) 5
28 Nickel (Ni) 5
32 Germanium (Ge) 5

60 Neodymium (Nd) 5
64 Gadolium (Gd) 5
72 Hafnium (Hf) 5
78 Platinum (Pt) 5

REPRESENTATION OF ISOTOPES
The isotopes can be represented in two ways:
Q General Notation : In this notation we use the full name of the element and its mass number in the
form of Element Name — Mass number
For example: Carbon-12, Carbon-13, Chlorine-35, Chlorine-36, etc.
J Standard Notation : The standard notation for the representation of an isotope is the “E, notation,
where A is mass number, Z is atomic number and EF is the symbol of element in the form of AB x:
Forexample: “C,, “C,, “C4, *C;,, ete.
The following facts were observed in case of isotopes:
4 The chemical properties of different isotopes of an element are similar due to same number
of valence electrons.
4 Physical properties of different isotopes of the same element are different because they
have different mass number.
4 Nuclear properties are different due to change in number of nucleons that is the structure of
nucleus is different.
4 Number of protons in the different isotopes of an element is equal.
Uses of lsotopes
1. *3C.an isotope of carbon is used to determine the age of fossils.
2. ‘3iL an isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre.
3. Isotope of cobalt =Co is used for the treatment of cancer.
4. An isotope of uranium °3) U is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.
Radioisotopes
These are the type of isotopes which emits radiations and they have a very short life span. For example
*?C and {H are radioactive in nature.
lsobars
These are some atoms of different elements which has same mass number as they belong to differey,
elements. hence, their atomic number is also different along with their different chemical properties. Fo,
example: # Ar and 3)Ca.
Can you give symbol of any other isobar?

4.12 DISTRIBUTION OF ELECTRON-BOHR’S & BURY PRINCIPLE

Bohr & Bury stated certain principles for the electron distribution in the shells. According to then
electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. These orbits can consist of fixed number of electron;
which follow the following rules:
(i) The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated by an orbit is 2n°.
First orbit—K Shell = 2x1? =2 electrons (n =1)
Second orbit—L Shell = 2x2” =8 electrons (n = 2)
Third orbit—M Shell = 2x 3? =18 electrons (n = 3)
Forth orbit—N Shell = 2x 4? = 32 electrons (n = 4)
(ii) The valence shell (outermost shell) cannot accommodate of more than 8 electrons except K-shell.
(iii) If valence shell requires to fill more than 8 electrons then a new shell is started which can contain
maximum 2 electrons until previous shell is filled according to its capacity.
(iv) The penultimate (last second) shell cannot consist of more than 18 electrons.
The above rules are illustrated in table 4.4 with the help of the electronic configuration of first twent)
elements.

The maximum
number of electrons
accommodated by
an orbit is 2n?

Distribution
of electron
Bohr’s and
Bury principle
If more than
8 electrons in
valence shell The valence shell
A new shell is started,
which can contain a cannot consist of
maximum 2 electrons more than 8
until the previous
hell is filled as per electrons
its capacity
 Table 4.6 Electronic configuration of first twonty elements
Atomic Name and symbol of
number (Z) siement Electronic distribution In var ious shells Electronic
Gonttanratonittn
(n=1)K (n=2)L (n= 3)M (n= 4)N shell notation)
1 Hydrogen (H) I 1
El
2 Helium (He) 9 2

3 Lithium (Li) 2 1 2,1

Pe as
4 Beryllium (Be) 2 2 2,2

15 Boron (B) 3 2,3

6 re rarbon (C)
(C ‘2 4 92,4
7 Nitrogen (N) 2 5 2,5

8 Oxygen (O) 9 6 2,6

9 Fluorine (F) 2 q 2,7

10 Neon (Ne) 2 8 2,8

li Sodium (Na) 2 8 1 2,854:

12 Magnesium (Mg) 2 8 2 2;.8;:2

13 Aluminium (Al) 2 8 3 2, 8, 3
14 Silicon (Si) 2 8 4 2, 8,4

15 Phosphorus (P) 2 8 5 2, 8,5

16 Sulphur (S) 2 8 6 2, 8,6
17 Chlorine (Cl) 2 8 7 2, 8,7

18 Argon (Ar) 2 8 8 2,8,8

19 Potassium (K) 2 8 8 1 2, 8, 8,1

20 Calcium (Ca) 2 8 8 2 2, 8, 8,2

4.13 LEWIS STRUCTURE

Electron dot structure—electrons in different shells are represented by dots placed around the
chemical symbol. Electrons are placed up to two on each side of the elemental symbol for a maximum of
eight. Each circle around the symbol shows the different shell and the last shell represent the valence shell.
 :
Tablo 4,7 Lowle structure of firat twonty eloments

—
©) |oe ; -
KI,
2, | 2,2
—_

Hydrogen atom Holium ptom Lithium atom Beryllium atom

A«l ZI A AML Ao he3 A=9,2=4 a
oo a ef See

© KL KL KL
2.4 2,4 2,6
+-—_—-— —_—_—__————— se i

Boron atom Carbon utom Nitrogen atom Oxygen atom

ANZ A=12;2=6 A=14:Z=7 A=16,2=8

K, L
2, 8

Fluorine atom Neon atom Sodium atom Magnesium atom

A=19,Z2=9 A=20; Z=10 A=23;Z=11 A=24;Z=12

© K, L, M
2,8, 3

Aluminium atom Silicon atom Phosphorus atom Sulphur atom

A=27, 2 =13 A=28,Z2=14 A=31;Z=15 A=32;Z=16

Chlorine atom Argon atom Potassium atom Calcium atom

A=35,Z=17 A=40;Z=18 A=39; Z=19 A=40; Z=20

4.14 OCTET RULE

This rule explains the chemical stability of atom on the basis of number of electrons in the valence she
of an atom. On the basis of observation the noble gases are chemically inert due to their complete octé
(eight valence electrons) and inertness of helium gas is based on its complete first shell that is two electrot
in first shell or complete duplet.
ivi
The octet rule is a chemical rule that reflects observation that atom of representat
elements tends to join in such a way that each atom has eight electrons in its valence she
giving it the same electronic configuration as a noble gas.
 My]
q
fi

& ::| pox

Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

The rule is especially applicable to atoms like carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to
metals such as sodium or magnesium. Atoms of the reactive elements can gain, share or donate electrons to
complete their octet and achieve stability. This gaining, sharing or donating electrons form a bond between
the two participating atoms.

Practice makes perfect

1, What do you mean by the following:
(i) Energy level
(ii) Ground state of an atom
2. Find the number of valence electrons in an atom with atomic number 17.
3. Name the element which has only two types of particles in its atom. Also name the particles.
4. Compare the characteristics of an electron, proton and neutron.
5. State the octet rule.
6. Name the element with highest number of isotopes.
7. Write the electronic configuration of elements having atomic number 10, 14, 19, 20.
8.
Element A B Cc D E F G H
Atomic no. (Z) 4 11 13 16 17 18 19 20

Look at the above table and answer the following. You can pick more than one option.
(a) An element which is non-metal.
(b) Noble gas.
(c) Element which can form cation.
(d) Element with valency one.
(e) Element having isotope.
(f) Oxidising agent
(g) Element which needs two electrons to complete its octet.
(h) Element with one electron in fourth valence shell.
9. Give reasons:
(a) '2C and '§C do not differ in their chemical reactions.
(b) Helium does not react.
(c) Sodium can act as a reducing agent.
(d) Actual atomic mass is greater than mass number.
(e) Isobars have different chemical properties.
(f) Chlorine shows valency one.
 4.15 CHEMICAL BOND
“Chemical bond is the force which holds the ions or atom together to form crystal of in,
compounds or molecule of covalent compounds”.

"Forces betwean atom and atom to form molecule"

Atom >———[[Ghomilcal Bonding

Incomplote Octal or Cornplete Octet or
Duplet/Unstable/ DuplevStable/
High Energy Low Energy

Atom is unstable due to incomplete octet or duplet. Atom may attain a stable electronic arrangemen;,
Q Losing Electrons [formation of cation]
Q Gaining Electrons [formation of anion]
3 Sharing Electrons [formation of molecule]
And form ion or molecule which is stable due to complete octet or duplet. The physical and chem,
properties of ion with respect to parent atom and properties of molecule with respect to constituent at,.
are different.
Table 4.8 Comparison between atom and ion

Property Atom fon i

Charge Neutral Positive or negative |

Number of electrons and protons Equal Unequal

Chemical reactivity Reactive (unstable) Stable

Existence Cannot exist independently Can exist independently

except inert gas atom in solutions

Table 4.9 Comparison between atom and molecule

Property Atom Molecule

Chemical reactivity Reactive (unstable) except inert gases Stable

Existence Cannot exist independently Can exist independently i

except inert gas atom i
‘

Property Properties of element Properties of compound }

Types of Chemical Bonds : Three different types of chemical bond may be formed on the basis
nature of atom.
|
1. Electrovalent bond — Metal and non-metal |
2. Covalent bond — Non-metal and non-metal |
3. Metallic bond* — Metal and metal |
Ionic bond or Electrovalent bond : An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of one\
more electron from the valence shell of one metal atom to the outer shell of the atom of non-me ta!

* Not included in the latest ICSE syllabus

 Bonding § ; a
Atomic Structure and Chemical

lonie bond is formed botwean clomeonta placed on left aide and right side of pe riodic table. The aturals)
cleetropostiive elements (left ats of auinalle table) iranwer their valence electrana ty storms fh
elevtrmnern tive elements (right side of periodic table) so that all of them achieve the noble-yss
configuration, A maximum of three electrons enn be transferred in the procens.
Electrovalency: The Humber of dlectrorm that an atom of an element loses or gaing ty form an
electrovalent bond,

| EXAMPLE OF IONIC BONDS

1. Formation of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) : Sodium metal contains one electron in its valence shel).
Sodium losses its electron and form cation Na' and chlorine atom contain 7 valence electrons. It gains one
electron in its valence shell to complete its octet and form anion Cl”. Sodium and chloride ion join w each
other and form crystal lattice to
get more stable system.
Sodium (Na) — Metal atom — Loss of electron — Na’*
Chlorine (Cl) — Non-metal — Gain of electron — Cl”

E.C.=2,8,1 E.C.=2,8,7 E.C.=2,8 E.C.=2,8.8

Fig. 4.7 Formation of NaCl unit

2. Formation of Magnesium Chloride (MgCl,): Magnesium metal transfer two electrons from its
valence shell to chlorine and forms divalent cation. Each chlorine atom gain one electron and form
monovalent anion.
Magnesium (Mg) — Metal atom — Loss of electron — Mg ol
Chlorine (Cl) — Non-metal — Gain of electron — Cl™

E.C.=2,8
2cr
E.C. =2,8,8
Fig. 4.8 Formation of magnesium chloride (MgCl,)

3. Formation of Calcium Oxide (CaO) : Calcium transfer two fran American chemist named GilbertN.
electrons from its valence shell to the valence shell of oxygen atom Lewis developed the Lewis bonding
therefore calcium form divalent cation and oxygen form divalent _ theory in which electrons
are represen-
tedas dots. The molecules represented
anion. Both ions are attracting to each other and form crystal lattice.
"are called Lewis structures or Lewis
Calcium (Ca) — Metal atom — Loss of electron — Ca** _ electron-dot formulas Na -Cl:.
Oxygen (O) — Non-metal — Gain of electron — O07
 EC 2.0.02 EC 920 ( ny 2.0.0 &G a t
Fig. 4.9 Formation of caletum oxide (GaQ)

Practice makes perfect

. What determines the chemical reactivity of an clement?
whore

. What is the difference between an atom and ion?

. What is a chemical bond? Give its various typos also.
5 ‘
» Sodium combines with one » chlorine atom but magnesium combines with two chlorine atoms to fo;
> 1} ‘y ’
= } }
ma

ionic bond. Why?

. Name the type of bond which forms due to transfer of electron,
or

6. Explain the bonding in the following with the help of electron dot structure:
(i) Sodium chloride
(ii) Magnesium chloride
(iii) Calcium oxide
7. Show the bond formation in:
(a) AIC]; (c) KCl (a) MgO
8. What is the electrovalency of underlined element?
(a) NaCl (b) CaO

4.16 COVALENT BOND

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms of the resulting
molecule. This kind of sharing helps the combining atoms to complete their octets. Each shared pair(
electrons is equivalent to one covalent bond. E
A maximum of three covalent bonds can be formed between two atoms. The valence electrons no
involved in bond formation are called non-bonding electrons, or inert pairs or lone pairs.

TYPES OF COVALENT BOND

1. Single covalent bond : A covalent bond formed due to sharing of one electron pair is called sing!
covalent bond, it is represented by (—). Example :

Q:-O-@--
(i) Hydrogen molecule (H,)

Fig. 4.10 Formation of hydrogen molecule

 i
Atomic Structu re and Chemical Bonding §[' «| oe
(i) CU bow tive Ver berernades (hy

Fig, 4.11 Formation of cliorine molecule

(HD Water molocule (HO)

Fig. 4.12 Formation of water molecule

(iv) Aminonia male cule (NH)

Fig. 4.13 Formation of ammonia molecule

Fluorine molecule (F, )

Fig. 4.14 Formation of fluorine molecule

(vi) Carbon tetrachloride molecule (CCl,)

Cl

=> cl—C—Cl

ci

Fig. 4.15 Formation of carbon tetrachloride molecule

 (vil) Methane molecule

Fig. 4.16 Formation of methane molecule

2. Double covalent bond : A covalent bond formed due to sharing of two electron pairs is called dou,
covalent bond, it is represented by (=).
Example : Oxygen molecule

Fig. 4.17 Formation of oxygen molecule

3. Triple covalent bond : A covalent bond formed due to sharing of three electron pairs is called trip:
covalent bond, it is represented by (=),
Example : Nitrogen molecule

Fig. 4.18 Formation of nitrogen molecule

_Practice makes perfect

1. Define covalent bond.
2. Name the type of bond which is formed due to sharing of electrons.
3. How can you differentiate between sodium chloride and hydrogen chloride in terms of bonding? |
4. What are different types of covalent bonds in terms of sharing of electrons?
5. Explain the bonding in the following with the help of electron dot structure:
(i) Hydrogen chloride
(ii) Ammonia
(iii) Carbon tetrachloride
(iv) Water
6. Differentiate between ionic and covalent bond on the basis of their physical properties.
7. Show the bond formation in CO,. What would be the covalency of carbon and oxygen in CO,? _
 Atomi

Revise Twice, Score Well

J Main points of Dalton’s atomic theory :
|
Ret

|
* Matter is made up of small, indivisible particles called atoms.
* Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and other properties.
Satan

* Atoms of different elements are different in properties. |

gi

|
Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
* Since atoms are indivisible they combine in small whole numbers to form ‘compound atoms’!
A

called molecules. .
+ Out of about thirty five subatomic known particles only three particles are known as fundamental!
a

particles namely, protons (positively charged), electrons (negatively charged) and neutrons (no
charge) as only these are responsible for the characteristic properties of the atom.
4 The rays emitted from cathode and travels towards anode are called cathode rays.
4 The following properties of cathode rays were observed by Sir J. J. Thomson:
* They travel in a straight line path from cathode to anode.
* These rays are negatively charged as they were attracted towards external anode.
¢ Th ese rays have constitu
i ent particles which possess kine tic energy
inet! ‘ 2”. *}J
Cathode rays consist of negatively charged particles.
4% «4 ~«%

The nature of cathode rays is not affected by the gas taken in the glass tube.
444

Cathode rays produce fluorescence on the glass surface.

Cathode rays ionise the gas through which they travel.
Cathode rays travel at a speed which is equal to the speed of light.
When cathode rays fall on the metals like copper, X-rays are produced.
The mass of the particles of the cathode ray is very small as compared to the mass of the atom
¢

produced.
4 According to Thomson's atomic model, atoms are uniform spheres of positively charged substance
with negative electrons embedded in it. It is also known as Plum-Pudding model or water melon
model.
J On the basis of a-particle scattering experiment Rutherford observed the following :
* Most of the a -particles went straight through the gold foil.
* Only some of them got deflected by large angles.
* About one (1) in twenty thousand (20,000) a-particles gets deflected by 180° and retraced their
path.
4 On the basis of above observations following facts were deduced:
* Most of the atom is empty.
* The small and heavy positively charged centre is called nucleus.
* a-particles that happen to travel in line with the nucleus get deflected by 180° due to direct strike
on the dense positive centre.
 HL
a
Wy 106
—< eo ,

UW Rutherford proposed the following atomic model on the basis of his findings:
¢ Anntom consists of n positively charged heavy part called nucleus, where most of the mass of,
atom is concentrated. Protons and neutrons are present in the nucleus.
Size of the nucleus is very small compared to the size of the atom,
Around the nucleus, there is extra-nuclear part in which there are electrons.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular orbits like planets around the sun and they ,,.
called planetary electrons.
U Rutherford’s atomic model failed because he could not explain the stability of atom.
Q The following postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are as follows:
¢ In an atom the centre part consist of nucleus and the electrons revolve around it.
+ Electrons revolve round the nucleus in certain, fixed circular, concentric orbits, whic
are known as stationary orbits. The stationary orbits are also called energy levels because eae
orbit is associated with a definite energy. ;
* The stationary orbits are only those in which the angular momentum of the electron in that or}-
; ; , h a
is an integral multiple of( | Condition for a stationary orbit is,

n
mur = —
2n
+ nergy is absorbed when electron jumps from lower to higher shell.
+ [nergy is released when electron jumps from higher to lower shell.
U The total number of protons in an atom is called atomic number of that element. Every element hz
its unique atomic number. Atomic Number is generally represented by the letter Z. For exampl:
Hydrogen (1), Helium (2), Lithium (3), ete.
4 The sum of neutrons and protons of an atom is called mass number. It is also called atomic mass )
atomic mass number. For example, Hydrogen (1), Helium (4), Lithium (7), etc.
4 Mass Number (A) = Number of proton (p)+ Number of neutron (n).
U4 The negatively charged particle revolving around the nucleus in an atom is called electron. It:
represented by e . For an element, Number of electron (e)= Atomic number (Z).
4 The positively charged particle residing inside the nucleus of an atom is called proton. For 2
element, Number of proton(p) = atomic number (Z) = number of electrons (e).
4 The neutral particle residing inside the nucleus with the proton is called neutron. For an element
Number of neutron (n)= mass number (A)— atomic number (Z).
J All the particles (protons & neutrons) which reside in the nucleus are known as nucleons. 1} {

Subatomic particles| Symbol Unit charge Unit mass Charge in coulomb Mass inamu |

Proton 1p’ +1 1 +1.602 x 1079 1.007825

eee

Neutron ov 0 1 0 1.008665
ee
0

Electron 1} e° -1 negligible —1.602 x 107!9 5.489 x 107

a }

4 Representation of mass number and Atomic number : 4X; where, A = Mass number, Z = Ato™
number, X = Symbol of element. ecru i
|
 a

— SL

The
’ atoms of , cloments with the same atomie
; number but different
a Po R miss ybe
number are ve called 4 i
called Isotopes
4
3
of that clement, Mor example, Protium (Hy), Doutorium uy(Hy), Pp a
Pritium
4 FH, ).
("Fy )
The following frets were observed in case of iNoLoper!
ry s! LS “
4
* TheThe chemical
chemic R :
Properties of ‘gunn 4
different isotopes of ncean clement
Na ne are » simile
similar.
Physical properties of different isotopes of Lhe same element are different,
a

* Nuclear properties are different duc to change in number of nucleons.

* Number of protons in the different isotopes of an element isoqual.
According to Bohr & Bury electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed orbits. These orbits can
consist of fixed number of electrons which follow the following rules: ;
+ The maximum number of electrons which can be accom modated by an orbit is 2n 8
> The valence shell (outermost shell) cannot consist of more than 8 electrons.
> If valence shell requires to fill more than 8 electrons then a new shell is started which can contain
maximum 2 electrons until previous shell is filled according to its capacity.
* The penultimate (Last second) shell cannot consist of more than 18 electrons.
Electrons in different shells are represented by dots placed around the chemical symbol. This
representation is known as electron-dot structure.
The octet rule is a chemical rule that reflects observation that atom of representative elements tends
to join in such a way that each atom has eight electrons
in its valence shell, giving it the
same electronic configuration as a noble gas.
Chemical bond is the force which holds the ions or atom together to form crystal
of ionic compounds
or molecule of covalent compounds.
An ionic bond is formed by the complete transfer of one or more electron from the valence shell of one
metal atom to the outer shell of the atom of non metal. For example, Sodium chloride (NaCl),
Magnesium chloride (MgCl, ), Calcium oxide (CaO).
A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms of the resulting molecule.
The valence electrons not involved in bond formation are called nonbonding electrons, or inert pairs
or lone pairs.
A covalent bond formed due to sharing of one electron pair is called single covalent bond, it is
represented by (—). For example, Hydrogen molecule (H,), Chlorine molecule (Cl, ), Water molecule
(H,0), Ammonia molecule (NH,), Fluorine molecule (F,), Carbon tetrachloride molecule (CC1,),
Methane molecule (CH,).
A covalent bond formed due to sharing of two electron pairs is called double covalent bond, it is
represented by (=). For example: Oxygen molecule (Oy).
A covalent bond formed due to sharing of three electron pairs is called triple covalent bond, it is
represented by (=). For example: Nitrogen molecule (N,).
Question 1, Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within brackets.
1. cco nyaNAaNeeAi abell should contain maximum eight electrons. ia Vary,
2 Carbon has isotopes with niuassa numberof o...ccccccccee seneeyeanonhasheebe BIO svivecanoursearee
W4IIWTG. iniy
3 Dalton compared his theory with .....ccccceee ; (what BY PETA | OterVer,
Deuterium 18 an isotope Of... , (Bn | try Orgy,
o

Isotopes have naMe ......c eee number but different ..ccccceccccccceee number.
(masse atomic, suanie/ nn
6 Octet rule was given by ........0.cce . (Goldstein / Exar &,
7 Rutherford discovered ......cccccesecee . (nucleus | clecr,.
8. Rutherford was not able to explain the v.cccsccscccsececeeee of an atom. (stability! pre,
9. The total number of uu... cece ANG ooo eecescesesecseeeee 18 KNOWN 45 wee renee eeeee ;
(proton/neutron/mass number, proton/electron/atormic nines
10. The total number of wc ccc IN AN AtOM 18 IS veeeeeccceeeeeeee .
i (protons/mass number, electron/ atomic cums
11. Thomson discovered ......:ccc0eceeee ; (electrons / proux

1. Valence 2. 12, 13,14 3. Solar system 4. Hydrogen 5. Atomic, mass 6. Bohr Bury 7. Nucleus 8. Stability
9. Proton, neutron, mass number 10. Electrons, atomic number 11. Electrons

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. According to Bohr Bury, the maximum number of electrons in a shell :
(a) 2n (b) 4n (c) 2n? (d) None of these
2. Atomic number is the total number of :
(a) Proton (b) Neutron (c) Electron (d) All of these
3. Cause of chemical] reactivity is :
(a) Eight electrons in the outermost shell
(b) Less than eight electrons in the outermost shell
(c) More than eight electrons in the outermost shell
(d) None of these
4, Constituent of atoms :
(a) Proton (b) Neutron (c) Electron (d) All of these
5. Isotope of hydrogen :
(a) Protium (b) Deuterium (c) Tritium (d) All of these
 Rem
ure and Chemical Bondin
g & | pes
a
Atomic Struct

6 Maximum number of
electrons in the outermost ahell of theas
(ad LO (d) None
(b) 8 ()
7. Neyative constitue nt of atom
- of these
(a) Proton (dy) None
(b) Neutron (c) Slect ron
& Neutral constituent
of atom :
(a) Proton (d) None of theae
(b) Neutron (c) Electron
9. Positive consti
tuent of atom :
(a) Proton (d) None of these
(b) Neutron (c) Electron
10. A bond formed by sh of bond :
aring
(a) Covalent (b) (d) None of these
(b) Ionic (c) Both (a) and
11, A bond formed by transfer of a
(a) Electrovalent (d) None of these
(b) Ionic (c) Both (a) and (b)

| a (c) (b) (a) | 10. | (a)

| = (c) (a) (b) (d)
7 11.
(c)

:
Question 3. [A] Match the following in column A to the appropriate answers in column B :
|
[ Column A Column B

| A Polar covalent bond P| Rutherford

B Non-polar covalent bond Q | Electron pair is shared by one element only
Cc Co-ordinate bond R_ | Electron pair is at the centre

D__| Electron S| Electron pair is not at the centre

E | Nucleus T |Thomson

[B] Match the following in column A to the appropriate answers in column B :

Column A Column B
A Mass number P| Total number of electrons in neutral state
B Atomic number Q_ | Cathode rays
€ Octet rule R_ | Same atomic number but different mass number
D Electrons S_ | Mass of proton and neutron
E_ | Isotopes T | 8 electrons in the outermost shell

{A} A—S, B—R, C— Q, D—T,

ay Answers
E—P

[B] A—S, B—:P C¢—'T, D—Q, E—R

 ry
sa
——

5) (|B ICSE Chomistry-9

Question 4: Name the following :

1. Other neme of ionie bond.
2, Constituent particles of cathode rays.
© Rlectrons present in the oufermoat shell,
©

Bloments with same atomic number but different mass number,

Nowe

© Hydrogen chloride has this typo of bonding.

~ Negatively charged particle iy an atom,
Neutral constituent particle of an atom,
Positively charged constituent particles of an atom,
om

. Three constituent particles of rn atom,

10, Three isotopes of curbon.
11. Three isotopes of hydrogen,

__|» ESE
1, Electrovalent bond; 2. Electrons; 3. Valence electrons; 4, Isotopes; 6. Covalent bond; 6. Electron; 7, Neutron;
8. Proton; 9. Proton, electron, neutron; 10. Cy, "Cy, "Cy: 11. Protium ! H,, Deuterium *H,, Tritium 7H,

Assignment-Section B

CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS

1. Describe the distribution of electrons in an atom according to the Bohr-Bury scheme.
2. Name two elements whose atom does not have a tendency to achieve an octet.
8. Why chemical properties of isotopes of an clement are same?
4. Write the electronic diagram of all the isotopes of hydrogen.
5. Give the main postulates of Bohr’s atomic model.
6. Give the observation of Rutherford a-particle scattering experiment which says that most of the atom
is empty.
7. Give the observation of Rutherford a-particle scattering experiment which says that most of the
weight of atom is concentrated in the centre.
8. How can we say cathode rays are beam of negatively charged particles?
9. Discuss the experiment which proves cathode rays travel in straight line.
10. Describe the structure of atom according to Rutherford.
11. Find out the number of valence electrons of an element with atomic number 15.

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. An atom is neutral as a whole even when it is made up of charged particles called electrons and
protons. Explain.
2. Which observation in the discharge tube experiment indicates that :
 ae
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding 1
(a) Cathode rays consist of negatively charged purticles?
(b) Cathode ray particles Possess kinetic energy?
(c) Cathode rays travel in straight lines?
3. What observations led Rutherford to conclude that :
(a) Most of the space inside the atom is hollow.
(b) The central portion of the atom is
positively charged.
(c) Volume occupied by the nucleus is very small as compared to the total volume of the atom.
(d) Almost the entire mass of an atom is concentrated at its centre.
4, Describe the relationship between the mass number and atomic number of an element.
5. If an element is represented by i¢-X. Give its number of :
(i) Electrons (ii) Protons
(iii) Neutrons
6. Complete the following table and ident
ify the isotopes:
Element Atomic number! Mass number Number of Number of | Number of neutrons
protons electrons

A 19 39

B 14 14
Cc 8 8

D 17 35
E 17 20
7. Classify the type of bonding in the following compounds:
(i) Water (ii) Magnesium chloride
(iii) Calcium oxide (iv) Methane
(v) Ammonia
8. Name the type of covalent bonding in the following compounds:
(i) Nitrogen molecule (ii) Oxygen molecule
(iii) Chlorine molecule (iv) Hydrogen molecule
9. Chlorine combines with both sodium and hydrogen, but the types of bonds are different. Why?
10. Nuclear compositions of the atoms A and B are as follows:
X—Protons-9, neutrons-10
Y—Protons-5, neutrons-6
Give the mass numbers of the atoms X and Y.
11. (i) What do the subscripts and superscripts in the isotopes of chlorine — 32C]; 261; 27 Cl represent?
(ii) Why do the superscripts of the isotopes 35, 36 and 37 changes though, the element is the same?
(iii) Draw the atomic structure of Sd Cl.
 Practice is the Key to Success =
?

Study the first ones and answer the rest in cach queation.
Q. 1. Give reasons for the following |
i) “Atoms can noithor be erented nor bo deatroyed” ia not valid necording to modern atomic theory,
Ang, Phe above statement mn not vadid aecordinig to modern theory due to moacenr fission reactions we
Nielous breaks ito smation nach of atom: ay in nuclei faion where amall nuclei yorns to form |.
nutes
ai) Cathode rays divert towards external anode in cathode ray tube experiment.
Ans.

Gi) Fluorescent light is observed behind the anode in cathode ray tube experiment.
Ans,

(iv)
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Q. 2, Explain the following:

(i) Chemical properties of isotopes of elements are similar.
Ans. Chemical properties of isotopes are similar due to same electronic configuration or equal number,
valence electrons,
(ai) Electronic configuration of potassium is 2, 8, 8, 1 but not 2, 8, 9.
ace a alls enenenenioneranecsmnnceranaanmsncmenmanascans
tt Sena i a

PVG S vesnonsisnnnacanaenssaecyasenen wanes assy 0s weet geeks usta UNUSED SSN SUR ULEAD E ESE GA SUSTTS OLUSO SOS OSSD SE TOSSES

Q. 3. Write the electronic configuration of following elements and also identify elements with similar
chemical properties:
(i) Nitrogen a 2,5
(ii) Phosphorus — 2, 8,5
Ans. Nitrogen and phosphorus show similar properties because both have 5 valence electrons.
(iil) Neon —— === § dbsernrenrearIANAcce
Ka RinOKENmRrONCTTNRNRI:
(iv) Fluorine — §« iC RINK ORRINRORNORR CELA RENTTERERIRRERASRRESO
(v) Chlorine — =§ __saateeeenEVeURNLasaracaNNeRUNUAND EECTNNDEtORReONNS
(vi) Argon — «§ CCC ea SHCSUNCRIRRCAINM
TRIN WNCURIE WaiONANN AER ETR CER
 | Doe i
Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

g.4. Draw the electron dot structure of the following molecules and classify them as covalent and ionic
compounds:
(i) Water
Covalent compound

(ii) Calcium oxide

(iii) Ammonia _

(iv) Methane =e

(v) Magnesium chloride —

Q.5. Comment on mole

(i) Hydrogen of covalent bonding involved in the following diatomic elements:
typecule
— Single covalent. bond
(ii) Nitrogen molecule a estates enenstssauesteteeienanverevaratne
(ui) Fluorine molecule pcs psaescexcngusnceanssonsteanaannnpeionscesauns
(iv) Chlorine molecule i iensntttntntasananamaeeneeee
(v) Oxygen molecule pen scccnscosenenteensinesoeaesmesrnemnssenancehiotstoe
Q6. Answer the following questions on the basis of the
number of sub - atomic particles in the elements
A, B, C, D:
(a) A 5 protons 6 neutrons 5 electrons
(b) B 10 protons 10 neutrons 10 electrons
(c) C 19 protons 20 neutrons 19 electrons
(d) D 16 protons 16 neutrons 16 electrons
(i) Identify the element with atomic number
10.
Ans. Element B
(ii) Identify the element with 6 valence electrons.
PIM satan cac cepa as ethenoneqnngpeenenenavamecommnseseunsoninvcttivsaarnoowsxéebaui
atocetebiesiscsseiineeeeeelecees
(ii) Identify the element which acts as an inert gas.
IR casey H RS ASAD GSU SSA Hosa amaenenagrnmrnoneenemnrne-enneeaanntneemmonesoeso
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(iv) Identify the element with valency +1.
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(v) Identify the elements which have only two shells .
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as acheteey erorevse nensenee suacenva
aca nav asu soa ysaves-a
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Solve the crossword puzzle and check your LQ.

Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding '

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. Positively charged particles in an atom.
. Positively charged centre in the centre of an atom.
. Name of the definite path in which electrons revolve.
. Maximum number of electron in the outermost shell.
. Elements with the same atomic number but different mass number.
. Total mass of neutrons and protons.
 yy

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Atomic Structure and Chemical
a ee a OTE Sa

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9, Neggutively charged particles in an uwm,
3, Neutral particles in an atom,
5, Name the protons and neutrons Loyether,
7. Bond formed by transfer of electrons,
8. Bond formed by sharing of electrons.
— ~~)

APPRAISAL KEY
Time Taken 1Q Level
15 Minutex — Genius
20 Minutes — Very good
25 Minutes — Good
 iy ae :
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Word Search Puzzle

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this chapter:
Protons, Neutron, Mlectrons, Radicals, Lons, Atomic number, M,,
Atoms, Molecules, Compounds,
number, lsotopes, lonic, Covalent, Mleetrovalent
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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken 1Q Level
10 Minutes — Genius
15 Minutes — Very good
20 Minutes — Good
noo
 Scope of Syllabus We know that the universe consists of energy
and matter. The study of matter is very
The Periodic Table
complicated due to its vastness. Matter consists of
Dobereiner's triads, Newland’s law of octaves, including metals,
v's contributions; Modem periodic
pure substance like elements
law, The metalloids and imert gases and
oxen periodic table (groups and periods). non-metals,
compounds like ionic and covalent , impure
* General idea of Dobereiner's triads, Newland's law!
of Octaves, Mendeleev’s periodic law, substance like mixtures and etc. If we focus on any
* Discovery of atomic number and its use as a basis) N€ part of matter then we find there is huge world
for modern periodic law. of that like world of flowers contains lot of
* Modem periodic table (groups | to 18 and periods !| compounds made by different elements. Therefore,
to 7). simplification of study of different matter found in
* Special reference to alkali metals (group 1). Alkaline) nature needs some classification.
earth metals (group 2), Halogens (group 17) and zero
group (group 18).

9.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Element is the primary component of each and every substance found in nature. Therefore,
-sssification of elements is required to simplify the study of matter. The classification needs certain
=eperties to classify the things. We can classify elements on the basis of any property like their physical
sate, colour, chemical reactivity, occurrence, etc.
For example we can classify elements in three groups like solid (sodium, potassium, iron, aluminium,
zi ete), liquid (bromine and mercury) and gas (nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, helium, etc.) at room
=2perature. We can also classify elements on the basis of nature of element like metals (sodium, gold,
syez, magnesium, iron, etc.), non-metals (oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, helium, etc.) and metalloids (boron,
smn. germanium, etc.)
The above ways of classification are actually very simple and is not based on any fundamental property
3 atomic weight of elements. The classification based on fundamental property can co-relate other
we can generalise the properties of that particular class.

BENEFITS OF CLASSIFICATION
Classification of elements makes our study easy and brings many benefits to us. Some of them en.
follows : |
4 We need to study only general properties of that class.
Q We need to classify the member on the basis of characteristic property of the classification.
4 There is no need to find specific properties of the member of that class.
Q We can predict general properties of each member of the group.

DIFFERENT ATTEMPTS OF CLASSIFICATION

In earlier times, many chemists presented their ideas for the classification of the elements Enow- -
that time. The attempts of some chemists who have set some milestones in the history of classificetic: -
elements are discussed below.

3.2 DOBEREINER’S TRIADS

Dobereiner’s triads were the very first attempt to sort the elements into some logical order by t=
physical properties. In 1829, the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner presented ==
observations, according to which there were groups of three elements (“triads”) which had similar pays:
properties. He also said that some properties of elements like atomic weight and density in a triad follm:
trend when the value of the middle element in the triad would be exactly or approximately equal w=
arithmetic mean of atomic mass of the other two elements.
Group of three elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses then?
atomic mass of middle element is the arithmetic mean of first and last elements then the
properties are almost similar.
This can be seen by the following examples :
Example 1. The atomic masses of lithium, sodium and potassium are 6.9, 23 and 39.1 respectively. £
these elements the atomic mass of sodium is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of lithium 2
potassium
Atomic mass of sodium = (Atomic mass of lithium + Atomic mass of potassium) / 2
23 = (6.9 + 39.1) / 2
This implies that the properties of sodium, lithium and potassium are almost similar.
Example 2. The atomic masses of calcium, strontium and barium are 40.1, 88.7 and 137.3 respectivel’
In these elements the atomic mass of strontium is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of calcium 2=
barium
Atomic mass of strontium = (Atomic mass of calcium + Atomic mass of barium) / 2
88.7 = (40.1 + 137.3) / 2
This implies that the properties of calcium, strontium and barium are almost similar.
Example 3. The atomic masses of chlorine, bromine and iodine are 35.5, 81.2 and 126.9 respectively. Ie
these elements the atomic mass of bromine is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of chlorine and iodine.
 The Periodic Table &} |: ees

Atomic mass of bromine = (Atomic mass of chlori ne + Atomic mass of iodine) / 2

| 81.5 = (35.5 + 126.9) / 2
This implies that the properties of chlorine, bromine and iodine are almost similar.
Example 4.
The atomic masses of sulphur, selenium and tellunum are 32.1, 79.9 and 127.6
spectively. In these elements the atomic mass of selenium is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of
giphur and tellurium.
Atomic mass of selenium = r + Atomic mass of tellurium) / 2
(Atomic mass of sulphu
. 79.9 = (32.1 + 127.6) / 2
This imphes that the properties of sulphur, selenium and tellurium are almost similar.
Example 5. The atomic masses of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are 12, 14 and 16 respectively. In these
gements the atomic mass of nitrogen is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of carbon and oxygen.
Atomic mass of nitrogen = (Atomic mass of carbon + Atomic mass of oxygen) / 2
14 = (12 + 16)/2
This implies that the properties of carbon, nitrogen and oxygen are almost similar.
Example 6. The atomic masses of iron, cobalt and nickel are 55.8, 57.3 and 58.7 respectively. In these
gements the atomic mass of cobalt is the arithmetic mean of atomic masses of iron and nickel.
Atomic mass of cobalt = (Atomic mass of iron + Atomic mass of nickel) / 2
57.3 = (55.8 + 58.7) / 2
This implies that the properties of iron, cobalt and nickel are almost similar.
Dobereiner’s law of triads failed for the following reasons:
3 The elements discovered later could not be arranged in the form of triads.
3 This law could not be satisfied by the elements with very low atomic mass or with very high atomic
mass. Take the example of F, Cl and Br. Atomic mass of Cl is not an arithmetic mean of atomic masses
of F and Br.
J As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately, the law was unable to remain
strictly valid.

9.3 NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES

John Alexander Reina Newlands (November 26, 1837— July 29, 1898) noted a pattern in the atomic
sructure of elements with similar chemical properties and contributed in a significant way to the
development of the periodic law.
In 1864 he published his concept of the periodicity of the chemical elements, which he had arranged in
ader of increasing atomic weight. He pointed out that every eighth element in this group is similar in
properties and suggested a similarity with the intervals of the musical scale. Thus Law of Octaves can be
stated as follows:
According to Newlands, “The physical and chemical properties of an element are similar to
every eighth element when they are arranged in increasing order of atomic masses.”
This can be seen by the following example,
Elements Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine
Atomic weight 7 9 11 12 14 16 19
 ae
: “A
i
.

;
ae ¥4| ICSE Chemiatry-9

Elements Sodium Magnesium | Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulphur Mori | j

Atomic weight 23 24 27 28 31 32 35.5 |i

In the above table we can see that similar properties of lithium can be seen in sodium (eighth elemeny
Similarly there are other pairs like beryllium and magnesium, boron and aluminium, carbon and Silicon F
nitrogen and phosphorus, oxygen and sulphur and fluorine and chlorine.
This law failed because the elements of the atomic weight above chlorine do not follow this law.

Practice makes perfect

1. Why was the classification of elements needed?
2. Name the set of three elements which are known as Dobereiner’s triads.
3. What was the basis of Dobereiner’s classification?
4. State Newlands’ law of octaves.
5. Why was Newlands’ law of octaves discarded?

5.4 MEANING OF PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION

“Periodic means repetition after certain interval.”
Periodic classification of elements stands for repetition of properties of elements after certain interval
when they are arranged in particular order. In the earlier times, classification proposed by Newlands gave
this idea of repetition of properties on the basis of atomic masses.

5.5 MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC LAW

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian scientist arranged the elements in increasing order of their
relative atomic masses. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law states that :
“The properties of elements are the periodic function of their relative atomic masses.”
OR
“The physical and chemical properties of an element are repeated after certain interval if
they are arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses.”
Mendeleev arranged all 63 elements; which were discovered till his time; in the order of their increasing
relative atomic masses in a tabular form. It is known as Mendeleev’s periodic table. He divided the table in
eight columns and seven rows. The columns are known as groups and rows are known as periods.

Dmitri Mendeleev was born in Tobolsk, Russia, on February 8, 1834. After receiving education in
science in Russia and Germany, he became a professor and conducted research in chemistry.
Mendeleev is best known for his discovery of the periodic law, which he introduced in 1869, and for
his formulation of the periodic table of elements. He died in St. Petersburg, Russia, on February 2,
1907.
 a|
: by LI
oe
121 Bie
STRUCTURE OF MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE:
4 Mendeleey divided his pe
riodic table in cight groups and seven periods.
J Groups from | to VIT are
meant for normal elements and group VIII is for transition elements,
4 Groups from 1 to VII have
been divided in two sub groups, while group VIII is meant for three
elements.

a ae _ GROUP |
Sj{8 ie 1 ble vm ob
ole tm ble W ble v ble Wi ble vm ble
; 4) 3 is be | —_ | 2 |
at a a 1 ERS
(2{ 0 4 ROSY YOM 5 SF A Sake 7 9 0.
3/m 12 13 4 15 1610 foea7. 6 |
oe: Al ed Lysine Clenen.| Ar eH
Iv 20 2 22 23 24 5 26 Aoi Bae”)
4 a Se ul Vp ig pin fe} Go}
| |y | 7 We 31 vy 35. % |
tos Cu Zn | Ge So Brae Ks ‘s -
| oiw 38 39 40 41 a2 43 “4 See
|S Se y ra Nb Mo Tec Rul Rh Pd
| | van peep 48 49 50 lnaso! 5A
= Cd | In Sn I Xe F Ten
| 56 72 B 74 5 76 peas
gta Ba et Hf Te w Re Os ir Pt
x ty Dag 80 81 82 83 Ce a67 7)
Au nN Pb Bi Po Rn
x 88 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
7 Ra if Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds
|x 1h 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Rg Cn | Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Higher | RO | RO | RO, | RO | RO | RO | RO RO, “
|
Volatile

leoteoetes ((RHs),) | RH, RH; RH, RH

S7 | 58

Periods from 4'* to 7 have been divided in two series: 1*' series and 2™ series.
Elements are arranged in the periodic table in the increasing order of their relative atomic masses.
Elements having similar properties have been kept in the same group. For example; lithium,
potassium, rubidium, etc. are in1* group.
Using the given general formulae; the formula of oxides and hydrides can be written for the elements
of each group. For example; hydrogen, sodium, potassium, etc. belong to the first group. The general
formula of oxides for the elements of 1st group is R,O. Accordingly they form H,O, Na,0O, K,0O, ete.

MERITS OF MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE:

(i) Grouping of elements : Mendeleev divided all elements only in eight groups which helped in
the general study of elements.
 mM
U J.
ae 122
(ii) Discovery of new elements : Mondelooy left some blank spaces in his periodic table in orde, ti
place the clemonts having similar propertios in the same group. Therefore, discovery of new element,
became easier.
For example: titanium bras been placed in 4!" group, leaving a blank space adjacent to it in 3rd Broup,
Similarly, arsenic has been placed in 6'" group; leaving two adjacent spaces blank. These spaces have been
occupied by scandium, gallium and germanium after their subsequent discovery.
(iii) Prediction of the properties of the elements ; Mendeleev predicted the properties of SOme
elements on the basis of general properties of other elements of the same group and named them ag
eka-boron, eka-aluminium and eka-silicon. He gave the name of these elements prefixing the word ‘eka’ ,,
the name of the preceding elements.
Seandium, gallium and germanium have been discovered Jater and took the place of eka-carbon
eka-aluminium and eka-silicon, respectively in the gap left in the Mendeleev’s periodic table; as thei,
properties were exactly similar to the predicted elements.
(iv) Blank group for Noble gases : Noble gases were discovered much later after Mendeleev. Aft,,
the discovery of noble gas, they were placed in a separate group called zero group, after VIII group, withoy;
making any disturbance to the arrangement of any elements in the Mendeleev’s periodic table. Noble gage,
are chemically un-reactive and present in very low concentration in the atmosphere.
(v) Correction of incorrect atomic masses : Atomic masses of some elements did not justify its
position in periodic table on the basis of properties of that group. Mendeleev suggested the correction jp
atomic masses which were further verified by advanced techniques for calculating atomic masses. For
example; the atomic mass of beryllium was corrected from 13.5 to 9. In the similar way the atomic masses of
gold and platinum were also corrected.

LIMITATIONS OF MENDELEEV'S PERIODIC TABLE

(i) Position of Hydrogen : Hydrogen has been placed in 1® group with alkali metals, since
hydrogen makes compound in the same way as alkali metals do. On the other hand, hydrogen exists as
diatomic molecule with non-metallic properties similar to halogens and hydrogen makes covalent
compounds like halogens. Thus, on the basis of properties, hydrogen is similar to halogen, so hydrogen may
be placed with halogens but Mendeleev did not explain about this anomaly.
(ii) Position of Isotopes : Elements having same atomic number but different atomic masses are
known as isotopes. Although isotopes were discovered after Mendeleev, but it became a challenge to
accommodate those isotopes in Mendeleev’s periodic table without disturbing the order of elements.
(iii) Different element in same group: The elements like copper and silver have no similarity with
the elements of 1** group like sodium and potassium. But they were placed in the 1** group.
(iv) Similar elements in different places : Platinum is least reactive like gold and silver and placed
in the bottom of metal reactivity series but in periodic table gold and silver were placed in1™ group whereas |
platinum is placed in 8° group along with osmium and iridium.
(v) Electronic configuration : Placement of elements was not correlated with their electronic |
configuration.
(vi) Wrong order of elements : Mendeleev placed many elements in wrong order of their increasing |
i

atomic masses in order to place elements having similar properties in similar group.
Example : The atomic mass of nickel is less than that of cobalt; in spite of that cobalt is placed before |
nickel. The atomic mass of chromium is 50.20 and the atomic mass of vanadium is 50.94. In spite of this,
chromium is placed after vanadium.
 retat Il

Spree |
The Periodic Table & YF) ea

ATOMIC NUMBER As A FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTY

In 19138, the English Ph t
ysicist Henryy Moseley y studied the frequencies generated by the differen
elements when they were bombarded on X-rays. He noticed that the X-
ray spectra thus formed has a i
linear
b es 6F
lation with the atomic
. ry t . > e)

numbers (Z) of elements. He observed that when

frequencies are plotte . lott Y ti, t
don a graph paper against their atomic numbers then tt gives a straignt line. 1hus,‘
" . 7 7

he proposed that ato mic number is a more fundamental property of an element thas is
atomils
weight.

5.6 MODERN PERIODIC LAW

The modern periodic law is based on Mosley’s experiment which finds that the physical and chemical
properties of the elements are determined by their atomic numbers instead of their atomic weights. The
modern periodic law states that:
“The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their
atomic numbers.” OR
The physical and chemical properties of an element are repeated after certain interval if
cs . . . . -

they are arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers.”

STRUCTURE OF MODERN PERIODIC TABLE (LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE)

All elements are arranged in an increasing order of their atomic numbers. The two main structural
features of the long form of periodic table are groups and periods.

GROUPS
There are 18 vertical columns in the periodic table. These vertical columns are called groups or
families. Elements having similar chemical and physical properties are placed in the same group.
All the elements in the same group should have similar electronic configurations.
Elements in group 1 and group 2 placed to the extreme left of the periodic table are metals.
Groups
1 4 18
if Je2 13 14 15 16 17/__
2
3 345
67 8 9 101112
Periods sam> 4
5
6
7
Fig. 5.1 Groups and periods
Elements in group 13 to 17 placed to the right side of the periodic table are non-metals.
Elements in group 18 are inert-gas or noble gas elements.
Elements in the group 3 to group 12 are transition elements generally exhibit intermediary
Properties.
 Modern Periodic Table (Long Form of Periodic Table)

(Metals) The zigzag line

(Metalloids) (Non-metais) Separates the
metals from the
Group NuMBER non-metals

—
=
«o

Hydrogen Group Numser

1.0
2
13 14 15 16 17
3 4
™

wo
5
wo
oOo

2| Li Be
— eee B Cc N fe) F
Boron Carbon | Nisocen | Oxygen | Fisrre

S
be

«©
o
Qo
=

ry
Qo
2

rm 12 Group NumBer 13 14

Vv
3] Na Mg 45 16 17
er | 3 4 5 6 7
Pp Cc!
8 9 10 11 42 eae
at} elo 2 hale h

Sificon a Suipnur ae

owe
"

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 #4 35
4 K Ca Sc Ti

-
V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga
Potassium] Calcium | Scandium] Titanium | Vanadium Chromium | Manganese
Ge As
Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium | Gerranum§f
39.4 40.1 45.0 478 50.9 52.0 Arsenic | Selenum | Sromne
54.9 55.9 58.9 687 63.5 65.4 69.7 726 74.9 730 73.9
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47
ails

48 49

x
50 51

n
>

ao
a
N
2
Zz

re]
2 hale

Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag

O00
Rubidium | Strontium | Yttrium | Zirconium | Niobium
Cd In Sn Sb Te |
Molybdenum} Technetium| Ruthenium] Rhodium | Palladium] Silver | Cadmium
85.5 87.6 889 912 92.9
Indium Tn Antmony 9 Tefumum | locne
95.9 (99) 101.4 102.3 106.4 107.9 112.4 14.8
im

a
-

1187 121.8
ban

127.6 1263
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85
6 | Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt
Caesium | Barium [Lanthanum] Hafnium | Tentalum
Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At
Tungsten | Rhenium | Osmium Iridium | Platinum Gold Mercury
132.9 137.3 | Thatlium Lead Bismucn | Potonium 9 Ascasne
rat

138.9 178.5 181.0 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.6 204.4 272 208.0 (219) (210)
87 88 89
7 |. Fr Ra | Act | 104 | 105 | 106 | 107 | 108 | 109 | 110 111 112 113 114 115 116
Francium | Radium | Actinium Rf
117 118
Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh
(223) (226) (227) — |Rutherford'tum} Dubnium |Seaborgium} Bohrium Fl Mc Lv Ts Og
| Hassium | Melinerium | Da ium | Roentgeniuny ¢ Nitonium | Fleromum | Moscoveum |Livermonum| Tennessine | Oganesson

Metals” \Non-Metals
58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67
*Lanthanoides | 68 69 70 71
Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er
Cerium |Praseodymium Neodymium|Promethium| Samarium | Europlum
Tm Yb Lu
|Gadolinium| Terbium Dysprosium} Holmium | Erbium | Thulium | Yiterbium | Lutetum
140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0 157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.5
90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
_ Th
**Actinoides | Thorium Pa
|Protactinium)
U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
Uranium | Neptunium| Plutonium | Americium} Curlum | Berkelium Californlum] Einstenium| Fermium |Mendetevium] Nobelum
232.0 (231) 238.1 (237) (242) (243) (247) {245) (251) (254) (253) (258) (254) (257)
 i)
ae
U8)
The Periodic Table ha nae
PERIODS
There ave seven
"y

horizontal
rows in the poriodic table, Those rows are called periods,
Kach period ropresents a different principal energy level (shell).
[In each element, valence electrons
ave placed in tho principal
ohorgy lovel (valence orbit).
All periods do not contain equal number
of © lomonts. This is because different periods contain different
number of orbits. For oxampl ©, the first period contains only Ist shell and therefore, it can accommodate
only two elements while the second poriod has 8 eloments because it contains 8 electrons in valence shell.
Table 5.1 : Number of Elements in Different Periods
Period Number of the shell filled Common name Elements in the period
\ n=l Very short period 2
2 n=2 Short period 8
8 n=3 Short period 8
4 n=4 Long period 18
5 n=5 Long period 18
6 n=6 Very long period 32
7 n=7 Incomplete period 32
(old name) Last period

IDENTIFICATION OF GROUP AND PERIOD OF AN ELEMENT

The placement of an element in periodic table is correlated with electronic configuration. If we know
about the electronic configuration of an element then its placement in the periodic table that is its group
and period number can be known. We can do this with the help of the following formulas.
Period Number :
Period number of an element = Number of shells in electronic configuration of an element
Group Number :
Case 1: If valence electron 1 or 2 then,
Group number of an element = Number of valence electron
Case 2 : If valence electrons are 3 to 8 then,
Group number of an element = 10 + number of valence electron
Case 3 : If penultimate shell is incomplete (more than 8 electrons) then,
Group number = (Total number of valence electrons + Total number of electrons in penultimate shell) — 8
For example :
(i) Find the placement of the element with atomic number 4.
Electronic configuration = 2, 2
Period number = Number of shells
=2
= 2nd period
Group number = Number of valence electron:
=2
= 2nd group
 nM
Sesh +Vif ICSE Chemistry-9

(ii) Find the placement. of the cloment with atomic number 7,

. Electronic configuration = 2, 6
Period number = number of shells
=2
= 2™ period
Group number = 10 + number of valence electrons
=10+6
= 15'" group
(iii) Find the placement of the element with atomic number 24.
Electronic configuration = 2, 8, 12, 2
Period number = number of shells
=4
= 4"" period
Group number = (total number of valence electrons + total number of electrons in penultimate shell)-;
=(2+12)-8

= 6" group

1. State the periodic law on which Mendeleev’s first periodic table was based.
2. Name the elements whose properties were predicted by Mendeleev.
3. State Mendeleev’s modern periodic law.
4, Name the long periods in Mendeleev’s periodic table. How many elements are present in each ¢
these periods?
5. What are the horizontal rows and vertical columns in a periodic table known as?
6. How many groups and periods are there in the long form periodic table?
7. Give the name of first period.

ALKALI METALS
Elements placed in group 1 are known as alkali metals because they form alkali on reaction with water
at different temperatures.
Table 5.2 : Elements of group 1 (Alkali Metals)
—

Element Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration _

Lithium Li 3 2,1 ———

Sodium Na 11 2, 8,1 —
Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8,1 —
Rubidium Rb 37 2, 8, 18, 8, 1 ——
Caesium Cs 55 2,8,18,18,8,1
Francium Fr 87 2,8, 18, 32,18,8,1 J
characteristics of Alkali Metals
(i) Alkali metals have one valence electron.
(ii) All these elements ave metallic in nature,
(iii) Alkali metals shows +1 valency.
(iv) Alkali metals are electropositive in nature.
(vy) Alkali metals are very good reducing agents.
(vi) Alkali metals are very soft and can be cut with the help of knife.
(vii) Alkali metals have very low melting and boiling points.
(viii) Alkali metals impart characteristic colours to the flame when they are heated in a Bunsen burner
flame.
Li Na K Rb Cs

Crimson red Golden yellow Pale violet Red violet Blue

(ix) The alkali metals are highly reactive elements.
(x) Alkali metals on reaction with air form basic oxides.
(xi) Their hydroxides are strong bases or alkali.

ALKALINE EARTH METALS

Elements placed in group 2 are called alkaline earth metals. These metals are named after their oxides,
the alkaline earths. Their oxides are basic (alkaline) in nature when combined with water. Compounds of
these metals are found in upper layer of earth’s crust.
Table 5.3 : Elements of group 2 (Alkaline Earth Metals)
Element Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration
Beryllium Be 4 2,2
Magnesium Mg 12 2, 8, 2
Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2
Strontium Sr 38 2, 8, 18, 8, 2
Barium Ba 56 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 2
Radium Ra 88 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2

Characteristics of Alkaline Earth Metals

(i) Alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons.
(i) All these elements are metallic in nature.
(iii) Alkaline earth metals shows +2 valencies.
(iv) Alkaline earth metals are electropositive in nature.
(v) Alkaline metals are good reducing agents.
(vi) The densities of alkaline earth metals are larger than those of alkali metals.
(vii) The melting and boiling points of alkaline earth metals are quite low but are higher than those of
alkali metals.
 MP 7
_T x NCEE CKaSHegs
all other members give ch aT atterig,
(viii) Among the members of this group except Be and Mg,
colouration to the flame.
Ba Ra
Ca Sr

Brick red Crimson red Grassy green Crimson red

(xi) Alkaline earth metals are quite reactive elements.

(x) Ca, Sr and Ba react with cold water, liberating hydrogen gas. Magnesium decomposes hot w, bey
Beryllium does not react with water.
(xi) All the alkaline earth metals burn in oxygen to form oxides. Be, Mg and Ca form oxides,
2Mg +O, —> 2MgO
xii) The hydroxide of these elements can be formed either by y dissolving g metal oxides in water or by
(xii)
reaction of these elements with water.
(xiii) Alkaline earth metals react with halogens directly to form halides having general formula, Mx,
Mg + Cl, —= MgCl,

HALOGENS
These elements are called the halogens (from the Greek hals, “salt,” and gennan, “to form or generate
because they are literally the salt formers. )
Element Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration |
Fluorine F 9 2% |
Chlorine Cl 17 2.87 |
Bromine Br 35 2, 8, 18, 7 ]
Iodine I 53 2, 8, 18, 18, 7 |
Astatine At 85 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 7 _|

Characteristics of Halogens
(i) Halogens have seven valence electrons.
(ii) All these elements are non-metallic in nature.
(iii) Halogens show —1 valency in electrovalent compounds.
(iv) Halogens are electronegative in nature.
(v) All halogens exist as diatomic molecule (Cl,, F,, Br., I,).
(vi) Melting / boiling points of halogen increase down the group. For example, at room temperature,
Cl, and F, are gases; Br, is liquid and I, is solid.
(vii) All the halogens are coloured. The colour of halogens is due to absorption of some wavelengths of
visible light by their molecules to cause the promotion of electrons to higher energy shell.
F, (Pale yellow); Cl, (greenish yellow); Br, (dark red); I, (Violet).
(viii) Halogens combine with metals to form‘ionic halides. With non-metals the halogens form covalent
compounds.
(ix) All halogens form hydrides with formula HX (HF, HCl, HBr, HD).
(x) Halogens act as strong oxidizing agents.
 i
The Periodic Table § Y1') aa |

ZERO GROUP
The eighteenth group in the modern periodic table is also known as
the zero group. The elements
present in the eighteenth kroup of the periodic table are called noble gases. Noble gas is translated from
the German noun Edelgas. It was first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level
of reactivity,

Table 5.4 : Elements of zoro group (Noble Gas Elements)

| Stement Symbol Atomic number Electronic configuration

Hehum He 2 2
| Neon Ne 10 2,8

=
Argon Ay 18 2, 8,8
{ Krypton Kr 36 2, 8, 18, 8
Xenon Xe 54 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
Radon Ru 86 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

Characteristics of Noble Gases

(i) Noble gases have eight valence electrons except helium. It has two valence electrons (duplet).
| (i) Noble gases exist as mono atomi
c elements.
(iii) All these gases are non-metallic in natur
e.
(iv) Noble gases have very low melting and boilin
g points.
(v) The noble gases are quite soluble in water.
(vi) These gases are found in the atmosphere in small traces.
(vii) They generally do not form compounds with other elements due to their stable electronic
configuration.

Practice makes perfect

1. Name the group of noble gases.
2. What is the common name of the elements found in group 3 to group 12 ?
3. Why do the elements placed in group 1 show +1 valency ?
4. What is the name of the first group in the periodic table ?
5. Identify the element X which has a dark red colour liquid and has seven valence electrons.
6. Name the group which contains the elements with eight valence electrons.
7. Name the group of elements which contains seven valence electrons.
 Der

- >; )

__Revise Twice, Score Well cc

—_——

|
‘ : benefits to us. Some of th €M are .
Classification sfelementta makes our study easy and brings many
follows:
¢ We need to study only general properties of that class. }
fication,
* We need to classify the member on the basis of characteristic prop erty of the classi |
|
+ There is no need to find specific properties of the member of that class. |

* Wecan predict general properties of each member of the group.

In 1829, the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner said that if group of three elements ate
arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses then if atomic mass of middle element ig the :
arithmetic mean of first and last elements then their properties are almost similar.
|
Reasons for the failure of Dobereiner’s triads: |
* The elements discovered later could not be arranged in the form of triads. }

* This law could not be satisfied by the elements with very low atomic mass OF with very hig)
atomic mass. For example F, Cl and Br.
¢ As the techniques improved for measuring atomic masses accurately, the law was unable j,
remain strictly valid.
According to Newlands, “The physical and chemical properties of an element are similar to even, |
eighth element when they are arranged in increasing order of atomic masses.”
Newland’s law of octaves failed because the elements of the atomic weight above chlorine do ng
follow this law.
Periodic classification of elements stands for repetition of properties of elements after certain
interval when they are arranged in particular order.
Mendeleev’s periodic law states that :
The properties of elements are the periodic function of their relative atomic masses.
OR
The physical and chemical properties of an element are repeated after certain interval if they are
arranged in increasing order of their atomic masses.
Mendeleev arranged all 63 elements; which were discovered till his time; in a tabular form. It is
known as Mendeleev’s periodic table. He divided the table in eight columns and seven rows. The
columns are known as groups and rows are known as periods.
Structure of Mendeleev’s periodic table:
+ Mendeleev divided his periodic table in eight groups and seven periods.
* Groups from | to VII are meant for normal elements and group VIII is for transition elements.
* Groups from I to VII have been divided in two sub groups, while group VIII is meant for three
elements.
* Periods from 4th to 7th have been divided in two series: 1st series and 2nd series.
* Elements are arranged in the periodic table in the increasing order of their relative atomic
masses.
¢ Elements having similar properties have been kept in the same group. For example; lithium,
potassium, rubidium, etc. are in 1st group.
 The Poriodic Table fry) we
‘
sii —_
| ———
_
eee

‘des can be written for the

‘

* Using the given general formulae; the formula of oxides ae ages fale
| olements ofeach group. For example; hydrogen, soci), polaasitin, © wc, De nine Lo3 ithe E first
: gre :
‘roup,
| The general
general formul
for a ofOaoxidesaaafor therycloments of . Lat Kroul
rroup in yO. Accordingly they form H,0,
2
Na yO, K,O, ete.
J Merits of Mendeleev's periodic table:
* Grouping of elements
¢ Discovery of new elements
* Prediction of the properties of the elem
ents
¢ Blank group for noble gases
* Correction of incorrect atomic
masses
4 Limitations of Mendeleey’s periodic tabl
e :
Position of hydrogen
No place for isotopes with different atomic mass
@

Different types of element in same grou

p
©

Similar types of elements in different plac

es
¢

Placement of elements was not correlated with their electronic configuration.

%¢

Many elements were placed in wrong order of their increasing atomic masses in order to place
*

elements having similar properties in similar grou

p.
3 Modern periodic law states that
The physical and chemical properties of the elements are the periodic function of their atomic
numbers.
OR
The physical and chemical properties of an element are repeated after certain interval if they are
arranged in increasing order of their atomic numbers.
Q The two main structural features of the long form of periodic table are groups and periods.
GO There are 18 groups (vertical columns) or families in the periodic table. Elements having similar
chemical and physical properties are placed in the same group.
+ Elements in group 1 and group 2 placed to the extreme left of the periodic table are metals.
+ Elements in group 13 to 17 placed to the right side of the periodic table are non-metals.
¢ Elements in group 18 are inert gas or noble gas elements.
+ Elements in the group 3 to group 12 are transition elements generally exhibit intermediary
properties.
4 There are 7 periods (Horizontal rows) in the periodic table.
Each period represents a different principal energy level (shell).
oO

Period number of an element = Number of shells in electronic configuration of an element

ou oO

If valence electron 1 or 2 then, group number of an element = number of valence electron

o

If valence electrons are 3 to 8 then, group number of and element = 10 + number of valence electron
If penultimate shell is incomplete (more than 8 electrons) then, group number = (total number of
valence electrons + total number of electrons in penultimate shell) — 8
; Elements placed in group 1 are known as alkali metals because they form alkali on reaction with
water at different temperatures.
4 TH
a2

2 Characteriatica of alkali motile:

¢ Alkol metals have one valence oloct
ron,
* All theae elomonta are motalle in
nature,
¢ Alkali metals shown +1 valoney,
@ Alkal metals are oloctropositive in nature,
¢ Alkali metals are very good reducing agente,
¢ Alkah metals are very soft and can be cut with the halp of Ienifo.
¢ Alkah metals have very low molting and boiling points.
:
¢ Alkah metals impart characteristic colours to the flame when they are heated ina Bunsen burn,
flame.
u Na K Rb ce
Crimson red Golden yellow Pale violet Rod violot Bluc
¢ The alkali metals are highly reactive elements.
Alkali metals on reaction with air form basic oxides.
¢ Their hydroxides are strong bases or alkali,
4 Elements placed in group 2 are called alkaline earth metals. Their oxides are basic (alkaline) in
nature when combined with water. Compounds of these metals are found in upper layer of earth’,
crust.
3 Characteristics of alkaline earth metals :
Alkaline earth metals have two valence electrons.
¢-Oo @

All these elements are metallic in nature.

Alkaline earth metals shows + 2 valencies.
Alkaline earth metals are electropositive in nature.
eo

Alkaline metals are good reducing agents.

¢$

The densities of alkaline earth metals are larger than those of alkali metals.
The melting and boiling points of alkaline earth metals are quite low but are higher than those of
alkali metals.
+ Among the members of this group except Be and Mg, all other members give characteristic
colouration to the flame.
Ca. Sr Ba Ra
Brick red Crimson red Grassy green Crimson red

« Alkaline earth metals are quite reactive elements.

« Ca, Sr and Ba react with cold water, liberating hydrogen gas. Magnesium decomposes hot water.
Beryllium does not react with water.
« All the alkaline earth metals burn in oxygen to form oxides. Be, Mg and Ca form oxides.
2Mg +0, —> 2MgO
«+ The hydroxide of these elements can be formed either by dissolving metal oxides in water or by
reaction of these elements with water.
——
 my |

The Periodic Table & &}

= —-
a —__—,

° Alkaline earth metals renet with halogens directly to form halides having general formula, MX 4.
My +Cl, ——> MgCl,
3 These vlements are called the halogens because they are literally the salt formers.
2 Characteristics of halogens :
Halogens have seven valence electrons.
*

All these elements are non-metallic in nature,

Halogens shows —1 valency in electrovalent compounds.
Halogens are electronegative in nature.
All halogens exist as diatomic molecule (Clo, Fy, Bre, [,).
Melting / boiling points of halogen increase down the group. For example, at room temperature,
Cl, and F, are gases; Br, is liquid and I, is solid.
All the halogens are coloured. The colour of halogens is due to absorption of some wavelengths of,
visible hght by their molecules to cause the promotion of electrons to higher energy shell.
F, (Pale yellow); Cl, (greenish yellow); Br, (dark red); I, (Violet).
Halogens combine with metals to form ionic halides. With non-metals the halogens form covalent
compounds.
> All halogens form hydrides with formula HX (HF, HCl, HBr, HI.
¢ Halogens act as strong oxidizing agents.
The eighteenth group in the modern periodic table is also known as the zero group. The elements
present in the eighteenth group of the periodic table are called noble gases.
4 Characteristics of noble gases :
Noble gases have eight valence electrons except helium. It has two valence electrons (duplet).
Noble gases exist as mono atomic elements.
©

All these gases are non-metallic in nature.

%

Noble gases have very low melting and boiling points.

&¢

The noble gases are quite soluble in water.

©

These gases are found in the atmosphere in small traces.

¢

They generally do not form compounds with other elements due to their stable electronic
e*

configuration.
 Assignment -Section A

Question 1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within brackets.
(Dobereiner, Newlang,
Be... grouped eight elements together.
2. 1Sth group is also called 2.000.000.0000... group. (zero, nineteenth, F
3. Elements of group 17 are alsocalled .....00000....0...... (alkali metals, halogen,
4. Elements of group 2 are also called ........0000........ : (halogens, alkaline earth meta), §
5. First periodic table was given by wo... (Dobereiner, Mendelee, |
6. In Mendeleev's periodic table .00..........0000.. SPOUSE GN ysxescceccscccecaies columns. (two, eight, §
7. In modern periodic table, there are .................... BTOUPS ANG ...........0seeeeeee periods. (18, 7,
8. In triads. the atomic mass of the middle element was equal to the ........:0s of the rest tw,
elements. (sum, mean, §
9. Mendeleev's periodic table was based on ........ceccsccceeee « (atomic number, atomic max,
10. Modern periodic table was based on ..................... (atomic mass, atomic numbe) |
LL. There Were w..eeeseesseeeee groups With... cee Colwmins ANd ......cs.senrrenss periods in Mendeleev, |
periodic table. (eight, seven, two F

Es
.: Newland 2. Zero 3. Halogens 4. Alkaline earth metals 5. Mendeleev 6. Eight, three 7. 18, 7 8. Mean
9. Atomic mass 10. Atomic number 11. Eight, two, seven

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. Alkaline earth metals :
(a) Group 1 (b) Group 17 (c) Group 2 (d) Group 0
. First periodic table :
(a) Dobereiner (b) Mendeleev (c) Newland (d) None of these
. Limitations of Dobereiner triad :
(a) He failed to arrange all the known elements
(b) The law was not applicable to the elements of same group
(c) Both (a) and (b)
(d) None of these
. Mendeleev corrected the atomic mass of these elements :
(a) Gold (b) Silver (c) Copper (d) Iron
. Mendeleev’s first periodic table was based on :
(a) Atomic mass , (b) Atomic number
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
. Long form of periodic table is based on :
(a) Atomic mass (b) Atomic number
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
 be. [4 th

The Periodic Table bt 14 me

. Noble Gases are found in -

(a) Group 3 (b) Group 2 (c) Group 18
(d) Group 1
& Number of clements in one trind :
(a) 2 (b) 3 (e) 4 (d) None of these
9 Radioactive cloments in the periodic table
;
(a) Representative elements (b) ‘Transition elements
(c) Inner-transition elements (d) Noble gases
10. Salt formers are :
(a) Halogens (b) Alkali metals
(c) Alkaline earth metals (d) None of these
11. Which of the following is not correct according to law
of octaves?
(a) The groups were inspired from the musical
notes.
(b) Eight elements were grouped together.
(c) The elements were grouped according to the atomic
number.
(ad) First element resembled the property
of every eighth element.

(c) | 2 | ) | 3%] ©] 4 | ( 7. | () | 8. | (b) | 9 | (c) | 10. | €)

(c)

Question 3. Match the following terms in column A with appropriate terms in column B :
Column A Column B
1. | Alkali metals (a) | Seventeen group
2. | Alkaline earth metals (b) | Newland
3 Groups (c) | Zero group
4 Halogens (d) | Seven
5. Law of Octaves (e) | I group
6 Mendeleev’s periodic table (f) | Eighteen
7. | Modern periodic table (g) | Dobereiner
8. | Noble gases (h) | U group
9. | Periods Qi) | Atomic number
10. | Triads Qj) _| Atomic mass

ee ———
1. (e) 2. (h) 3. (f) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (j) 7. (i) 8. (©) 9. (d) 10. (g)
7 ae
ac ICSE Chemist Pry-)

Question 4: Name the following :

Le Law given by Dobereiner.
. Law of octaves do not accommodate this group of elements.
& & bw
onmaonagwn

- Major anomaly in Mendeleev’s periodic table.

. Mendeleev corrected the atomic mass of these elements.
. Mendeleev left some gaps in the periodic table for these elements.
- Mendeleev’s periodic table is based on this property.
. Name of group 1 elements.
- Number of groups and periods in Mendeleey’s first periodic table.
- Number of groups and periods in modern periodic table.
- The modern periodic table is based on this property.
©
—

. This law showed the distinct periodicity among elements for the first time.
-

ne
—
1. Law of triads; 2. Noble gases; 3. Position of isotopes; 4. Gold and platinum; 5. Eka-aluminium and Eka-silicon;
6. Atomic mass; 7. Alkali metals; 8.8 groups with 2 columns each and 7 periods; 9.18 groups and 7 periods; 10. Atom;
number; 11. Law of octaves

Assignment-Section B

CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS

1. Why was the position of Hydrogen in the periodic table not fixed?
2. Which modern discovery led to a change in the Mendeleev’s periodic law?
3. What were the demerits of Mendeleev’s classification?
4. How are the groups and periods in the long form of periodic table numbered? How many elements até
there in each period?
. In which group of the periodic table do we find the salt formers?
. The elements found in the upper layers of the earth’s crust are found in which group of the periodit
table?
. How many elements are present in
(i) First period? (ii) Second period? (iii) Third period?
. How Mendeleev periodic table is helpful to correct the atomic mass of some elements?
9. Why discovery of elements became easier after the Mendeleev classification of elements?
10. What do you mean by periodic classification?
11. Why isotopes are not accommodated in first periodic table of Mendeleev?
 OY
The Periodic Tatle 137
_ APPLICATION BASE
D QUESTIONS
Elements A, B and © are the members of a trind, Hlement ‘A’ has atomic weight 40 and element
1. ‘cs
has atomic weight 137.6
(i) What is the atomic weight of (3°?
(ii) Identify A, 7 and C.!
. Identify the element Present
to

in the following groups and

(a) 5th period, group ] periods.
(b) 4th period, group J)
(c) 2nd period, group 16
(e) 4th period, group 18
(d) 4rd period, group 17
. Which one is a better fundamental property of atoms—atomic number or atomic weight (atomic
mass)? Why?
. The elements X, ¥ and 7 have the atomic mass 22, 44 and 66 respectively. They show similar
properties. Verify the law of
classification that they follow
. Why first period contains
.
two elements and second per
. S +i 4 ?

- Element X has two vale iod contains eight =e

nce electrons and total three shells. Fi in th ‘0d:
table. nd its group and period in the period
ic
. The elements P, Q, Rand S have
atomic numbers 5, 9, 14 and 26 resp
period number. ectively. Find their group and
. Find the atomic number of the elements which
are placed :
(a) 2nd period, group 15 (b) 3rd period, group 11
(c) 4th period, group 2 (d) 3rd period, group 18
(e) 4th period, group 1
9. The electronic configuration of some elements
are A: 2, 8, 8; B: 2, 8, 7; C: 2, 8, 8, 1; D: 2, 8, 2. Give
their group and period number.
10. Identify the element which form comp
ound in +2 valency and placed in period 3.
ii, A very soft metal M which can be cut with the
help of knife placed in Group 1 and period 3. Identify
the metal M.
=P| Practice isis th the Key to SuccessaS c
oo

ps
Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
_ 1. Give reasons for the following B :
(i) Elements with atomic number 9 and 17 are placed in the ware group.
Ans, Elements with atomic number 9 and 17 are placed in the same group because thiry have».
number of valence electrons. i
Electronic configuration of element with atomic number 9 = Z, 7.
Electronic configuration of element with atomic number 17 = 2, &, 7.
(ii) Chemical properties of sodium and potassium are similar to each other.
Ans.

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Q. 2. Explain the following:

(i) Alkaline earth metals form ionic compounds with valency +2.
Ans. On the basis of electronic configuration of alkaline earth metals, they have 2 valence electrons er
is found that they have low ionisation energy. Therefore, they can lose their 2 valence electrons €as.)
form ionic compounds.
(ii) Alkali metals are electropositive in nature.
DNAS) cco csucgnsscsaseicennavaten tenswam esas caieus baba eis BiS CTS Ae waaaaN ORGS EsaaNs Siu ara Sati pS ETESES 0 O94 wn ad RETEST

Ans.

BE. cssesccccieveespuumecnonceussemeossasaceessanseoumeensmrsnaREnieerteeeeES ee

Q. 3. Give the symbol and atomic number of the elements given below :
(i) Group VI Period 3
Ans. Element in period 3 means number of shells should be 3 and group VI means valence elect
should be 6. Therefore. electronic configuration of the element should be 2. %, 6
Atomic number = Total number of electrons = tote] number of protons
Atomic number = 2+ %+6= 16
Symbol of element = 5
 Gi) Group I Period 2
Ans.

(ili) Group V Poriod

2
Ans.

Ans.

Ans.

Ans. Atomic number in .@l

2 — 6; Electronic configuratio
n = %, 4
Number of shells = 2: Number of shells =
period number
Therefore, Period number
= 2
Number of valence electr
ons = 4
Group number =
10 + Number of va
lence electrons
Therefore, 8roup
number = 10 + 4 =
14
Carbon is Placed at Period 2 Grou
p 14.
Gi) go"®
Ans.

Ans.

i) Valence electrons
:
" Ans. Alkali
kali metals
tals have one valence electron
whereas halogen have 7 valence electrons.
i
aur:
140 ICSE Chemistry-0

(ii) Group number

Ans.
(iii) Atomicity
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(v) Colour
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(eoress aera nmnees
pesescener|nuesnenaneneonepesiernrmnsaoeetunsecesceenanrsees
|
Q. 6. Compare the zero group elements and second group elements on the basis of following propertig,
(i) Valence electrons
have cight valence electrons whereas second group elements have 2 vale,
Ans. Zero group clements
:
electrons,

(ii) Group number

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Solve the crossword puz zle and check your LQ.
Periodic Table
OR
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3. Elements of seventeenth group.
5. Law of triads was given by him.
8. Mendeleev's periodic table was based on this property.
9. Number of periods in the periodic table.
 2. Elements of Down
sec ond grou
p,
4. Law of Octave
S Was given
6. First Periodic by him.
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tion of Same properties
. after some
element S.

APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ pave!
15 Minutes — Genius
20 Minutes — Very good
25 Minutes
= Good
 Find the following
Word Search Puzzle
u improve your familiarity with terms involve in
this chapter: ords in given grid and
Mendeleev, Groups, P
eriods, Periodic table, Atomic number, Dobereiner, Newland, Triad, Octaves,
Halogens, Noble gases, Alk li metals,
Alkaline earth metal.
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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
10 Minutes Genius
15 Minutes Very good
20 Minutes Good
000
 STUDY OF FIRST ELEMENT-
HYDROGEN
Scope of Syllabus
| Study of the first element-Hydrogen
|
| Position of the non-metal (Hydrogen) in the periodic table and general group characteristics with reference,,b
| valency electrons, buming, ion formation applied to the above mentioned element.
a) Hydrogen from: water, dilute acids and alkalies.
(a) Hydrogen from water :
* The action of cold water on sodium, potassium and calcium.
* The action of hot water on magnesium.
* The action of steam on aluminium, zinc and iron ; (reversibility of reaction between iron and steam.
+ The action of steam on non-metal (carbon).
Students can be shown the action of sodium and calcium on water in the laboratory. They must be asked to
| make observations and write equations for the above reactions.
Application of activity series for the above mentioned reactions.
(b) Displacement of hydrogen from dilute acids :
The action of dilute sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid on metals : Mg, Al, Zn and Fe |
(To understand reasons for not using other metals and dilute nitric acid).
(c) Displacement of hydrogen from alkalies :
The action of Alkalies (NaOH, KOH) on Al, Zn and Pb — unique nature of these elements.
(ii) The preparation and collection of hydrogen by a standard laboratory method other than electrolysis.
In the laboratory preparation, the reason for using zinc, the impurities in the gas, their removal and the precautions
in the collection of the gas must be mentioned.
(iii) Industrial manufacture of hydrogen by Bosch process : |
¢ Main reactions and conditions |
* Separation of CO, and CO from hydrogen
|
(iv) Oxidation and reduction reactions
Differences in terms of addition and removal of oxygen /hydrogen. |
 he described the reaction
Rt eee on LOT disctivered hydrogen gas when uicw
gen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish
perwenen fronian atiate acid, which liberates hydro
ine first fo recognize hydrogen £48 as an element, by naming the gas from 4 metal-acid
reaction ‘inflammable air’. He thought that “inflammable air” was in fact identical
to the
pypothetical substance: called “phlogiston" and further in 1781 discovered that the gas
poduces water when burned in air. He is usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as

this element the name hydrogen (from

iy E586) Antoine Lavoisier gave
oP sees
areek - hydro meaning “water “and genes meaning “creator”).
Atomic Number ; 1; weight : 1.008 gram |
Atomic
configuration : 1 Arielea Levctaing
Electronic
———
Molecular formula: Hi. weight : 2
Gram molecular
Hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table.

6.1 POSITION IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

Period: 1
Group : 1[IA]

Hydrogen is placed in period 1 and group 1 in the periodic table due to its electronic configuration.
Hydrogen has one valence electron like other elements of group 1. Properties of hydrogen are unique due to
its one valence electron; it can lose it and form univalent positive (1*) ion like group 1 elements,
on other
pand it can gain electron like halogens and form univalent negative ion (1) therefore, hydrogen shows
some properties like group 1 alkali metals and some properties similar to group 17 halogens. The
correlation between properties of hydrogen and its placement in the periodic table is still disputed.

IIA IVA VA V IA VIIA] He}

eam, Sale ped fi
id

—
f
|
Ane

eae
ie
| /
‘

Fig. 6.1 Placement of hydrogen in periodic table

fiin facts: 1. The first gas balloon which was

launched in Paris in 1783 used hydrogen.
2. Sun, stars and planets of solar system have
hydrogen to produce energy.
3. It is also called rocket fuel used is rockets due
to highest calorific value.
 146 IOSE Shemiatincs0

PROPERTIES SIMILAR TO ALKALI METAL (GROUP 1)

alkali me tals.
Electronic configuration : Ilydrogon shows similar electronic configuration like
ee
—— -_— — -—— — -——__~- —.
Symbol Atomic numbor Electronic Valence electro,
i; Elomont
configuration

Hydrogen ll | l
_,.
Sy

Lithium Li 4 4
Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1 on
Potassium KK 19 2, 8, B, 1 —
idi
Rubidium Rb 37 2, 8, 18, 8, J —

Caesium Cs 65 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1 u

Francium Vr 87 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 ]

cit a , ;
Electronegativity : Electronegativity is the tendency of an atom to attract shared pair of elect,
Hydrogen shows electronegativity 2.2 which follows decreasing order from top to bottom in the group Whits
is a general ttrend in periodic table.
Hydrogen Lithium Sodium Potassium Rubidium Caesium

2.20 0.98 0.93 0.82 0.82 0.79

Electropositive nature : The tendency of an atom to form cation is known as electropositive natn,
Alkali metals and hydrogen forms cation by the loss of single electron from its valence shell.
H-le —~+ H*
Li-le™ —> Li*
Na —-le™ —> Na*
K-le~ —~» K*
Valency : Hydrogen shows 1* electrovalency like other alkali metals due to loss of its single Valen,
electron.
Halide formation : Hydrogen also reacts with halogens (X» = Fy, Cl,, Bry, 1.) and form halidek
alkali metals. These halides are ionic or polar covalent compounds and ionise in aqueous solution.
H, +X, —> 2HX |
H,+Cl,—> 2HCl |
Hydrogen chloride |

2Na+Cl, —> 2NaCl f

Sodium chloride

2K+Cl, —>» 2KCl

Potassium chloride
Oxide formation : On combustion, hydrogen and alkali metals gives their oxide.
2H, +O, —> 2H,O
4Na+O, ——> 2Na,0
Reducing nature : Hydrogen is a good reducing agent like other alkali metals because they loose the
one valence electron very easily.
 Study of First Element-

pROPERTIES SIMILAR TO HALOGE

N (GROUP 17)
fans ‘ Hydrogen is as like fluorine and chlorine.
Dintomig amolecule Hydrogen Also oxists as diatomic moloculn y form in nature like halogens,
gh a eee ee
Liv droyeon
lodine
lanay ye
Clyfornne | Seon

Electronegative 1
‘as
Cl,
J

ie‘ Bry I,

E
electronegativity ture
and form Halogens are electron
anions by gain of electrons. In egative elements duc » to their high
8 value of
similar manner hydrogen also gain electron and
arm univalent anion, ;
Non-metallic nature ae
: Hydrogen is y non-metal like other halogens that are Fluorine, ,
wmi
Chlorine,
ne and Iodine,
Valency : Hydroge
A Ben gain one electron and complete
sidition of electron in valence Shell. Hydrogen can form itscompounds
duplet like halogens which complete its octet by
in 1” electrovalency like halogens.
Reaction with metals : Hydrogen reacts with metals and form
compounds like halogens
2Na+Cl, —» 2NaCl
Sodium chloride

2Na+H,—>+ 2NaH
Sodium hydride

Potassium chloride

2K+H,—» 9KH
Potassium hydride
It exist as diatomic form like halogens.
Test for hydrogen gas: Bring burning splinter near to the mouth of test
tube. ‘Pop-up’ sound confirms
he presence of hydrogen gas.

6.2 OCCURRENCE
In Free State, it constitutes about 1% of the Earth’s crust and is the ninth most
abundant element found
jnature. It is found in traces in gases evolved during volcanic
eruptions.
In combined form, it is found in every living organism in combination with other elements like
carbon,
rygen and nitrogen. Water consists one-ninth hydrogen by mass. Hydrog
en is a major constituent of every
ganic compound like the fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas, etc), proteins, sugar, starch, fats,
irbohydrates, etc.

Practice makes perfect

1, Name the lightest element in nature.
2. What is the position of hydrogen in the periodic table?
3. How can you justify the position of hydrogen in group 1?
4. Why hydrogen and sodium both react with chlorine?
 i
a x Chomlatry-0

h. Why fossil fiels ire yood source of hydrogen?

© How much hydrogen ts found tn nature in free state?
7. Give two propertion of hydroyon whic h resemble with haloge ns —

6.3 PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

FROM WATER
gen gas and oxiq.
When metal reacts with water whether cold, hot or vapour then it liberates hydro Al,

hydroxides of those metals, react di

Action of cold water : Curtain reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium, ete react directly ,,.,
cold water present in the surroundings to form their hydroxides.
2KOH + He
Hydrogen
Potassium hydroxide

2Na+2H,0—>» 2NaOH + Hy
Sodium hydroxide Hydrogen

Ca+2H,O—» Ca(OH), + Hy
Calesxum hydroxide Hydrogen

Experiment 4 : Reaction of sodium with water

Aim : To show that sodium metal reacts with cold water and liberate Hydrogen gas.
Material Required ; A beaker half filled with water at room temperature, a piece of sodium met,)
Reaction Involved :
2Na +2H,0 —+ 2NaOH +H,
Procedure : Take the beaker and half fill it with water at room
temperature and mix few drops of acid base indicator ‘like
phenolphthalein then place the piece of sodium metal in that water.
Observation : There are three level of observations that are
observed in after placing the sodium metal in water. They are:
(i) The sodium metal immediately starts to melt and form a
red coloured solution.
(ii) The highly inflammable gas is evolve which is self ignites
after some time.
(111) At last a bright yellow flame is seen.

Fig. 6.3 Sodium metal starts to melt Fig. 6.4 : Self-ignition of hydrogen Fig. 6.5 : Burning with a bright flame
 Pf

149
conclusion / Inference ; After obsery ing these changes certain facts are concluded, They are:
(i) the sodium metal re acts vigorously with
i \ cold water. ; :
(ii) it produces hydroge n gas in the reaction which ignites itself and leads to the . burning ' of the
he whole

mixture.
pxperiment 2 : Reaction of catcium with wate
r
Aim: To show that caleium metal reacts with cold water
. > M4

Material Required : A beaker half filled with water at room

cetperTacure, a piece of calcium metal
hal
Reaction Involved :
Water

procedure : The small piece of calcium metal is added to water, it

_-ks to the bottom of the water,
Observation : There are two different observations in this
geriment. They are:
(i) Colourless gas bubbles evolve at a moderate rate. And a pop Fig. 6.6 Reaction of calcium and water
sound is heard w hena burning splinter is brought
near the
gas bubbles.
(ii) After some time the calcium metal dissolves and a white
coloured solution is formed.
Conclusion / Inference : The above observations can be
eceluded as follows:
(i) The gas evolved is hydrogen as it pops when
a glowing
splinter is brought near it.
. : : ; i Icium om hydroxi
(ii) The white coloured solution is of calcium hydroxide.
a ls
(iii) Reaction is less violent than sodi
um.
(iv) If red litmus paper dip in the beaker, it will turn into blue.

ACTION OF HOT WATER

Some metals are not very reactive, so they do not react with cold water in the surroundings but they
wact with hot water and form their oxides.
Reaction with magnesium : Magnesium reacts with boiling water to give magnesium oxide and
Berates hydrogen gas but this reaction is slow.
Mg+H,0—+» MgO + H,
Magnesium oxide Hydrogen

Action of steam on iron : Metals like iron, zinc, aluminium, etc are less reactive. They react only with
seam to form their oxides. Reaction between iron and steam is reversible.
3Fe+4H,O =—— Fe,0,+ 4H,
This reaction is reversible in nature. Ironoxide — Hydrogen
Zn+H,O—> ZnO + 4H,
Zine oxide Hydrogen

Aluminium oxide Hydrogen

me150 ICSE Chemistry-9

When metals react with steam, tho rate of reaction is faster. After some time reactions stops ag OXiq,
formed on the metals do not allow steam to further react.

FROM DILUTE ACIDS

Reactive metals easily react with dilute acids and liberate hydrogen gas but, less reactive Metals |lik,
with mes,
copper, gold, etc cannot. Hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid are generally used for reaction
because other acids like nitric acid oxidise the metal and itself get reduce into nitrogen MONOXidy
nitrogen dioxide and do not liberate hydrogen.

Action of dilute sulphuric acid ;:

Mg+H.SO,—>» MgSO, + Hy
Magnesium sulphate Hydrogen

Zn+H,SO, ——> ZnSO, + H,

Zine sulphate Hydrogen

Fe+H,SO, —> FeSO, + He,

lron (Ll) sulphate Hydrogen

2Al+3H,SO,—> Al,(SO,), + 3He

Aluminium sulphate Hydrogen

Action of dilute hydrochloric acid :

Mg+2HCl—+ MgCl, + Hy,
Magnesium chloride Hydrogen

Zn+2HCl—> ZnCl, + H,
Zinc chloride Hydrogen

Fe+2HCl—> FeCl, + Hy,

Iron (IJ) chloride Hydrogen

2Al+6HC1—+ 2AICl, + 3H,

Aluminium chloride Hydrogen

Action of nitric acid : Very dilute nitric acid (1% acid) can liberate hydrogen on reaction with
moderate reactive metals like magnesium and manganese.
Mn+2HNO,—>» Mn(NO;), + Hy
Manganese nitrate Hydrogen

Mg+2HNO,—> Mg(NO3), + He
Magnesium nitrate Hydrogen

dioxide
Other metals when react with nitric acid they normally liberate nitrogen monoxide or nitrogen
(as per concentration of acids) due to oxidising action of acid.
3Zn+8HNO, —> 3Zn(NO3), +4H,O+ 2NO
Zinc nitrate Water —_ Nitrogen monoxide

3Fe+8HNO, —>3Fe(NO,),+4H,0+ 2NO

Tron (1) nitrate Water Nitrogen monoxide
 a
AS
wh
A
Study of First Element-Hydrogen BL)

The nature of reaction between metals and acids change according to the concentration of acids and
of
macuvity of metals, The reactivity of metals is based on the metal reactivity series and their nature
sasetivn ts Summarised in the table Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 : Reaction of metals with acid

Reaction Nature of reaction Se)

(~ aretats <
a
K 2K
oa a
+ 2HCl
€
—> 2KC1 +H, Explosive reaction
; ——
ant ct
a

Na 2Na + 2HCl—-+> 2NaCl + H, Explosive reaction

Ca Ca +2HCl —> CaCl, + Hy 4

Vigorous reaction
=
=

Mg Mg +2HCl —-+ MgCl, - + Hy = Less vigorous

ae :
Al 2Al +3HC]l —+ 2ANCl, + Hy = Less vigorous
—_—_

Zn Zn +; 2HCl—-> ZnCl, “ + H, < Normal reaction

eae

Fe +2HCl > FeCl, + Hy Normal reaction

Pe.
Pd Pb + 2HC] —3 PbCl, +H, Reacts with concentrated acids

(H)
Cu

___He st
No reaction due to low reactivity
Ag
Au

Zn is the most preferred metal as Na/K reacts violently, Ca and Mg are expensive, Al forms a protective
costing. iron has to be heated. H, can not be prepared from Cu, Hg, Ag and Au due to low reactivity.

FROM ALKALIS
When metals like aluminium, zinc and lead reacts with alkalis then it forms the respective soluble salts
of metals and liberates hydrogen gas.
| Action of Sodium Hydroxide : These metals react with sodium hydroxide to give sodium salts and
| Hberate hydrogen.
Zn+2Na0OH —> Na»ZnO, + Hye
Sodium zincate

2Al1+6NaOH —> 2Na;Al0,; + 3H,

Sodium meta aluminate

Pb+2NaOH
—> Na.PbO, + Hy
Sodium plumbite

Action of Potassium Hydroxide : These metals react with potassium hydroxide to give potassium
selts and liberate hydrogen.
241+6KOH —> 2K,Al0; +3H,
Potassium meta aluminate

Zn+2KOH —> K,ZnO, +H,

Potassium zincate

Pb+2KOH —> K,PbO, + H,

Potassium plumbite .
fil
ml 12 :
As you can see that some motals like aluminium, zine and lead can react with acids as pa baseg to
give their respective salts and liberate hydrogen. This is so because these metals are amphoteric in
nature. Amphoteric metals are those metals which can react with both acids and bases.

Practice makes perfect

1. What happens when
(Support your answer with the help of balanced chemical equation)
(i) Sodium dipped in water
(ii) Magnesium is boiled in water
(iii) Sulphuric acid is poured over magnesium
(iv) Hydrochloric acid reacts with zinc
2. Complete the following reaction:
(i) Zn + 2KOH —>
(ii) Fe + 2HCl —>
(iii) 2A1 + 3H,0 —>
(iv) Mg + H,SO, —>
3. Give the complete balanced equation of the following:
(i) Zinc + Water —— Zinc hydroxide + Hydrogen
(ii) Calcium + Water —> Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen
(iii) Iron + Sulphuric acid —-> Iron sulphate + Hydrogen
(iv) Aluminium + Sodium hydroxide —-> Sodium meta aluminate + Hydrogen
. Name the two metals which give hydrogen when reacted with acid as well as base.
HA

. What do you call the metals which give hydrogen on reaction with both acid and base?
. What will happen when metal reacts with steam?
IYOHS

. Why Zn is most preferred metal to prepare H, gas?

6.4 LABORATORY PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN

In the laboratory, hydrogen gas is prepared by the action of zinc with dilute sulphuric acid or dil. HCl.
Principle : Zinc displaces hydrogen from sulphuric acid
Reactants : Zinc powder / Granulated zinc, dil. sulphuric acid.
Reaction :
Zn(s)+H,SO, —> ZnSO,(aq.)+ He
Zinc sulphate Hydrogen

Zn(s)+2HCK(ag.) —> ZnCl,(ag.) + He

 EY nv mats

Study of First Element-Hyd en

( Dilute sulphuric acid

Hydrogen gas

Granulated zinc
Water trough

Fig. 6.8 Lab preparation of hydrogen gas

steps:

) Set up the apparatus as shown in Fig. 6.8.

3 Add the sulphuric acid through the thistle funnel to the zinc metal.
observation:
3 Effervescence is seen due to the release of hydrogen gas till reaction is completed.
j The gas thus released passes through the delivery tube and reaches the gas jar kept in the water
trough.
Collection of H, gas:
3 Hydrogen gas is collected in the upper regions of the gas jar by downward displacement of water as it
is slightly soluble in water.
Precautions:
3 Concentrated H,SO, is not used because it acts as acid as well as oxidising agent and consequently,
its reduction product, SO, gas is formed and H, undergoes oxidation to form water which is not a
desired product.
Zn+2H,SO,(conc.) —» ZnSO, +2H,0+ SO,
Zinc sulphate Water Sulphur dioxide

J Pure zine is not used in the preparation of dihydrogen because being non-porous in nature, the
reaction between Zn and H,SO, is slow. The presence of impurities however, makes zinc porous and
speed up the reaction.
/ The apparatus used for the reaction and collection of hydrogen gas should be airtight because
hydrogen gas forms explosive mixture with air.
J The gas jar used for the collection of hydrogen should be completely filled so that the last traces of any
other gas can be removed.
Removal of Impurities
The hydrogen thus made by this method contains some impurities like water vapour, carbon dinxis,
sulphur dioxide, ete, These impurities have to be removed from the above collected mixture to get Pur,
hydrogen. This can be done by the following ways:
(i) The impurity of water vapour enters the above collected mixture through sulphuric acid as y.
use it in dilute form, This impurity can be removed by passing the gas over drying agents lit,
phosphorus pentoxide or anhydrous calcium chloride.
Anhy. CaCl, +H,0 —> Hydrated CaCl,
P.O, +3H,0 —>» 2H,;PO,
Phosphoric acid

(ii) The impurities of carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and the oxides of nitrogen come from sulphur,
acid. These impurities can be removed in the following ways:
CO,+2KOH—» K,CO, +H,0
Potassium carbonate Water

SO,+2KOH—> K,SO, +H,0

Potassium sulphite Water

2NO,+2KOH—>» KNO, + KNO; +H,0

Potassium nitrite Potassium nitrate Water

(ii) The impurity of hydrogen sulphide comes from dilute sulphuric acid. This can be removed by
passing the gas over lead acetate solution.
+ 2CH,COOH
Lead sulphide Acetic acid

(iv) The impurities of phosphine (PH) and arsine (AsH,) enter the gaseous mixture through zin:
These impurities can be removed by passing the gas through silver nitrate solution.
PH, +3AgNO, —_ Ag3P + 3HNO;
Silver phosphide _ Nitric acid

AsH, +3AgNO, —> Ag,As + 3HNO,

Silver arsenide Nitric acid

Zinc is the most suitable metal for the preparation of hydrogen gas in laboratory. This is
because its reaction with acids is neither too fast nor too slow. The other metals are not suitable due to their
nature of reaction with the acids. This can be seen by the following observations:
a) Sodium and potassium are very expensive and have violent and explosive reaction with the acids.
= Calcium and magnesium are also expensive and the liberation of hydrogen gas on their reaction with
acids is very fast which makes its collection difficult.
Q Aluminium metal’s surface generally forms a protective covering of aluminium oxide which lowers its
reactivity.
Iron and lead’s reaction with acids is very slow and layers of impurities are generally formed ove!
their surface which further slows down their reactivity.
Cu, Ag, Au will not displace H, from acids.
 | mt
(2) *
ow’

Study of Firet Eloment-Hydrogen BE}, Gay

Practice mak
es perfect
. . fhat is the basic'C Principle
prin:
for the Preparation of hydrogen?
Jow can you remoy )
te

, .
mMovoiths various impurities from hydrogen?
. How do you collect hy
y droge in laboratory propuration?
we

4. Why can’t we use any me

Li Il the ; tal other than zine for the laboratory prep “at , ren?
. List all the impuritie ; aration of hydrogen
5 : hes that .
6. Why hydro
Mhyw chy
gen a) jsa collected byenter hydrogen in the laboratory preparation.
downward
disp
lacument of water in laboratory
7. How can you remove the j prepSiaration’
‘ 9

impurity of hydrogen sulphide from hydr

ogen?
60 INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE OF RYOROGEN
(BOSCH PROCESS)

2 dissolves and H. escapes out.

CO+H, +H, F20s/Cn0s . CO, +2H,
Water gas (CO + H2) needed for the
or by Steam reforming of hydrocarbon :Purpose can be obtained either by the action of steam on red hot coke

C(s)+H,O(g) —> cO+ Us

OR
Cn Hons +nH Og) —» nCO+(2n +1)H,
removal of Impurities
The hydrogen gas thus received
through Bosch process contains
the impurities of carbon dioxide,
monoxide and water vap carbon
our. The remova
Separation of Carbon Dioxide l of these impurities is discussed ahead.
: The above received gaseous mixtur
pressure of 30 atmospheres and e is first compressed to the
then passed throug
h cold water. By this the carbon
mixture converts into carbonic dioxide present in the
acid and hydrogen gas is sep
arated out.
H,0+CO, —>» H,CO,
:
Carbonic acid
Separation of Carbon
Monoxide : The hydrogen gas rec
contains carbon monoxide which can eived after separating carbon diox
be removed by passing the gaseous ide
chloride. mixture over ammoniacal cuprous

CuCl+CO+ 2H,O —> CuCl-Co.-

Separation 2H,0
of water vapour : The moistu
re in the hydrogen gas is remove
d
by cooling the above
gaseous mixture to the temperature of ~20°C. At this
bydrogen is collected.
tempe ratur e the water vapour freezes to ice and pure
|
es
cae
s Li]ig ICSE Chomistry-9

6.6 OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS (REDOX REACTION)

Oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously. Redox reactions are those reactions in Whit,

reduction and oxidation takes . place. In this reaction one reactant gets oxidised and the other reactant° my,
, iad pi
be reduced, The reactant which get oxidised is known as reducing agent and the reactant which gy,
reduced is known as oxidising agent.
Reduction and oxidation can be explained in various terms like addition and removal of oxygen ,,
hydrogen. This can be understood in the following way.

In Terms of Oxygen
Oxidation ; Addition of oxygen
The addition of oxygen to any substance is its oxidation. j Reducing agents are sinha
2Mg+O,—>» 2MgO reduction but itself
Oxidation of Magnesium: helps in
ls like
undergoes oxidation. €.g-, Meta
Magnesium oxide
Na, Mg, Al. Other examples are:
Oxidation of Sulphur : S+0,— > SO, H,Oz, H,S, NHz. Li is the best

Sulphur dioxide reducing agent.

Oxidation of Methane (CH,): CH, + 20,—> CO, +2H,O

Reduction : Removal of oxygen
The removal of oxygen from any substance is called reduction.
Reduction of Mercury oxide : 2HgO—> 2Hg +O,
Mercury

Reduction of Copper (ID oxide : Cu0+H,—> Cu +H,0

Copper

Reduction of Iron (II, IIT) oxide: Fe,0,+4H, —~> 3Fe +4H,O

fron
In Terms of Hydrogen
4 5
Oxidation : Removal of hydrogen § Oxidising agents are those which |
The removal of hydrogen from any substance is called oxidation. helps in oxidation but itself undergoes
reduction, e.g., non-metals like F,,
Oxidation of Hydrogen sulphide: Clg. Other examples are KMn0,,
2H,S+O, —> 2H,0+ 28 K,Cr,07, bleaching powder, H,0»,
nitric acid, ozone. y
Sulphur

Oxidation of Potassium iodide:

2KI1+ H,0,—> 2KOH + I,
Potassium hydroxide Iodine

Reduction : Addition of hydrogen

The addition of hydrogen to any substance is called reduction. e | Oxidation :)
(Reducing ages!)
Reduction of Iron (III) chloride : CuO + H,—— Cu + H,0
2FeClh +H, —> 2FeCl, + 2HCI
Iron(I]) chloride Hydrochloric acid
Reduction

Reduction of Ethene :
(Oxidising agent)
axe!
Ethene Ethane
 ay
| =

Study of First Element-Hydrogen BL), sy

a
Practice makes perfect
1, Name the industrial process to prepare hydrogen.
2. What do you understand by w ater gas? How
it is prepared?
3. Name the catalyst which is y sed in
Bosch process.
4, Name the major impuritie 8 which are associated with hydrogen prepared by Bosc
“on h process.
6. How can you separate carbon monoxide from hydrogen?
6. Define the following :

Oxidation (ii) Reduction

(iii) Oxidising agent (iv) Reducing agent
7. Write the balanced chemica] €quation for the following :
(i) Oxidation of magnesium in air
(ii) Reduction of iron oxide
(iii) Oxidation of potassium iodide by hydrogen peroxide
 y _Revis: e Twice,
; Score Well youll i=
4 Robert Boyle, in 1671 discovered hydrogen gas.
In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as an element, by naming the Ray
from a metal-acid reaction “inflammable air".
+ In 1788, Antoine Lavoisier gave this element the name hydrogen.
4 Atomic number ; 1; Atomic weight ; 1.008 gm; Symbol: H; Electronic configuration - 1; Molecy,,
formula : Hy: Gram molecular weight : 2.
. Hydrogen is the lightest element in the periodic table.
. Position in the periodic table: Period: 1 Group: 1[I A]
. Properties similar to alkali metal (group 1):
* Hydrogen shows similar electronic configuration like alkali metals.
+ Electronegativity is the tendency to attract shared pair of electron. Hydrogen show
electronegativity 2.2 which follows decreasing order from top to bottom in the group which i
general trend in periodic table,
+ The tendency to form cation is known as electropositive nature. Alkali metals and hydroge,
forms cation by the loss of single electron from its valence shell.
¢ Hydrogen shows 1+ electrovalency like other alkali metals due to loss of its single valenc:
electron.
* Hydrogen also reacts with halogens (X, =F,, Cl,, Bry, I) and form halide like alkali metals.
* On combustion, hydrogen and alkali metals gives their oxide.
+ Hydrogen is a good reducing agent like other alkali metals because they lose their one valence
electron very easily.
2 Properties similar to halogen (group 17):
* Hydrogen is gas like fluorine and chlorine.
* Hydrogen also exists as diatomic molecular form in nature like halogens. ||
+ Halogens are electronegative elements due to their high value of electronegativity and form |

anions by gain of electrons. In similar manner hydrogen also gain electron and form univalent
|
|

anion. |
* Hydrogen is a non-metal like other halogens that are fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
* Hydrogen gain one electron and complete its duplet like halogens which complete its octet by
addition of electron in valence shell. Hydrogen can form compounds in 1” electrovalency like}
halogens.
+ Hydrogen reacts with metals and form compounds like halogens. |
Q Preparation of hydrogen from cold water:
2K+2H,0 ——> 2KOH+ Hy
2Na+2H,O0 —> 2NaOH+ Hy,
Ca+2H,0 ——> Ca(OH), +H,
Q Preparation of hydrogen from hot water:
Mg+H,0 —> MgO+H,
 Study of Fire

Preparation of hydrogen from steam:

BFo+ 4,0 a= Fe,O, 14H,
Zn+H,0 —~+ ZnO + Hy
2Al+3H,O0 —» Al,O, + SH,
Preparation of hydrogen from dilute sulphuric acids:
Mg+H,SO,——» MgSO, +H,
Zn+H,SO,—> ZnSO, + Hy,
Fe+H,SO,—> FeSO, +H,
2A1+3H,SO,—> Al,(SO,)3 +3H,
Preparation of hydrogen from dilute hydrochloric acid:
Mg + 2HCl —> MgCl, +H,
Zn +2HCl —> ZnCl, +H,
Fe+2HCl —> FeCl, +H,
2Al+6HC] —> 2AI1Cl, +3H,
Preparation of hydrogen by the action of nitric acid:
Mn+2HNO, —> Mn(NO,). +H.
Mg +2HNO, —> Mg(NO3;), + He
Other metals when react with nitric acid they normally liberate nitrogen monoxide or nitrogen
dioxide due to oxidising action of acid.
3Zn +8HNO, —-> 3Zn(NO,), +4H,0+2NO
3Fe+8HNO, —> 3Fe(NO,). +4H,0+2NO
Preparation of hydrogen by the action of sodium hydroxide:
Zn + 2NaOQH —-> Na,ZnO, +H,
2Al+6NaOH —-> 2Na,Al0, +3H,
Pb+2Na0OH —> Na.PbO, +H,
Preparation of hydrogen by the action of potassium hydroxide:
2Al+6KOH —-> 2K,Al0, +3H,
Zn +2KOH —> K,ZnO, +H,
Pb+2KOH —-+ K, PbO, +H,
Amphoteric metals are those metals which can react with both acids and bases.
In the laboratory, hydrogen gas is prepared by the action of zinc with dilute sulphuric acid:
Zn(s)+H,SO, —> ZnSO, (aq.) + H,
Hydrogen is manufactured commercially through the Bosch process.
In Bosch process, water gas (CO + H,)is mixed with steam and mixture is heated in the presence of
Iron (III) oxide and Chromium (III) oxide (Fe,0; /Cr,0;) when CO gets oxidised to CO,. The
gaseous mixture produced is compressed to 25 atm. and passed through water when CO, dissolves
and Hz, escapes out.
CO+H,+H,0 22% .co, +2H,
Separation of carbon dioxide from the above received gaseous mixture:
H,0+CO, —— >} H,CO,
~ ll
pee 160 ve E Chemistry-9
ia ae

) Separation of carbon monoxide from the hydrogen gas received after separating carbon dioxide:
CuCl+CO+ 2,0 —» CuCl. CO. 2H,0
) The moisture in the hydrogen yas ia removed by cooling the above gaseous mixture ty y).
temperature of —20°C,
u Redox reactions are those reactions in which reduction and oxidation takes place. The reart,,.
which get oxidised is known as reducing agent and the reactant which gets reduced is know,,..
oxidising agent.
Oxidation: Addition of oxygen:
2Mg +O, —> 2Mg0O
S+0, > SO,
CH, +20, —> CO, +2H,O
Reduction: Removal of oxygen:
2HgO —-> 2Hg +0,
Cu0+H, —>Cu+H,O
Fe,;0, +4H, —+ 3Fe+4H,O
Oxidation: Removal of hydrogen:
2H,S+O, —> 2H,0+2S
2KI+H,0, —~> 2KOH+I,
Reduction: Addition of hydrogen:
2FeCl, +H, —— 2FeCl, +2HCl
C,H, +H, —> C,H,
Uses
L. Hydrogen is used as a rocket fuel.
2. It is also used in the manufacturing of ammonia gas and nitrogenous fertilizers.
3. Hydrogen gas is also used in the production of vanaspati ghee by hydrogenation of vegetable oils.
 4 Gaciteie 3% »" - i
Za : <.

en 3 sa cae
LEPte sts Ne a oe

: Stud

question 1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within br ackets.
1, Hydrogen burns easily as itis highly; OOo nero reeneereean (non-combustible, combustible)
». Hydrogen has ST
@
CT ere valence electron and (2, 1, octet, duplet)
it follows ...cscceceereeeeerre
3. Hydrogen has ST ee isotopes, (four, three)
4. Hydrogen IBA sicasscecen Ssswiges Ped sneneesseassene AMA Ciivecince
evaawavannaie Pee
(colourless, colourful, odourless, pungent, poisonous, il ala alae
5 ia) rt ee of water. (downward displacement/ upward displacement)
6. Hydrogen is manufactured DY meee proce
ss. scaaiiaainigine
7. Hydr ogen is prepared from water with the process called .......::e:10+ . (decomposition, electrolys
is)
8. Major impurities in hydrogen are... GIG. ccsansoseraoreerannes .
(arsine, phosphine, carbon monoxide, sulphur trioxide)
9. On oxidation of hydrogen, we BEE -rnenorerecxinssvvius ion.
(hydride/ hydronium)
10. On reduction of hydrogen, we get... thydronium, hydride)
cenrnumvunmeronensite gas and the process is known as
eapncesucememensase process. (Ammonia, Ammonium hydroxide, Bosch, Habers)

.Combustible 2. 1, duplet 3. Three 4. Colourless, Odourless, Non-poisonous

1. Electrolysis 8. Arsine, Phosphine
5. Downward displacement 6. Bosch
9, Hydronium 10. Hydride 11. Ammonia, Habers
Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below
each of the following questions.
1. Catalyst and promoter used in Bosch process
:
(a) Ferric oxide and chromic oxide (b) Chromic oxide and ferric chloride
(c) Ferric oxide and chromium (d) None of these
2. Collection of hydrogen :
(a) Upward displacement of water (b) Downward displacement of air
(c) Downward displacement of water (d) None of these
3. Impurities of hydrogen :
(a) Arsine (b) Phosphine
(c) Sulphur dioxide (d) All of these
4. Industrial preparation of hydrogen :
(a) Habers (b) Electrolysis
(c) Bosch (d) None of these
5. Isotopes of hydrogen :
(a) Deuterium (b) Tritium
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
 (i a ee See

| YSICSE Chemist ry-9

6. Laboratory preparation of hydrogen

(a) Habors (bh) Bleetrolysias
(c) Bosch (dl) None of these
7. Metals which react with cold water :
(a) Potassium (b) Sodium
(ce) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
8 Metals which react with steam to produce hydrogen :
(a) Magnestum (b) Zine
(c) Aluminium (d) All of these
9. Oxidation of hydrogen :
(a) H’ (b) H
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
10. Physical state of hydrogen :
(a) Liquid (b) Solid
(c) Gas (d) None of these
11. Reduction of hydrogen :
(a) H* (b) H”
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

7. } (a) | 2 | (©) |} 3 | (dd) | 64 | (Cc) 7. | (c) | 8 | (@) | & | (a) | 1@ | &

“41. | (b)

Question 3. Match the following :

Column A Column B
A | Manufacture P| Arsine
B_ | Collection Q |C+H,O
Cc Impurities R_ | Silver nitrate
D__| Removal of impurities S_ | Bosch process
E Reactants T | Downward displacement of air

Mg inswers
A—S, B— T, C—P, D—R, E—Q

Question 4 ; Name the following :

1. Name one reagent which can act as both oxidising and reducing agent.
2. Catalyst used in Bosch process.
3. Electrolyte used during the electrolysis of water.
 Study of First Element-Hydrogen §{'*}

. Gas liberated when hydrogen reacts with sulphur.

~~

. Group I metal which reacts with cold water to produce hydrogen.

OH

. Group IT metal which reacts with steam to produce hydrogen.

sD

. Industrial preparation of hyd

rogen.
. Laboratory preparation of hyd
rogen.
ome

. Process when nitrogen and hydrogen

reacts.
10. Product obtained when hydrogen reac
ts with sodium.
11. Type of reaction between zinc and
sulphuric acid.

aa Answers
1, Hydrogen peroxide; 2. Ferric oxide(Fe.O, ); 3. Acidulated water; 4. Hydrogen sulphide; 5. Sodium; 6. Magnesium;
7. Bosch process; 8. Electrolysis; 9. Habers process; 10. Sodium hydride; 11. Displacement reaction

nment-SectionB _
CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS
. What is the uniqueness of hydrogen in terms of electronic configuration?
Po

.
Write the names of two groups where hydrogen can be placed.
.Give the names of two metals which displace hydrogen from acids.
wo

. Show the reducing character of hydrogen with the help of an equation.

=

. Hydrogen shows similar properties with alkali metals as well as halogens but is placed in group 1 of
oo

periodic table. Why?

. Justify the position of hydrogen in group 1 on the basis of its electropositive character.
CHAD

. Give the balanced chemical equation for the preparation of hydrogen in laboratory.
. Write the balanced chemical equation for the commercial preparation of hydrogen.
The piece of sodium metal when immersed in water then it reacts violently but same is not true for
iron. Why?
10. Nitric acid generally is not used for the preparation of hydrogen from metals. Give reason.
11. What do you observe when sodium metal is dipped in water?

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. Name the compounds of two active metals which can displace hydrogen on reaction with cold water.
Give balance chemical] equations.
2. From the list of metals given below choose the metal which fits into the description given below:
Iron, sodium, silver, lead
(i) A metal which reacts vigorously with cold water.
(ii) A metal which reacts very slowly with dilute hydrochloric acid initially but after sometimes
reaction stops.
17 SICSE Chomintry-p

(ni) A metal whieh renets both with aeida and alkali to displace hydrogen?
(wv) A metal which doow not renet with dilnte ncid or water? |
8. You are given a metal XY whieh liew between potassium and sodium in the metal activity series. fy,
in words how does XY reacts with the following: :
GQ) Water .
(i1) Hydrochloric acid
4. How to convert the following, :
(i) Magnesium oxide from magnesium
Gi) Carbon dioxide from methane
(iii) Mereury from mereury (IT) oxide
(iv) Copper from copper oxide
(v) Iron (11) chloride from iron (ILL) chloride
5. How can you differentiate between oxidation and reduction?
6. Answer the following questions with reference to laboratory preparation of hydrogen:
(i) What is the basic principle?
(ii) Write the balanced chemical equation.
(ii) Name the catalyst used.
(iv) List the various impurities that enter the gaseous mixture.
(v) How is the gas collected?
7. Give reason for the following:
(i) Pure zine is not suitable for preparation of hydrogen in laboratory.
(ii) Hydrogen gas is passed over anhydrous calcium chloride in laboratory preparation.
(iii) Hydrogen gas is passed over ammoniacal cuprous chloride in Bosch process.
(iv) Hydrogen gas is collected at very low temperature that is -20°C in Bosch process. |
8. What happens when:
(i) Ethene reacts with hydrogen gas.
(ii) Hydrogen gas is passed in the solution of iron (III) chloride.
(iii) Potassium iodide reacts with hydrogen peroxide.
9. Answer the following questions with reference to the reaction between calcium metal and waterz
laboratory:
(i) Name the colourless gas which is produced in this reaction.
(ii) Why pop sound is observed?
(iii) Which compound is formed at the end of the reaction?
(iv) Why solution turns white?
10. Answer the following questions with reference to the Bosch Process:
(i) Name the reactants.
(ii) Name the catalyst.
(iii) Name the impurities.
(iv) Give the optimum pressure required.
(v) How can you remove the impurity of carbon dioxide?
11. Answer the following questions with reference to the reaction between sodium metal and wate!
containing phenolphthalein in laboratory:
(i) Name the products formed.
(ii) Why colour of water changes to red?
(iii) Why sodium metal catches fire?
r i
~ Study of First Element-Hydrogen Bi)

12. What are the drawbacks of hydrogen as a fucl? — .

13. A students wants to prepare hydrogen by reactive copper or mercury with hydrochloric acid. Will he
succeed?
14, Sana required hydrogen gas to be prepared in lab. She has studied that hydrogen gas can be safely
prepared with the help of Zn metal with HC]. She found that Zn metal is not available in lab. Which
other metal she can safely used? Support your answer.

a
be Practice is the Key to Success -
Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. Give reasons for the following :
(i) Hydrogen is placed in group 1
and period 1.
Ans. Hydrogen is placed in group | and period 1 because its atomic number is 1, electronic configuration is
1, number of shell is 1 and valence electron is 1,
(ii) Hydrogen is a good reducing agent.
Ans.
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Ans. aii LUC rahe ty eH OO TER TEETER PITT ST STE COMTL TTT STM TET ERT ST TTC OPC ORT OCCULT CaP eerie CTT Rr Cr eer e rere

(iv) Reaction between sodium and water release gas which catches fire but it is not observed in the
case of
metals like zinc.
Ans.

Q. 2. State your observation in the following:

(i) Sodium metal is immersed in water.
Ans. When sodium metal is immersed in water a gas is evolved which catches fire immedia
tely.
(ii) Moist hydrogen gas cooled at —20°C.
TDI scx i SBS erase eamnnne enenm envereromonomronxanoneenszomoneceavnousaitdebiszeadussssraaspasinnasuassebessistsssiesiiess

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Q. 3. Give the balanced chemical equation :

(i) Magnesium metal reacts with dilute sulphuric acid.
Ans. Mg + H..80, ——> MgSO, +H,
(ii) Steam is passed over iron.
Ans.
 yi
pee s(iT'f ICSE Chemistry-9
(iii)Lead metal reacts with caustie potash,
ABS wesc: :
(iv) Manganese reacts with dilute nitric acid.
Ans.
Q. 4. Complete and balance the following chemical equation:
(Gj) Al+HCl—>
Ans. 2A) 4+ 6HC| S2AICL, 1 OSH
(ii) Pb + NaOH —»
Ans. ‘ hesses
(iii) Ca+H,O —+
Ans. , i
(iv) Mg + H,SO, —>
Ans. errr aEhoresnswcesy euarereenansapainnune : daiinaenest
Q. 5. Identify the reducing and oxidising agent in the following reactions:
(i) 2Mg +O; —> 2MgO
Ans, Reducing agent Mg; Oxidising agent — O,
(ii) CH, +20, —~ CO, +2H,0
PATA os cesta OTUsRonione.
(iii) CuO +H, —+» Cu+H,0

(iv) 2H,S +O, —+ 2H,0+28

(v) 2K+H,0, —> 2KOH +1,

Ans.
 TNS of First Elemetit: Levarogan 167

ENJOY CHEMISTRY
"Solve the crossword puzzle and check your 1.Q.

TOO
OW ooo
Hydrogen

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2. Group number of hydrogen.

3. Impurity of arsenic.
5. Physical state of hydrogen.
7. Product formed on oxidation of hydrogen.
10. Product formed when hydrogen reacts with metals.
 Down
1. Process of manufacturing hydrogen,
4. Typo of renetion betwoen zine and sulphuric acid,
6, Colour of the fame when pure hydrogen burns in oxygen.
8. Gus liberated when hydrogen reacta with nitrogen.
9, Gas berated when hydrogen reacts with sulphur.
11. Product formed whon hydrogen reacts with metal oxide.

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 »

STUDY OF GAS LAWS

7.1 GASEOUS STATE

Scope of Syllabus
The elements in gaseous state have the following
Study of Gas Laws
a The behaviour of gases under changes of properties:
temperature and pressure; explanation in (i) Indefinite volume
terms of molecular motion (particles, atoms,
molecules); Boyle's law and Charles’ Law; (ii) Indefinite shape
absohite sero; gas equation; simple relevant (iii) Expansion with increase in temperature.
ealculations.
(iv) Highly compressible on high pressure
The behaviour of gases under changes of
temperature and pressure; explanation in terms (v) Apply equal pressure in all directions
of molecular motion (particles, atoms, (vi) Maximum gases are colourless but few are coloured, |
molecules).
Boyle's law ; statement, mathematical form, (vii) Exhibits the property of diffusion.
simple calculations. Example : Bromine — Reddish brown
Charles’ Law; statement, mathematical form,
simple calculations. Chlorine — Greenish yellow
Absolute zero, Kelvin scale of temperature Fluorine — Greenish yellow
Gas equation: RV, T = P. Vo / T, Ps simple
Nitrogen Dioxide — Reddish brown
relevant calculations based on gas equation.
Relationship between Kelvin scale and Celsius
scale of temperature; Standard temperature 7.2 MEASURABLE PARAMETERS
and pressure,
Canversion of temperature from Celsius Scale | OF GASES
to Kelvin Scale and vice versa. Standard!
temperature and pressure (Simple The following properties of gases are measurable which
calculations) are used to describe the gases.
——————EE
(i) Mass or amount
(i) Volume
Gili) Temperature
(iv) Pressure
 ‘
Be
| Study of Gas Laws By, | tee

yas s OR AMOUNT
qhe mass or Amount of Kas can be measured , 4
in kimple way like other Kubstuncen
144 j
ts t
" tf { ‘i (

rams. As per
‘ . ap g
S.1. System the 7th 5.1. unit ‘Mole’ is introduced for chemical substances in
’ —
eh
“ae "ee
14 e
per
Ape

Mw gystem:
rt\

1 mole of gas = gram atomic weight or gram molecular weight

= 22.4 Lat S.T.P,
por example :

1 mole Hy gas = gram molecular weight = 2 gm

= 22.4 Lat S.T.P.
1 mole He gas = gram atomic weight = 4 gm
= 22.4 Lat S.T.P.
1 mole CO, gas = gram molecular weight = 44 gm
= 22.4 Lat S.T.P.
fCO, taken as example, the relation between mole and mass is explained as follows:
d mole COy-= 44 gm = gram molecular weight
2 mole CO, = 2x 44 gm = 88 gm
3 mole CO, = 3 x 44 gm = 132 gm
Number of moles of any Total weight of gas
gas =
Gram molecular weight of gas
Number of moles of any Total volume of gas at S.T.P.
gas =
22.4 L

\OLUME
The space occupied by gas is defined as
volume of gas. The volume of gas can
be measured in standard
ais like litre, millilitre, cubic centimetre (c.c.), decimetre cube
(dm_%), etc.
These units are inter-related to
each other as follows:
1 m* =10" dm? =10° em?
1 L= 1000 mL
ImL = 1 em?
1L=10x 10x 10 cm?
=1x1x1dm? (.. 1 dm = 10 cm)
The volume of gas is equal to the volume of cont
ainer because gas is very much expandable at
eaperature. Therefore, it occupies the whole volu room
me of container.
The volume of gas also depends on other fact
or i.e. temperature and pressure.

PRESSURE
Pressure is anot
her measurable property of gas. Gas
applies equal pressure in all directio
“ined as the force applied per unit area. If force of n,
1 Newton (N) applied on area of 1 m” the Pres sure
exerted
}
mesur e is defined as 1 Pascal unit. Pascal is S.I. unit
of pressure and represented by (Pa).
— The non S.I. but frequently used unit for pressure
are atm and torr.
eae
ag
174 ICSE Chemistry-9

Pressure of one atmosphere (1 atm) is defined as the pressure applied by Ne cm of mercury column at
o°C when density of mercury is 13.5951 gm /cm" and its gravity is 981 cms ~.
y ‘ . ° *
Pressure of 1 torr is measured as pressure applied by 1 mm of mercury column at 0°C when Bravity of
mercury is 98l ems ~,
The interrelation between S.[. and non S.I. unit is as follows:
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 Torr = 76 cm of Hg = 1.01325 x 10° Pa.
Barometer is used to determine the atmospheric pressure.

TEMPERATURE
Temperature of system reflects the hotness of body. In case of gas it is considered as kinetic energy ¢
molecule of atom in gas. The thermometer is generally used to measure the temperature of the system,
The most commonly used unit of temperature is degree celsius. (°C)
The temperature of a matter can go below 0°C. The behaviour of gases show that it is not possible ty
have temperature below —-273°C. In order to simplify, new scale was devised which is kelvin scale.
Kelvin (K) =°C +273
SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).
Molecular motion of gases : Gases have high kinetic energy therefore molecular motions of gases are
rapid in comparison to liquids and solids. The kinetic energy is related to temperature, pressure and |
volume. Therefore, when we change temperature, pressure or volume of gases then there molecular motion |
also changes. |
Effect of temperature : When we increase the temperature of gases the kinetic energy also increases.
|
At high kinetic energy, molecules move more rapidly and put more pressure on the walls of the container.
Effect of pressure : When we increase the pressure on the gases then volume of gas decrease therefore
:nolecular motion are restricted. Therefore, at high pressure gas changes into liquid state.
Effect of volume : When we increase the volume of gas mean more space for particles to move.
‘herefore kinetic energy of particle decrease and temperature also decrease.
On the basis of above short discussion temperature, pressure and volume of gas is dependent on eath
ther.
The following gas laws were established.

7.3 GAS LAWS

BOYLES LAW : (PRESSURE-VOLUME RELATION)

In year 1622, Robert Boyle established a relation between pressure and volume of
gas at constant temperature which is known as Boyle’s Law.
Statement : “For a definite mass of dry gas, volume of gas is inversely proportional
to the pressure applied on it at constant temperature.”
 Pe 10 atm

fe 20am

Incroman
Prenaule

banaase
prensife

Fig. 7.4
MATHEMATICAL FORM
If an Vis the volume of definite mass of dry gas at pressure / at constant temperature
2 ‘Te a5 the n

Po J
V
PV = Constant

DERIVATION
Let a definite mass of dry gas occupying
a volume V, at
pressure P, then,
According to Boyle’s Law.
P,V, = Constant ++)
If temperature remains constant and pres
sure is changed
to P, then volume of dry gas change
s into Vo.
Pressure, atm

According to Boyle’s Law

P,V, = Constant -+-(ii)
oO
>

On the basis of relation (i) and (ii)

PV, = P,V, = Constant
Boyle’s law states that the product of volume and pressure
of a given mass of a dry gas at constant temperatur 2.0
e is
constant.
1.0

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF BOYLE’S LAW

Graphical representation of Boyle’s law explains the nature of change of pressure and volume at
constant temperature.
— Tl
: ee

ese 17) S ICSE Chemistry-9

—_]
(i) Pressure-Volume graph :
Y-axis
ae = Pressure
: ure {I [P al eeconstant
X-axis = Volume [m*]
'
Bovle’s Law states
i Parri!
Px A
V i naam i
Nature of relation between pressure (P) and volume (V) on graph
1
paper is shown by curve in Fig. 7.3, which is hyperbolic.
.
. . . ‘ ®

ViVa VS)
:

ohunas
When volume increases from V, to V, (V, < V, < Vy) then
pressure ——_]
decreases from P, to PP, > P, > P,). This type of curve is known as Fig. 7.3 Pressure vs Volume
hyperbolic curve.

(ii) Pressure-l/ Volume graph :

Y-axis = Pressure
X-axis = Volume
Bovle’s Law states
e |
Z |
Pex ES a |
Nature of graph-Straight line
¥ |
|
Interpretation of straight line : 1, 1N5 1/3
Volume |
Nature of relation between pressure (P) and inverse of volume (1/V) |
is directly proportional. Therefore, pressure increases from P, to P3 Fig. 7.4 Pressure vs 1/Volume
, . 1
(P, <P, < P;) and inverse of volume increases from Vv. to Vv.
1 3
(V, > Vo > Vs)

(iii) Pressure - Pressure x Volume Graph :

Y- axis = Pressure x Volume (PV)
X-axis = Pressure
Nature of graph-straight line PV
Pprrr-----

Interpretation of straight line:

When pressure increases from P, to P; then volume decreases. But
a

multiple of pressure and volume remains constant. Therefore, line

obtained is parallel to X-axis.
TV

Fig. 7.5 Pressure Volume vs Pressure

 Important formulae :
(i) PV =constant

Example 1: The CO, gas filled in container of capacity 5 L at 4 atm pressure. Calculate the volume
occupied by same gas at 1 atm pressure.
Solution: V, =5L P, =4 atm
yy =? P, =latm
orn
te Net

FV, = P,V2
AAqmgreremnee-

4x5 =1xV,

V, = 20 L

Example 2 : The gas if filled in cylinder of capacity 20 L at 100 atm. If gas is transferred to another
cylinder of capacity of 50 L then calculate the pressure applied on gas.
Solution: V, =20L P, =100 atm
V, =50L P, =?

PV, = PV,
20x100
= P, x50
Pi = 20 x100
50

Example 3: The He gas cylinder contains 50 L gas at 10 atm pressure. Calculate the number of balloon
filled by same He gas at 1 atm pressure if each balloon can hold 500 mL gas at latm pressure.
Solution: Volume of He gas (V,) =50 L
Pressure of gas (P,)=10 atm
P ressure in balloon when filled (P2) = 1 atm~
Volume of gas (V,) =?
BV, = PV,

10x50 =V, x1

1 balloon can hold = 500 mL then,

Total volume of He gas at 1 atm
Number of balloon =
Volume of each balloon
500 L _ 5001000
~500mL 500
= 1000 balloon
 Mm , . - :

ae Vie ICSE Chomistry-9

ROLE OF BOYLE’S LAW IN OUR DAILY LIFE |

4 The bubbles exhaled by a scuba diver grow as he approaches the surface of the ocean. This is because
of Boyle's Law. The pressure exerted by the weight of the water decreases when scuba diver
approaches the surface, so the volume of the bubbles increases as they rise. |
2 Deep sen fish die when brought to the surface, The pressure decreases as the fish is brought to the
surface, so the volume of gases in their bodies increases, and pops bladders, cells, and membrane; |
4 Pushing in the plunger of a plugged-up syringe decreases the volume of air trapped under the
plunger. |

Practice makes perfect

1. State Boyle’s Law.
2. Draw the graph between following:
(i) Pressure-volume graph (ii) Pressure-1/ volume graph
(iii) Pressure-pressure X Volume graph
3. Write the four measurable parameters of the gas.
4. Write S.I. unit of the following:
(i) Temperature (ii) Amount of substance
(iii) Volume (iv) Pressure
5. Discuss the effect of the following on the molecular motion of gases:
(i) Pressure (ii) Temperature
(ii) Volume
6. The gas X is filled in a 5 L container at 2 atm pressure. If pressure is reduced to half, then what
volume of container is required to fill the same gas at constant temperature? [Ans. 10L)
7. A 10 Lcontainer is filled with gas A at 1 atm pressure. How many balloons of capacity 250 mL can be
completely filled at 2 atm pressure at constant temperature? [Ans. 20] |
8. A gas cylinder contains 15 L gas at 760 mm of pressure. If gas is transferred to a container of capacity
5 Lthen how much pressure is required at constant temperature? [Ans. 2280 mm] —
9. Convert the following:
(i) 380 torr into atm [Ans. 0.5 atm]
(ii) 152 cm of Hg into pascal [Ans. 2.02650 x 10° Pa]
(iii) 5 atm into pascal [Ans. 5.06625 x 10° Pal
(iv) 1640 mm of Hg into torr [Ans. 1640 tort]
10. X gram carbon gives 5 Lcarbon dioxide on combustion in open atmosphere. What capacity of cylinder
[Ans. 0.5L]
is required to store this gas at 10 atm pressure at constant temperature?
balloons of 1 L
11. A gas cylinder contains helium gas at 10 atm pressure which is sufficient to fill 10
[Ans. 0.1 9)
capacity at 1 atm pressure. Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
 ' CHARLES’ LAW : VOLUME-TEMPERATURE RELATION
In 1787, Charles’ gave the relation between volume of the gas and
temperature at constant pressure. This relation further in 1808 was also verified
by Gay Lussac. .
Statement : At constant pressure, the volume of certain mass of dry gas ae
decrease or increase by 1/273 parts of its volume at 0° for each degree in change in
temperature.
This relation is also known as volume-temperature relation for gas.
Mathematical Form:
Se

Vo
ee<-

273.15
nn

where Vy is the volume of gas at 0°C

V is the volume of gas at #°C
The above equation can also be written as ,
er

V= Val ~ 200)
273.15
i a

Ve va{ 2 +t( a)
273.15
ria

V= Vo
273.15

x. = Constant

Where T is the temperature of the gas measured in Kelvin.

On the basis of above relation, Charles’ law also states that “The
volume of definite mass of dry gas is directly proportional to its
temperature when pressure is constant.”
If volume of definite mass of dry gas is V, and its temperature is 7, K,
then as per Charles’ law
Mi = Constant
T,
If temperature increases to T, then volume expands to V,. As per
Charles’ law
Va = Constant
T,
Theref,
erefore, V,
T, _= Ve
T,

If the temperature is increased of any system containing gas of fixed mass at constant pressure, volume
also increases and vice-versa.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHARLES’ LAW

Graphical representation of Charles’ law explains the nature of change of temperature and volume at
constant pressure.
 (i) Temperature -Volume graph :
Y-axis = Volume (mL)
X-axis = Temperature (°C)
Charles’ law states
VaT'
Nature of relation between volume
(V) and temperature
(7) on graph paper is shown by the straight ling
in fig :
Volume, mL

a> a
90 -

© ° 80
e |
Se e| 70-4

<> an ae

|
!
|
!
!
|
'
4 i | bey bk 4 pg iy
~250 —150 -50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature, 0°C

Fig. 7.7
When volume increases from V, to V, (V, <V,<V3) then temperature increases from 7, to 7;
Ui oT, €T,).
Absolute Zero :
Absolute zero is defined as temperature at which molecular motion ceases.
As per Charles’ law, for decrease in each degree centigrade of %
temperature volume also decreases by 1/273 times of volume at 0°C.
Suppose volume at 0°C is Vo.
At 0°C, Volume of gas = Vp mL ee
At:(—1)°C, Volume of gas = Vy — (1/273) Vy mL os >
At (-2)°C, Volume of gas = Vy —2 (1/273) Vy) mL Fig. 7.8
At (-273)°C, Volume of gas = Vy —273x(1/273) Vo mL
=V, —Vp mL
=0mL
Theoretically, —273°C is the temperature at which volume of the gas becomes 0. Therefore, this
temperature is defined as absolute zero. This temperature is considered as the starting of the kelvi"
scale, i.e., 0 K.
scale :
Relation between Celsius scale, Kelvin scale and Fahrenheit
From the figure, we can see that,
—~273.15°C =0 K
 When the tomperature rises to 0°C, it becomes equal Lo 273 K and due the equal difference between the
wo seales TOC is equal to 873 K. Therefore, we can say that 1 celsius is equal to 1 kelvin.
0°C = 273 K
100°C = 873 K
TK =(C +273) K
ln fahrenheit scale, the lower fixed point is 32°F and upper fixed point is 212°F. This means that 100
ayisions in celsius scale is equal to 180 divisions in Fahrenheit scale.
0°C = 92°F = 273 K
100°C = 212°F = 3873 K

'
‘
I 1373 ;
Steam point -~------ 100 wi aise Sh sas arenas 1212 ia icon equine eam one aa Upper fixed point (UFP)
(doting point of water) ' } j
lore + 180°F { | 100K 4 |
ice point —-—--___! re oa es1273
(it ene Lower fixed point (LFP)
(meiting point of water) I! H

!
|
1 |
! 1 1
| 1 1
| 1 1

| | |
| 1 1

pee
! i. [|
: |
gOK__
Celsius Fahrenheit Kelvin
Fig. 7.9
The standard temperature and pressure (STP) is also known as normal temperature and pressure (NTP).
Standard temperature and pressure (STP) values
Temperature = 273 K (0°C)
Pressure = 1 atm = 76 em Hg = 760 mm Hg = 760 Torr = 10° Pa =
MATHEMATICAL RELATION BETWEEN KELVIN, CELSIUS AND FAHRENHEIT
C-LFP _ K-LFP _ F-LFP tl
UFP—LFP UFP-LFP UFP-LFP
C-0 K-273 F-32
100-0 373-273 212-32
C K-273 F-82
en) 9
where,
LFP = Lower fixed point UFP = Upper fixed point
C = Temperature in celsius F = Temperature in fahrenheit
K = Temperature in kelvin
ROLE OF CHARLES LAW IN OUR DAILY LIFE
Helium Balloon on a Cold Day
Buy a helium balloon(normal gas balloon), and put it inside a freezer. After some time you will
notice that the helium balloon has crumpled. Now, take that balloon out of the freezer in the room
temperature. After some time you will notice that the balloon has regained its former shape. This is
because of Charles’ Law. According to this law, the volume decreases when the temperature is
decreased and expands when the temperature is increased.
 Tire Pressure
: bo . var wind D op,
.
Typical manufacturers recommend that air pressures inside the tires of your car
between around 25 to 35 pounds per square inch. But if you read your owners mana leardiity »
cold. That's becas ue BIVIN E Arr Ig,
will mention that tire pressure should always be measured
heats up tires. Charles’ law states that the gas occupies more space when heated, but 4 tire dx sy
expand very much. This causes the tire pressure to be higher when warm. Consequently, 1b ax ay
tire pressure when the tire is warm will give you the false impression that you have filled 11 taney
with too much air.
The Dented Ping Pong Ball
ball is something yn Tepe
If you are into ping-pong, also called table tennis, a dented ping pong
Wig
probably seen. Rather than discard it, you can restore it by placing it into a saucepa? nalf filled
water, Apply gentle heat to the saucepan, stirring constantly. If the ball is not cracked by iit: Cong:
ball to ite origiesg
the air inside will expand as it heats, pushing out the dent and restoring the ‘
shape. ra

Solved xamples
~

Important formulae : t

ok. — oS
eg
—--=-=(o ;
|
Example! : A sample of Neon gas has a volume of 250 cm® at 373 K. Calculate the temperatre «
which the volume will become 130 cm? at constant pressure.
Solution : Given: V, =250 cm®*, V, =130 em®, T, =373 K, T, =?
Pressure = constant
According to Charles’ Law,
YaWa
nr
i Vz,Naex T;1 _ 1803737 _j9yx
V; 250
volume of 50 m”. If tee
Example 2 : A fixed mass of gas X at 54°C and 1 atm pressure occupies a the volume oi the gas”
pressure is kept constant and the temperature is raised to 154°C, what would be
Solution : Given: V,=50m*, Vs =?
T, = 54°C = 54+ 273 =327K, T, = 154°C = 154 + 273 = 427K
Pressure = constant
 Study of Gas L aws BI:1

According to Charles’ Law,

V, _ Vo

(i 2

V, = V, x To ol 50x 427 65.3 m?

$ : 327
Example 3: A certain &4as X occupies a volume of 800 mL at 27°C. How much temperature should be
increased to get volume equal to four times the original?
Solution : Given: V, = 800 mL, V, = 8004 = 3200 mL

T, = 27°C = 27 +273 =300 K, T=?

Pressure = constant
' According to Charles’ Law,

V, _ Ve
T, Tp
Te = V,
2 x T; 1

SOM
: _ 3200x300 _ j 599 K
800

7.4 GAS EQUATION

It is a mathematical relation between pressure, volume and temperature of the gas. This relationship is
derived on the basis of Boyle’s and Charles’ Law.
As per Boyle’s Law,

VU oe.1
“Pp
As per Charles’ Law,
VaT
When we combine these two laws, we get to the following conclusion
Vae—a By
“P
T
Therefore, V = Constant x °-

Therefore, a = Constant

Suppose we take a definite mass of a dry gas of volume V, at the temperature T, and under the pressure
P,. This volume changes to V, at the temperature T, and under the pressure Py.
Therefore, by the above gas equation we can say,
BV, _ PV,
_ D
 re and 20( y
Example 1: A certain mass of gas A is taken whose volume is 25 L at 92 atm pressuressure.
temperature is increased to 300 K and 1 atm P
Calculate the volume of the gas when the
Solution: P,=2atm, V,=25 L, 7, =200K
P,=latm, V,=?, Ty =300 K
According to the gas equation,
BV, _PaVo
% %,
2x25 _1xV,
200 300
V, = 2%25x300
. 200
V,=75 L
Example 2 : Nitrogen gas of volume 84 mL is taken at the temperature of 240 K and under the pressur
m
of 2 atm. Calculate the temperature in degree centigrade at which the volume of the gas becomes 28
under 0.5 atm pressure.
Solution: PB =2 atm, V, = 84 mL, T, =240K

P,=05atm, V,=28 mL, Tp =?

According to the gas equation,
PV, _ PV,
oT
2x84 05x28
240. ‘Tp
T, = 0.5 7 a 240 20K

Temperature in celsius,
TK=(€C +273). K
20 = (°C + 273) K
t°C = 20 — 273 = -253°C
of Hg pressure and at 27°C. This gas §
Example 3: A 5 L container is filled with a gas X at 380 mm
the pressure required to transfer this gas-
transferred to a container of capacity 2 L at 17°C. Calculate
Solution: P, =380mmofHg, V, =5L, T, = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Py =?, V, =2L, T, = 17°C = 17 + 273 = 290 K
 eee
et
«> 7
ys, y i
Ue:
5 |

Study of Gas Laws Bl¥:

RV, PV,
1 1,
| HERO x be Py x2
woo 290
i , _ BROxBx 290
i HOO % 2
= 1696.07 mm of Hg = 914,43 mm of Hg
2

Practice makes perfect a

DED TE ES FGA PELE LS RE OIE IE LIES
). State Charles’ Law.
3, What is absolute zero? How is it related with the celsius scale?
s. Convert the following:
(i) 52°C into kelvin
(ii) 78°C into kelvin
(iii) 300 K into celsius
(iv) 350 K into celsius [Ans. 325 K, 351 K, 27°C, 77°C]
4, Helium has filled in a 5 L container at 27°C. At what temperature gas should be cooled to store the
| gasin a container of 2 Lif pressure remains constant? [Ans. —153°C]
i 5. Nitrogen gas collected in a container of 10 L at 0°C. If the gas is heated upto 57°C, then calculate the
volume of gas. [Ans. 12.08 L]
6. Agas cylinder contains 5 L helium gas at 0°C. How many balloons of 250 mL capacity can be filled at
room temperature (27°C)? [Ans. 22]
7. A meteorological balloon contains 100 L gas at 10°C. If the balloon is placed in high temperature
weather zone at 37°C then how much expansion in volume of balloon takes place?
[Ans. Increase by 9.54 L]
8. How can the gas equation be derived from the two gas laws?
9. Nitrogen gas collected 6 L container at 1 atm pressure and room temperature (27°C). Calculate the
volume of nitrogen at S.T.P. [Ans. 5.46 L]
10. Agas X occupies 11.2 L space at S.T.P. How much space is required to store this gas at 380 mm of Hg
pressure and 27°C. [Ans. 24.6 L]
ll, 5.6 L gas stored at S.T.P. How much pressure is required to store this gas in 2.8 L container and at
room temperature? [Ans, 2.2 atm]
SS —"

ML

wth
eee 164 ICSE Chemistry-0

IMPORTANT FORMULAE
(i) Number of moles of any gas = Total weight of gas
Gram molecular weight of gas
(ii) Number of moles of any gas = Total vote of zs at 8.T.P.
2.4
(iii) PV = Constant
(iv) PV, = PV, = Constant
(v) 5 = Constant

.~ Vi _ Ve
am
(vii) T K =(€C+273)K
iy PMTy, _ PMa
(vill T;

TIPS TO SOLVE NUMERICALS

(i) Temperature should always be in kelvin (273+ °C)
(ii) S.T.P. means — 1 atm pressure
273 K temperature
(ii) Make sure all units of pressure are same within the problem.

CHECK UNITS
BY,
= PV,
Units of P, and P, should be same.
Units of V, and V, should be same.
 rn

Revise Twice, Score Well —

Tho elements in gascous state have the following, properties:
Indefinite volume,
* Indefinite shape,
* Expansion with increase in temperature.
* Highly compressible on high pressure,
* Apply equal pressure in all directions.
* Maximum gases are colourless but few are coloured. Example: Bromine (reddish brown),
Chlorine (greenish yellow), Fluorine (greenish yellow), Nitrogen dioxide (reddish brown)
Measurable properties of gases: Mass or amount, Volume, Temperature, Pressure.
As per S.I. System the 7th S.I. unit ‘Mole’ is introduced for chemical substances in 1971. As per this
system:
1 mole of gas = gram atomic weight or gram molecular weight = 22.4 L at S.T.P.
Number of moles of any gas = Total weight of gas
Gram molecular weight of gas
Number of moles of any gas = Total volume of gas at S.T.P.
22.4L
The space occupied by gas is defined as volume of gas. The volume of gas can be measured in
standard units like litre, millilitre, cubic centimetre (c.c.), decimetre cube (dm? ), etc. These units are
inter-related to each other as follows:
1 m® =10° dm® =10° cm?®
1 L=1000 mL
1mL = lem?
1L = 10x10x10cm?
=1x1x1dm?® (¢.: 1 dm =10 cm)
Pressure defined as the force applied per unit area.
Oo

If force of 1 newton (N) applied on area of1 m” the exerted pressure is defined as 1 pascal unit. Pascal
is S.I. unit of pressure and represented by (Pa). The non S.I. but frequently used unit for pressure
are atm and torr.
1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 Torr = 76 cm of Hg = 1.01325 x 10° Pa.
O

Temperature of system reflects the hotness of body. In case of gas it is considered as kinetic energy of
molecule of atom in gas.
When we increase the temperature of gases the kinetic energy also increases. At high kinetic energy,
molecules move more rapidly and put more pressure on the walls of the container.
When we increase the pressure on the gases then volume of gas decrease therefore molecular motion
are restricted. Therefore, at high pressure gas changes into liquid state.
When we increase the volume of gas mean more space for particles to move. Therefore kinetic energy
of particle decrease and temperature also decrease.
et,
CSE Chemistry-9

According to Boyle's law for a definite mass of dry gas, volume of gas 18 inversely proportional to th.
pressure applied on it at constant temperature.
If V is the volume of definite mass of dry gas at pressure P at constant temperature, then
Pe A
V
PV = Constant
PV, = P,V, = Constant
According to Charles’ law, at constant pressure, the volume of certain mass of dry gas is decrease cy
increase by 1/273 parts of its volume at 0° for each degree in change in temperature. This relation is
also known as volume-temperature relation for gas.

5 = Constant; where T is the temperature of the gas measured in kelvin.

On the basis of above relation, Charles’ Law also states that “The volume of definite mass of dry ga:
is directly proportional to its temperature when pressure is constant.”
If volume of definite mass of dry gas is V, and its temperature is T, K, then its temperature increase
to T, then volume expands to V,. As per Charles’ law,
VY, _V
Tt, T,
Absolute zero is defined as temperature at which molecular motion ceases. Theoretically, —-273°C iz
the temperature at which volume of the gas becomes 0. Therefore, this temperature is defined a: _
absolute zero. This temperature is considered as the starting of the Kelvin scale, i.e,0 K
TK =(€C+273)K
C_K-273_ F-32
5 5 9 |
The Standard temperature and pressure (STP) is also known as Normal temperature and pressure
(NTP).
Temperature = 273 K (0°C), Pressure = 1 atm = 76 cm Hg = 760 mm Hg = 760 Torr =10° Pa
Gas equation is a mathematical relation between pressure, volume and temperature of the gas. This
relationship is derived on the basis of Boyle’s and Charles’ Law.

Gas equation = AAA

Tt Th
 . Whenever . you put perfume on your body, its
. smell goes everywhere.
re, Can
C you name the e p phenomen on
associated with it?
, What will be the pressure of a gas if:
"se

(a) the temperature is doubled keeping the volume constant.

'
(b) the volume is double from its original value keeping the temperature constant? 9
3. Why kelvin scale was discovered?
4. How did Charle’s law lead to the concept of absolute scale of temperature?
5. Match the following with suitable option:
Column A Column B
(a) Boyle's law @ Avi _PVe
T, T.
(b) _Charle’s law Gi) PV, =RV2
(c) Ideal gas equation (iii) torr
(d) Temperature (iv) Temperature constant
(e) Volume (vy) Vi_Ve
T, I,
(f) Pressure (vi) kelvin
(vii) m®
- 10 mL of a gas at 75.6 kPa and 60°C is to be corrected to correspond to the volume it would occupy at
STP. [Ans. 6.12 mL]
- 100 mL of a gas at 27°C is cooled to 10°C at constant pressure. Calculate the volume of gas at 10°C.
[Ans. 94.33 mL]
. 15 dm® of dry gas at temperature of 27°C and pressure of 760 mm Hg. Find the volume of gas at
S.TP. [Ans. 13.65 dm’*]
. 2 Lofa gas is at 740 mm of Hg pressure. What is its volume at standard pressure?
[Ans. 1.95 L]
- 5.36 L of nitrogen gas are at -25°C and 733 mm of Hg. What would be the volume at 128°C and 1.5
atm? [Ans. 5.57 L]
- 7.5 dm? of helium gas is collected at a temperature of 27°C and a pressure of 740 mm Hg. Find the
volume of gas at S.T.P. [Ans. 6.64 dm*]
. A chemist collected 56.1 mL of gas in an open manometer. The next day, the chemist noted had
changed to 57.9 mL and the barometer reading was 99.4 kPa. The temperature had not changed.
What had been the barometer reading on the previous day when the gas was collected?
[Ans. 103 kPa]
13, A gas has a volume of 3.04 x10° m? at 12°C anda pressure 99.7 kPa. What pressure will cause the
gas to have a volume of 3.25 x 3.04 x 10? m? at 25°C? [Ans. 52.07 kPa]
ae 7] ICSE Chemistry-9
ard temperature?
14. A gas is collected and found to fill 2.85 L at 25°C. What will be its volume at stand
[Ans. 2.6] Ly

15. A gas is stored in a container at standard temperature. At what temperature,

the volume of encloseq
gas will be 1/12 of its initial volume, when the pressure remains constant.
[Ans. 22.75 Kj
the sphere is 30 atm,
16. A glass sphere is filled to full volume with a gas. The pressure of the gas inside
and the temperature is 25°C. The sphere is taken outside on a cold day. The temperature of the gag
is constant.
decreases to 10°C. What is the new pressure of the gas? Assume that the volume
[Ans. 28.5 atm]

17. A sample of hydrogen exerts a pressure of 0.329 atm at 47°C. The gas is heated to 77°C at constant
volume. What will its new pressure be? [Ans. 0.36 atm)
18. A sample of neon gas occupies a volume of 752 mL at 25°C. What volume
will the gas occupy at
standard temperature if the pressure remains constant? [Ans. 689 L}

19. A sample of oxygen gas has a volume of 150 mL when its pressure at 440 mm of Hg. If the pressure js
increased to standard pressure and the temperature remains constant, what will the new has volume
be? [Ans. 86.8 mL}
20. A tank for compressed gas has a maximum safe pressure limit 825 kPa. The pressure gauge reads
388 kPa when the temperature is 24°C. What is the highest temperature the tank can withstand
safely? [Ans. 632 K]
21. A tube of mercury at a room temperature of 22.4°C has a volume of 10.6 mL between the sealed end
of the tube and the mercury. The sun rises and shines through a window on the tube and warms it to
27.8°C. If the atmosphere pressure remains constant, what is the new volume between the sealed
end of the tube and the mercury? [Ans. 10.8 mL}
. At certain temperature a gas occupies a volume of 3000 cm? at a pressure of 370 mm of mercury. At
what pressure its volume will be 750 cm? (Ans. 1480 mm of Hg]
At constant temperature, 2 L of a gas at 4 atm of pressure is expanded to 6 L. What is the new
pressure? [Ans. 1.33 atm]

. At constant temperature, a gas is under the pressure of 540 mm of mercury. At what pressure its
volume increases by 60%. [Ans. 337.5 mm Hg]

. At STP, the volume of 458 mL at a pressure of 1.01 atm and temperature of 295 K. When the
pressure is changed, the volume becomes 477 mL. If there has been no change in temperature, what
is the new pressure? [Ans. 0.97 atm]
. Calculate the pressure of 5 litre of dry hydrogen gas, if it occupies a volume of 6 litre at 2 atmosphere.
Assume that the temperature remains constant. [Ans. 2.4 atm]
27. Calculate the pressure of a gas, when its initial volume is 500 mL, the gas is expanded to volume of
2000 mL and the pressure of 1 atmospheres. The temperature during the reaction remains constant.
(Ans. 4 atm]
28. Carbon dioxide occupies a volume of 672 cm® at S.T.P. Find its volume at 30°C and at a pressure of
700 mm Hg. [Ans. 809.77 cm’]
29. Dry nitrogen at a pressure of 380 mm Hg and temperature 27°C is found to occupy a volume of
200 cm®. Find the volume of dry nitrogen gas at S.T.P. [Ans. 91 cm*]
30. Explain the Boyle’s law with the help of example.
31. Explain volume-temperature graph on the basis of Charles’ law.
 IM

Study of Gas Laws §}|: ae

82. Hydrogen yas occupies a volume of 400 em" at nu temperature of 27°C and normal atmospheric
~,
pressure, Find tho volume ofthe gas at LO°C at constant pressure, [Ans. 377.33 cm)
38, Ifa helium filled balloon has a volume of 8.4 Lat 26°C and 120 kPa, what is its volume at STP?
[Ans. 2.7 L}
$4. Ralph had a helium balloon With a volume of 4.88 Lat 150 kPa of pressure. If the volume
is changed
to 3.15 L,
5 ?
what would be the new pressure in atm?
.

[Ans. 2.29 atm]

35. The gus pressure in an aerosol can is 151.6 kPa at 25°C, what would the pressure be inside the can at
300°C? (Ans. 292 kPa]
36. The gas in a sealed can is at a pressure of 3 atm at 25°C. A warning on the can tells the
user not to
store the can in a place where the temperature will exceed 52°C. What would the gas pressure in the
can be at 52°C? {Ans. 3.27 atm]
$7. The volume occupied by a certain gas was found to be 7.2 dm*® when the pressure was 4 atm.
If the
pressure 1s decreased by 30%, find the new volume of the gas.
[Ans. 10.28 dm’*]
| 38. The volume of a gas is 654 mL at 6°C and 65.8 kPa, what is the volume at 4°C and 108.7
| kPa.
[Ans. 390.06 mL]
89. The volume of certain gas was found to be 800 cm®, when pressure was 260 mm of Hg. If
the pressure
is increased by 60%, find the new volume of the gas.
[Ans. 500 cm*]
40. What pressure will a gas sample exert at 300 K if the same sample has a pressure of
4 aim at 120 K.
[Ans. 10 atm]
41. A chemist produces 230 mL of nitrogen gas at 43°C and constant pressure. To temperature (in
celsius scale) must the nitrogen be warmed in order for it to have
a volume of 600 mL.
[Ans. 327°C]
42, a Ve kelvin temperature will a sample of gas occupy 24 L if the same sample occupies 16 L
at
27°C.
[Ans. 450 K]
43. A gas is under the pressure of 750 mm of mercury and occupie
s a volume of 1000 cm®. If volume is
decreased by 40%, find its new pressure when the temperature
remains constant. [Ans. 1250 mm]
44. A gas occupies the space of 200 cm? at a certain pressure.
If the pressure is changed to 5 atm, the
volume of the gas was found to be 150 cm®. Calculate the initial
pressure of the gas. [Ans. 3.75 atm]
45. Convert the following temperature (in °C) to the kelvin temperature.
(i) —200°C (ii) 300°C (113) 250°C (av) 56°C (v) 70°C

(Ans. (i) 78 K, (ii) 573 K, (iii) 523 K, (iv) 329 K, (v) 343 K]
46. Change the following units:
GQ) 359 kPa = atm
ai)10°C =___
sri K
Gi) 6.2 atm =__—kPa
G1OK= €
[Ans. (i) 3.54 atm, (ii) 283 K, (iii) 628.215 kPa, (iv)
-263°C]
 yuh
ape TE TOSE Chemistry i

\
P

ractice is the Key to

* 7 f

Success 3S

.
|

Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. State the following ;
(i) Boyle's law

Ans. A definite mags of dry gas, volume of yas is inversely proportional to the pressure applied or, -
constant temperature

PV = constant
PV, =PVe
(ii) Charles’ law
Ans.

TIRE ORT AAEE OS DON ny eaeeewwererescievernrareveescecvevenensdedSHeasneeapereseterw eas ne sed eV eee wEEOS SEALS,

TOPS OOOO C eee ees essecasmnnvoneenvereversserecensensvsssssessoesesvssosseroorserrre le

Q. 2. Convert the following:

(i) 2 moles of He = 44.8 L (volume at S.T.P.)
Ans. Volume of 1 mole of He at S.T_P. = 22.4L
Volume of 2 moles of He at S.T.P. = 2 x 22.4 = 44.8 L
(ii) 2 mole of CO, TS SeyeescinGblceacasmaawe (weight in grams)
PRERB senexotnoincetvacrwnanauseasiiaiass cain Vue aUA EASE TCUESIUS CNC ADSORB CGNGTE DeBus RCS ay Sa Ro DELIRER Naa TaN ocaReRRoEMN NRE RIE -

(iii) 200 mL = rvsasiseennnae (volume in L)

RISB, svssicrnnaicarienscwnniensannnunavuniennt ens ta cawRiNsns eR AWC ise OCU AREUE BONE ROS VENUS NSGD Na ieee tee taaaRNliwenmnawestenueneessees ;

(iv) 3L yacsiawiananaunnesieas (volume in dm*)

a re ccs cS icustaitahasamirs te bins DEENA MESOANG HRA ESAS WARNS ELS WN HW ETC GUS UTICA SB SI SBR dU Sra ne UREN

(v) 3 atm S perpscuasveccsnenucewes (pressure in mm of Hg)

aw Ch ACiWeamoVaNOMAVeeemnerserceterserTOsOLOIITeyTOvi a PCIe leven eeieses Wes ae see CE Se SANG Nise adeWsisde dies sadeeaewe sae sceessiceereosss
SUS
 —_ ti}

(vi) 2 atm
om Th eeie
sb esaateeen
eites (pressure on pascal)

(vii) 27°C
a ae er ee .
(Temperature in kelvin)

ea Gee PNY teases ids weve rhe wasn dasintssiesa dulsctisesscssthicesibees

Ans. F sescecreneosausecistees (Temperature in °C)

Q. 3. Draw the graph for the following 7

i X. % = . .
(i) axls Volume > Y-axis = Pressure; 1
Temperature constant . Relation => Pex V
Ans.

(ii) X-axis = 1 / Volume > Y-axis = Pressure: Temperature

constant ; Relation=> Pe :
Ans.

(iti) X-axis = Temperature (K) ; Y-axis = Volume (mL); Pressure constant

; Relation => VaT
Ans.
|
at Q. 4. Give reasons for
the following:
(i) Helium balloon
is crumple d in freezer,
ansrding to ¢ by harley’ law, volu
Ans. Acco 7 h }
me is directly proportional bo Lomperatgiure
ut 90, WHEN LNe7 Lemiyyeey.
Verey
icKingeas : .
decreases in the freezer, volume . Thus, ballo
of beliuny balloon alno decreases “Thus hall owon 16 crurmpice
(ii) Tire pressure of vehi
cles should always be measure cold.
Ans.

(ii) Dented ping pong ball regains its original shape when placed
in hot water.
Ans, .......

(iv) The bubbles exhaled by a scuba diver grow as it approaches

to surface of the ocean.
Ans.

(iv) Deep sea fish die when brought to

the surface.
Ans.

Q. 5. Calculate the following:

(i) The gas ‘A’ filled in container of capacity 7 L at 2 atm
pressure. Calculate the volume occupied by the san
gas at 1 atm pressure.
Ans. P, - 2utm. V, 7h. B= Latin, Vi =?
PY, = Rt
Pad= x
\ ML

(ii) CO, gas is filled in a cylinder of capacity 10 L at 60 atm. If gas is transferred to another cylinder
capacity 25 L then calculate the pressure applied on gas.
{20 atm]
Ans.

(in) The gas cylinder contains 100 1, gan at 10 atm

pressure, Calculate the number of balloons filled
saci oes ne J atm pressure if cach balloon by the
can hold 260 mL gaat 1 atm.
[4000)
Ans.
 Study of Gas Laws BL!F
‘ 3 ) ‘
uv) A sam) le of UPRON gas hag a volume of hO0 em"! aL 980 K. Caleulate Lhe Lomperature at which the volume
will become
ry a4
250 em"
. q
at CONSEINE proasure,
.

(190 1}
Ans.

(vy) A lita.
fixed mass oFe) of dry CO, g¢ 48 18 taken whose volume is 20 L at 2 atm pressure and 100 K, Calculate the
vo 1©© of the 2 gas s when the temperature is increased to 200 K and pressure isP decreased to 1 atm.

(80 L|
Ans.

000
 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

8.1 ATMOSPHERE
Scope of Syllabus
(a) Acid rain— composition, cause and its Atmosphere is an envelope of various gases which
impact. surround the earth surface for approximately 1600 km
Sulphur in fossil fuels giving oxides of sulphur above the sea level. This envelope protects us from the
when burnt. High temperatures in furnaces and harmful radiations of the sun. This atmosphere is not the
internal combustion engines produce oxides of
same everywhere. It consists of various layers which have —
nitrogen. (Equations to be included). Acid rain
affects soil chemistry and water bodies. variable density. These layers and some important facts
(b) Global warming : about them are discussed below:
Greenhouse gases—their sources and ways of Q Exosphere: The exosphere is the outermost layer of
reducing their presence in the atmosphere.
Earth’s atmosphere (i.e, the upper limit of the
(Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and
oxides of nitrogen) atmosphere). It extends from the exobase, which is
(c) Ozone depletion located at the top of the thermosphere at an altitude of
* Formation of ozone — relevant equations. about 700 km above sea level, to about 10,000 km where ©
* Function in the atmosphere. it merges into the solar wind. The exosphere contains
* Destruction of the ozone layer — chemicals most of the satellites orbiting Earth.
responsible for this to be named but reactions
Thermosphere:
Q The thermosphere is ___ the
not required.
second-highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere. It extends
from the mesopause (which separates it from the mesosphere) at an altitude of about 80 km up to the
thermopause at an altitude range of 500-1000 km. The temperature of this layer can rise as high as
1500°C (2700°F). Non-hydro meteorological phenomena such as the aurora borealis and aurora
australis are occasionally seen in the thermosphere. The International Space Station orbits in this
layer, between 350 and 420 km.
Q Mesosphere: The mesosphere is the third highest layer of Earth’s atmosphere. It extends from the
stratopause at an altitude of about 50 km to the mesopause at 80-85 km above sea level. Temperature _
drop with increasing altitude to the mesopause that marks the top of this middle layer of the
¥

Atmospheric Pollution B. ee
atmosphere. It is the coldest place on Barth and has an average temperature sround —84°C (~1 20°,
190 WK).
) Stratosphere: The Stratosphere is
second-lowest layer of Karth’s the
atmosphere. It lies
above the troposphere and is separated from
it by
the tropopause, This layer extends from the
. r M4

top of
cs

| the troposphere at roughly 12 km above Barth's

tne SOP HERE
surface to the Stratopause at an altitude of about 50
; BS
to 55 km. This layer contains various gases
like f- — >
’ nitrogen, OXygen, ozone and little amount
of water
vapour. The very useful ozone
| ayer which protects
us from the UV radiations
is a] so found here. This
layer of ozone is also
c alled ozonosphere.
Fig. 8.1 Layers of atmosphere
3 Troposphere: The troposphere is the lowest layer
of Earth's atmosphere. It extends from Earth’s surface to an avera ge height
of about 12 km, although
this altitude actually varies from about 9 km at the poles to 17 km at the equator, with some variati
on
due to weather. The temperature in this layer decreases with rise in altitude. This region is ful] of air,
dust particles, wind, water vapour and major cloud formation takes
place.
Table 8.1 : Layers of Atmosphere
— Name Distance from the mean sea level Some major facts |
—

Exosphere 700 km to 10000 km Satellites of earth revolve here

thermosphere 80 km to 700 km Aurora borealis is occasionally seen and international space
station is situated here.
a

Mesosphere 50 km to 80 km Temperature drop till (-85°C)

i.
stratosphere 12 km to 50 km Ozone layer
Troposphere 0 to12km Full of air, dust particles, water vapour and clouds

8.2 ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION

Any substance present in the atmosphere which adversely affects the atmosphere is called
ymospheric pollutants and the phenomenon is called atmospheric pollution.
genie ee

Fig. 8.2 Atmospheric pollution

 Ml : -
“H)
}

es196 f CSE Chemistry-9

Table 8.2 ; Major pollutants and there Adverse effect

Pollutant Effects ast]
Ozone Asthma, sore thronts, coughs and breathing difficulty. Ozone can also damages plants anders ,
Carbon monoxide | Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people feel dizzy, suffocated and tired and give, Ue
headache.
‘
Nitrogen dioxide ;
Causes coughs. Nitrogen ;
dioxide reacts in the atmosphereto feform @cie
acid rain ’ whith Can
eohar ,
plants and animals, can form particles which reduces the visibility in alr.
Sulphur dioxide Asthma, irritation in eyes, noses and throats, harms trees and crops, damage buildings anq tial,
it harder for people to see long distances.
Lead
,
Kidney
pen
problems,
é : ne
long exposure can increase the chance of having heart attacks or stroke,

Toxic air pollutants| Cancer, some causes birth defects. ae i

Three major adverse effects of atmospheric pollution are :
2 Acid Rain
2 Global Warming
23 Ozone Depletion

8.3 ACID RAIN

Due to the many human activities the acidic oxides enter the atmosphere. The amount of these OXides ,
more than the required amount. When precipitation in any form occurs, the acidic oxides present in»,
atmosphere mix with it and form acids. These acids lower the pH value of the precipitation and cause ag,
precipitation. When the precipitation is in the form of rain, then it causes acid rain.
“The rain whose pH is lower than 5.0 is called Acid Rain.”

' SOMPOSITION
The major pollutants causing acid rain are the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
The oxides of sulphur enter the atmosphere through many human activities like combustion of fos2
els, extraction of metals from sulphide ore, etc.
Metal sulphide + oxygen —-> Metal oxide + SO,(g)
4FeS, +110, —> 880, + 2Fe,03
Sulphur dioxide Iron (IID oxide

S(s)+ Oo(g) —> SO.(g)

The sulphur dioxide gas (SO.) produced combines with water to produce sulphurous acid (H,SO,).
H,O0(J) +SO.(g) —> H,SO,(g)
The water droplets and dust particles catalyze the reaction between oxygen and sulphur dioxide in th
air which produces sulphur trioxide, SO,. This gas dissolves in water and produces sulphuric acid which isa
much stronger acid.

$0 2(2)+; O2lg) > 804(#)

H,O(/) +SO3(g) —> H,SO,(aq)
bond. However, a
Nitrogen is a diatomic molecule and is fairly inert because of its triple covalent
This hig
temperatures over 1300°C, nitrogen combines with oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide.
r Feel
Atmospheric Pollution @ LJ) ee

ampere is mostly found in the combustion of fossil fuel in engines and during lightening in a thunder

at No(g) + Ou(g) —> 2NO(g)

qhe nitrogen monoxide slowly combines with oxygen to form soluble nitrogen dioxide gas,
2NO(g) + O(¢) —> 2NO,(g)
Nitrogen dioxide readily dissolves in water producing a mixture of nitric and nitrous acids.
2NO,(g) + H,O(/) —» HNO, (aq) + HNO,(g)
Table 8.3 ; Sources of Gases Causing Acid Rain

Gas Formula Natural Sources Non-natural Sources

Carbon dioxide CO, Decomposition of organic material Combustion of fossil-fuel

Nitric oxide NO Electric discharge in atmosphere Internal combustion in vehicles
} ‘ ‘
| Sulphur dioxide SO, Volcanic gases Combustion of fossil-fuel

CAUSE
Both natural and human activities are responsible for producing these acidic oxides in the atmosphere.
But, its major source is combustion of fossil fuels. Some of the natural and human activities are as follows:
1. Natural Sources : The major natural source for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes emit acid
producing gases to create higher than normal amounts of acid rain or any other form of precipitation such
as fog and snow which largely affects vegetation cover and health of living organisms in the nearby areas.
The dead and decaying plants, forest fires and biological processes in the environment also generate the
acidic oxides. Lighting strikes also naturally produces nitric oxides that react with water molecules via
electrical activity to produce nitric acid.
2. Man-made Sources : Human activities such as chemical gas emissions like sulphur and nitrogen
are the primary contributors to acid rain. The activities include sources like factories, power plants and
automobiles. In particular, use of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous
emissions leading to acid rain. Automobiles and factories also release high scores of gaseous emissions on
daily basis into the air, especially in highly industrialized areas and urban regions.

Photo oxidation
Acid pollutants
Hydrocaibons N0,S0, Dry deposition hore doposition:
€ missions to the atmosphero 2 = ; in ond snow
. it HyS0, °°
ill! HNO,

“= Gases |! i
Particulates iil!

Ind Ti et te] tic Electricity generation

Fig. 8.3: Sources of acid rain

IMPACT
4 Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain either falls
directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off the forests, roads
and fields to flow into streams, rivers and lakes. Over a
period of time, acids get accumulated in the water and lower
the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and
animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If
the pH level falls below then the conditions become hostile
for the survival of aquatic life. Acid rain has a tendency of
altering pH and aluminium concentrations greatly affects
pH concentration levels in surface water, thereby affecting tic i
fish as well as other aquatic life-forms. At PH levels below 5, Fig. 8.4: Effect of acid rain on aqua
most fish eggs cannot hatch. Lower pH can also kill adult
fish. Acid rain runoff from catchment areas into rivers and lakes has also reduced biodiversity a
rivers and lakes become more acidic. Species including fish, plant and insect types 1n some lake:
rivers and brooks have been reduced and some even completely eliminated owing to excess acid reix
flowing into the waters.
4 Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts soil chemistry and biology. It means, soil microbes an;
biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged or reversed duz
to the effects of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH level for the continuity ¢
biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil pH, which damages ¢
reverses soil biological and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms that canne:
adapt to changes in pH are killed. High soil acidity also denatures enzymes for the soil microbes. Oy
the same breadth, hydrogen ions of acid rain leach away vital minerals and nutrients such as calciur
and magnesium.
4 Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid rain on soil and high levels of dry -
depositions have endlessly damaged high altitude forests and vegetation cover since they are mostly
encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on ecological harmony
have lead to stunted growth and even death of some forests and vegetation cover.

Fig. 8.5; Effect of acid rain on vegetation cover

 J Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on
buildings, especially those constructed with limestone, react
with the minerals and corrode them away. This leaves the
building weak and susceptible to decay, Modern buildings,
cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by acid
rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage
buildings.
Fig. 8.6: Effect of acid rain on monuments

Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their
particulate matter derivatives like sulphates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause
accidents, leading to injuries and deaths. Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because
acid rain water is too dilute to cause serious health problems. However, the dry depositions also
known as gaseous particulates in the air which in this case are nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can
cause serious health problems when inhaled. Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the
air can cause lung and heart problems such as bronchitis and asthma.
Other Effects: Acid rain leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of paints
on surfaces. Buildings and structures made of marble and limestone are the ones especially damaged
by acid rain due to the reactivity of the acids in the rain and the calcium compounds in the structures.
The effects are commonly seen on statues, old grave stones, historic monuments, and damaged
buildings. Acid rain also corrodes metals like steel, bronze, copper and iron.

___Practice makes perfect —

1 Define pollution.
. Give two suggestions to reduce the formation of acid rain.
tb

. How is sulphuric acid of acid rain formed?

onrnw Ww

. Name main layer of the atmosphere in which we live. What is its thickness?
&»

. Name the gases responsible for acid rain.

. Name two each of the natural and manmade sources of air pollution.
. Write balance chemical equation for the formation of acid rain.
. How acid rain leads to ‘marble cancer’ ? Give any two methods to prevent it.

8.4 GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Sun is the ultimate source of energy. Sun rays are trapped by humans and plants for their survival. It
also causes evaporation of water which leads to rain. Some rays after reflection bounce back and trapped by
greenhouse gases cause greenhouse effect.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which the greenhouse gases keep the place warm.
 |

a
Duk
200 eS
the
In the earth’s atmosphere this phenomenon is very beneficial because it he Ips in maintaining
temperature. The greenhouse gases manage the absorption and emission of infrared r adia tion s from the |
air tem perature near
planet's surface. On Earth, naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases cause
the surface to be about 33°C (59°F) warmer than it would be in their absence.
Without the Earth’s atmosphere, the Earth’s
Greenhouse Effect
average temperature The
would be well below the
freezing temperature of water. The major
Somo sunlight that hits
greenhouse gases are water vapour, which causes the earth is reflected.
: Some becomes heat.
about 36-70%
-70% of the greenhouse
5 .
effect;
7
carbon ‘ee CO; and other gases
. in the atmosphere
dioxide
ION)
(CO2), which
}
causes 9-26%;
90.
methane ‘ “ trap heat, keeping
(CH,), which causes 4-9%; and ozone (O,), which a the earth warm.
causes 3-7%. rf ? ES
TS AR AN
This phenomenon is very important to
maintain the temperature at the earth’s surface oO > Yc
7 a
but, now-a-days due to certain human activities »

there is a gradual rise in the amount of

greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This rise is
Fig. 8.7: Greenhouse effect
causing gradual rise in the global temperature.

GLOBAL WARMING
As greenhouse effect is required for survival on earth, due to human activities the concentration of CO,
increasing day by day which leads to warming of earth known as ‘Global warming’.
Global warming is the gradual rise in temperature of the Earth's surface, oceans and atmosphere.
Rarth's average temperature has risen by 1.4°F (0.8°C) over the past century, according to the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
About 75% of the total sunlight reaching the earth is absorbed by the earth’s surface. This heat energy |
“ps in maintaining the temperature in the earth’s atmosphere. In this process the green house gases are |
nelpful as they absorb the sunlight of the long wavelength and reflect them in short wavelength which is
inable to escape from the atmosphere.
The Earth’s average surface temperature is rising due to effect of greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide,
water vapour, methane, etc.
Due to global warming, there is rise in sea level. Glaciers and polar ice caps have started melting which
may cause flood in an environment.

GREENHOUSE GASES
A greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared
radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere. By increasing the heat in the atmosphere,
greenhouse gases are responsible for the greenhouse effect, which ultimately leads to global warming.
 oy)
Atmospheric Poll
20 fe
Table 8.4 : Comparative concentrations of some Greenhouse gases In troposphere

ci: Gas Pre-industrialisation Recent tropospheric Percentage increase

} tropospheric concentration concentration since 1750

“carbon dioxide (COS) 280 ppin* 395.4 ppm AL.2%

Methane (CH a) 700 ppb** 1893 ppb/ 170.4 %

1762 ppb 151.7 %
Nitrous oxide (NO) 270 ppb 326 ppb/ 20.7 %
324 ppb 20.0%
Tropespheric ozone (O, ) 237 ppb 337 ppb 42 %
rn .

*ppm — Parts per million

**ppb — Parts per billion

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO,)

Carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere through burning of Other (Non-Fossil
fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), solid waste, trees and wood Fuel Combustion)
6%
products, and also as a result of certain chemical reactions (e.g., Residential & \
manufacture of cement). Carbon dioxide is removed from the Commercial
10%
_ atmosphere when it is absorbed by plants during photosynthesis.
Carbon dioxide (CO,) is the major greenhouse gas emitted
through human activities. Carbon dioxide is naturally present in ¥) Electricity
Industry \ 37%
the atmosphere as part of the Earth's carbon eycle. Human 15%
activities are altering the carbon cycle—both by adding more CO,
to the atmosphere and increasing deforestation has reduced the- Transportation

removal of CO, from the atmosphere. While CO, emissions come 31%

from a variety of natural sources, human-related emissions are

the major factor for the increase that has occurred in the Fig. 8.8: Sources of CO, emissions
atmosphere since the industrial revolution.
The main human activity that emits CO, is the combustion of fossil fuels for energy and transportation,
other than certain industrial processes and land-use changes. The main sources of CO, emissions are
described below.
(i) Electricity: Electricity is a significant source of energy and is used to power homes, business, and
industry. The combustion of fossil fuels to generate electricity is the largest single source of CO,
emissions, accounting for about 37 percent of total CO, emissions and 30 percent of total greenhouse
gas emissions. Different fossil fuels used to generate electricity will emit different amounts of CO».
To produce a given amount of electricity, burning coal will produce more CO, than oil or natural gas.
(ii) Transportation: The combustion of fossil fuels such as gasoline and diesel to transport people and
goods is the second largest source of CO, emissions, accounting for about 31 percent of total CO,
emissions and 25 percent of total greenhouse gas emissions. This category includes transportation
sources such as highway vehicles, air travel, marine transportation, and rail.
ee Ne> oh
i le
a
(iii) Industry:: Many y industri se emitit CO,
strial processes through fossil fuel com bustion.ustioné
Several
° Proce...
for exam,
also produce CO, emissions through chemical reactions that do not involve com é

the production of cement, the extraction of metals such as iron and steel.

REDUCING CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS

Carbon dioxide (CO,) emissions can be mainly reduced by reducing the fossil fuel consumption and),
afforestation. Many ways for reducing CO, emissions are reducing the energy usaBe by applying ity
homes, businesses, industry, and transportation. Use of solar panels and electric efficient devices aly
reduces the COs.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is taking common regulatory actions to reduce greenhouse »,
emissions from largest sources, including power plants and motor vehicles.

METHANE (CH,)
Methane is emitted from various sources like during the production and transport of coal, natural oi
and oil; from livestock and other agricultural practices and by the decay of organic waste in municipal x;
waste landfills.
Methane (CH,) is the second most common greenhouse gas emitted
from human activities. Approximately, CH, accounts for about 11 percent
of all greenhouse gas emissions from human activities. Natural processes ME Natural ca
in soil and certain atmospheric chemical reactions help in removing CH, of —
from the atmosphere. The lifetime of methane in the atmosphere is very Ss ceaiias 33%
less than carbon dioxide (CO,), but CH, is more efficient in trapping au om
- . . fe : > ermentation
radiations. Over a period of 100 years the impact of CH, on climate is 25 22%
times more than CO,. The major sources of methane in the atmosphere
Fig. 8.9: Sources of CH, emissirs
are discussed below.
(i) Industry: The production of natural gas and petroleum is the largest source of CH,. The primar
component of natural gas is methane. Some CH, is emitted to the atmosphere during the productic
processing, storage, transmission, and distribution of natural gas.
(ii) Agriculture: During the normal digestive process of domestic livestock such as cattle, bufia:
sheep, etc. produce large amounts of CH,. Also, when animals’ manure is stored or managed
lagoons or holding tanks, CH, is produced. Globally, the Agriculture sector is the primary source ®
CH, emissions.
(iii) Waste from Homes and Businesses: Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes ant
in the treatment of wastewater. Landfills are the third largest source of CH,. Wetlands are the
largest source, emitting CH, from bacteria that decompose organic materials in the absence ¢
oxygen. Smaller sources include termites, oceans, sediments, volcanoes, and wildfires.
 DutaIh
Atmospheric Pollution #11} lee

NITROUS OXIDE (N,,0)

Major sources of e Missio b t+ ‘ ie : Manure
oxide _ are ngricultural and¥ {ranspartation pranagement ‘ite
industrial
BEE Ae activities,oS, agis 0 : NofSin nitrous ‘ ‘ ¥ ‘
. Approximately ie 4s PA combustion of fossil¥ fuels and solid sia ae %
waste.
AS DP, "
*
YF av -
Mtrous oxide (N,O) nccounts for about. 6 percent
‘ %
bi
Industry o

greenhouse gas £38 . ‘ iy x

~ hee

Production
oe eMissions from human activities. Nitrous oxide is
anor Owes

_ alt Y ust ™
naturaby present in the atmosphere as part of the Barth's nitrogen
i 7 & SS s . 3 3

Stationary
cle,
cycle and has ari
a variety of . natural sources, However, the amount ‘
of re
Combustion

N,O in the atmosphere js increasing due to certain human activities

like agriculture, fossil fuel combustion, wastewater management, and
industrial processes. The life of the molecules of nitrous oxide in the
ataiosphere on average is of 114 years. The impact of N,O on warming Fig. 8.10: Sources of N,O emissions
the atmosphere is almost 300 times more than that of carbon dioxide.
On an average, about 40 percent of total N..O emissions come from human activities. The various sources of
nitrous oxide are discussed below. -
Agriculture : Mainly nitrous oxide in agriculture releases when people add nitrogen containing
synthetic fertilizers to the soil. Agricultural soil management is the biggest source of N,O emissions
accounting for about 79 percent of total N.O emissions. About 4 percent of the total nitrous oxide emission
is released in the atmosphere during the breakdown of nitrogen in livestock manure and urine.
Transportation: Nitrous oxide is also emitted during the combustion of fuels in transportation.
Vehicles are the primary source of N,O emissions. But, the amount of N,O emitted from transportation is
controlled by the type of fuel and vehicle technology, maintenance, and operating practices.
Industry: Nitrous oxide is liberated as a by product in the manufacturing of various useful compounds
like nitric acid which used to make synthetic commercial fertilizer, and in the production of adipic acid,
which is used to make fibers, like nylon, and other synthetic products.
Natural Sources: In the nitrogen cycle (natural circulation of nitrogen in the environment), nitrous
om em mo om

oxide is emitted naturally through many sources. Nitrogen takes on a variety of chemical forms throughout
the nitrogen cycle, including N,O. Naturally N,O is mainly emitted from bacteria during the break down of
Coe

nitrogen in soils and the oceans. But this nitrous oxide is removed from the atmosphere when it is absorbed
by certain types of bacteria or destroyed by ultraviolet radiation or chemical reactions.

| FLUORINATED GASES
Fluorinated gases are a combination of some very harmful gases Semiconductor
Accson
,
HCFC-22 Manufacture
which apart from causing green house effect also work as a substitute 3% and Processing
Production
; 3% S f Aluminium
;
for ozone depleting substances (e.g., chlorofluorocarbons, hydrochloro- Electrical \ ____& Magnesium
f % . Transmission _ ¢ 2%
fluorocarbons, and halons). These gases are emitted from a variety of _& Distribution
; industrial processes. These gases are emitted in very small quantities, om
but because they are strong greenhouse gases that is why they are
sometimes referred to as High Global Warming Potential gases (“High
Substitution of
GWP gases”). There are four main categories of fluorinated Ozone Depleting

gases—hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur Substances

90%
hexafluoride (SF,) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF). These fluorinated
gases have no natural sources and only come from human-related Fig. 8.11: Sources of fluorinated gases
activities. They are emitted through a variety of industrial processes
such as aluminium and semiconductor manufacturing. Since these are very effective green house gases, sO
 concentrations have large effects on global temperatures. They have long atmospheri,
their small
ed gases are removeg
lifetimes—in some cases, lasting thousands of years. The molecules of these fluorinat
from the atmosphere only when they are destroyed by sunlight in the upper layers of the atmosphere. The
largest sources of fluorinated gas emissions are described below.
Substitution for Ozone-Depleting Substances: The major use of hydrofluorocarbons iS ag
refrigerants. aerosol propellants, solvents, and fire retardants. The major emissions source Of these
compounds is their use as refrigerants—for example, in air conditioning systems. Since these chemicals dy
not deplete the ozone layer so they are used as a replacement for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs). Chlorofluorocarbons and HCFCs now are not used due to ap
international agreement. called the Montreal Protocol. Unfortunately, HFCs are potent greenhouse gases
with long atmospheric lifetimes and high GWPs, and they are released into the atmosphere through leaks
servicing. and disposal of equipment in which they are used.
Industry: Perfluorocarbons are compounds produced as a by-product of various industrial processes
associated with aluminium production and the manufacturing of semiconductors. Like HFCs, PFCs;
generally have long atmospheric lifetimes and high Global Warming Potential (GWP). Sulphur
hexafluoride is used in magnesium processing and semiconductor manufacturing, as well as a tracer gas for
leak detection.
Transmission and Distribution of Electricity: The GWP of SF; is 22,800, making it the most potent
greenhouse gas that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has evaluated. But it is used in
electrical transmission equipment. including circuit breakers.

AEROSOLS AND SOOT

Aerosols are tiny particles in the air such as dusts, mists or fumes that can be produced when we burn
different types of fossil fuels — coal, petroleum, wood and biofuels—in different ways. A significant
man-made source of aerosols is pollution from cars and factories. Aerosols can control how much energy
from the sun reaches the planet's surface by changing the amount that is absorbed in the atmosphere and
the amount that is scattered back out to space. It turns out that most aerosols are cooling — that is, they
reflect the sun’s energy back out into space. There is only one aerosol — soot, also known as black carbon —
that actually contributes to global warming by boosting the warming effects of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Since the industrial revolution, humans have pumped more and more aerosols into the air,
and this in turn has actually caused global warming to a significant degree.
Water vapour: The most important and abundant atmospheric greenhouse gas is water vapoul.
Human sources have very little influence on the concentration of water vapour, because they are largely
very
controlled by local temperatures. The water vapour concentration is more over warm tropical seas and
and
low over frigid ice fields at the poles. As the temperature rises, water vapour concentration increases
greenhouse effect. On
adds to the warming effect. Water vapour is the largest contributor to the Earth’s
is 0%
average, it approximately causes 60% of the warming effect. However, the Earth’s temperature
affected by the water vapour concentrations, but instead it is controlled by the temperature. If a volume of
the wale!
air contains its maximum amount of water vapour and the temperature is decreased, some of
vapour will condense to form water. This is why clouds form as warm air containing water vapour rises and
cools at higher altitudes where the water condenses to the tiny droplets that make up clouds.
 Atmospheric Pollution 205 Bee

Table 8.5 : Greenhouse gases, their sources and ways to reduce them
kee
' Greenhouse gases | Formula Sources Ways to reduce
——
Water vapour H,O Natural evaporation from water bodies | Maintain the temperature
Carbon dioxide
Le CO, Combustion of fossil fuels Less use of fossil fuels and afforestation
Methane CH, Collection of natural gas and petroleum | Controlled collection of gas and
petroleum
Nitrous Oxide N.O Asa by product in the production of nitric] Prohibiting the emission of by products in
acid the atmosphere directly
Fluorinated gases — Industries
Aerosols — Combustion of fossil fuels and vehicular} Reduction the combustion of fossil fuels
exhaust and using engines of latest technology
which do not emit aerosols

ee
_Practice makes ) perfect _
“=

1, Name the radiations which are trapped by carbon dioxide in the lower layer of the atmosphere.
2. What are the greenhouse gases? Give two examples of the greenhouse gases.
8. What are the ways of reducing greenhouse effect?
4, What is meant by global warming?
5. Which of the greenhouse gases contributes the most towards global warming?
6. Name the possible adverse effects of global warming.
7. How can we reduce the global warming?

8.5 OZONE DEPLETION

FORMATION OF OZONE GAS
A layer of ozone (O;) about 20-25 km above mean sea level is present in the layer of atmosphere called
stratosphere. The maximum concentration of ozone is at high altitudes, where it is formed due to the
reaction of ultraviolet rays on oxygen. Ultraviolet rays decompose molecular oxygen into atomic oxygen by
photolytic decomposition.

6,—"5:0#0
The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone.

0,+0—%40,
(M is the third body necessary to carry away the energy released in the reaction.)

FUNCTION
This layer of ozone thus formed distributes itself in the atmosphere where it absorbs harmful UV
radiation and prevents them from reaching the surface of the earth. Thus, the ozone layer serves as a shield
protecting the life of earth from the harmful effects of the ultraviolet radiations found in the sunrays.
 aig
i? ®

ae 1] ICSE Chemistry-9
DESTRUCTION
The ozone layer in the atmos
phere is being depleted as ozone reacts with chlorine, water vapoy, -
nitrous oxide released by
Q Supersonic high altitude aircr
raft,
4 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) which are widely used in aerosol spray, propellants, refrigerants, »,
extinguishers, etc,
4 oxide produced by the bacteria (which are present in significant amounts) and use Of nitroy,,
ertilizers.
4 Huge built up of gases and chemicals emitted by industrial plants and automobiles.
Solar Solar
ultraviolet rays ultraviolet
radiation

Fig. 8. 42: Ozone — depiation

Table 8.6 : Ozone Depleting Substances

Molecular Formula Name si
CCl,F Trichlorofluoromethane |
CCl, F, Dichlorodifluoromethane |
C,Cl,F, Trichlorotrifluoroethane
C,Cl,F, Dichlorotetrafluoroethane
C, CIF; Chloropentafluoroethane
CH, BrCl Bromochloromethane
CCIF, Chlorotrifluoromethane
C,Cl,F Pentachlorofluoroethane _|
CCl, Tetrachloromethane _|
CHCl, Trichloroethane (1,1,1 Trichloroethane only) | |

Prevention of depletion of Ozone layer: Loss of ozone is a potentially serious problem and a caus
for great concern.
4 Gradual reduction in the production of chloroflurocarbons.
2 Total ban on the chemicals that cause ozone depletion.
4. Led to the production of environment friendly CFCs substituent such as dichloromethane, Freon et
4 By growing more and more trees.
 Practice makes perfect
1. Give equation for the formation of ozone in the atmosphere.
2. Name two chemicals responsible for the ozone destruction.
s, Name two chemicals which prevent ozone destruction in the atmosphere.
4, What are the causes for the destruction of ozone layer?
s, What is meant by ozone layer? What is the location of ozone layer?
6 What is the full form of CFC?
7, Why ozone layer is considered beneficial to life on the earth?
ZS _,Revise Twice, Score We rr F
Atmosphere is an envelope of various gases which surround the earth surface for approximately
1600 km above the sea level.
This atmosphere is not the same everywhere. [t consists of various layers which have variable
density. These layers are: Exosphere, Thermosphere, Mesosphere, Stratosphere (ozonosphere) and
Troposphere,
Any undesirable substance present in the atmosphere which adversely affects the atmosphere jg
called atmospheric pollution.
Major pollutants and there adverse effect:
Pollutant Effects

Ozone Asthma, sore throats, coughs, and breathing difficulty. Ozone can also hurt plants
and crops.

Carbon monoxide Exposure to carbon monoxide makes people feel dizzy and tired and gives them
headaches.
Nitrogen dioxide Causes coughs. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which
can harm plants and animals.
Sulphur dioxide Asthma, irritation in eyes, noses, and throats, harms trees and crops, damage
buildings, and make it harder for people to see long distances.
Lead Kidney problems, long exposure can increase the chance of having heart attacks or
strokes.

Toxic air pollutants | Cancer, some causes birth defects.

Three major adverse effects of atmospheric pollution are : Acid rain, Global warming, Ozone
depletion.
The rain whose pH is lower than 5.0 is called acid rain.
O

The major pollutants causing acid rain are the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
Both natural and human activities are responsible for producing these acidic oxides in the
atmosphere. But, its major source is combustion of fossil fuels.
The major natural source for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Other sources are dead and decaying
plants, forest fires, biological processes, lighting strikes.
Human activities such as chemical gas emissions, factories, power plants and automobiles. But use
of coal for electrical power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions leading to acid
rain.
Q The aquatic plants and animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level
falls below that the conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life. At pH levels below 5,
most fish eggs cannot hatch. Lower pH can also kill adult fish.
When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil pH, which damages or reverses soil biological
and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms that cannot adapt to changes in pH are
killed.
The widespread effects of acid rain on ecological harmony have lead to stunted growth and even
death of some forests and vegetation cover. a
 il
we 4
Hi

ci a
Atmospheric Pollution F/1|') meee

Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with limestone, react with the minerals and
corrode them away.
The greenhouse effect is the process by which the green house gases keep the place warm.
UbbeeEL

Global warming is the gradual rise in temperature of the Earth’s surface, oceans and atmosphere.
The Earth’s average surface temperature is rising due to effect of greenhouse gases.
—~

A greenhouse gas is any gaseous compound in the atmosphere that is capable of absorbing infrared
radiation, thereby trapping and holding heat in the atmosphere. Example, carbon dioxide, water
vapour, methane, etc.
4 Greenhouse gases, their sources and ways to reduce them
Greenhouse gases Formula Sources Ways to reduce
! Water vapour H,O Natural evaporation from water| Maintain the temperature
bodies
Carbon dioxide CO, Combustion of fossil fuels Less use of fossil fuels
: Methane CH, Collection of natural gas and] Controlled collection of gas and
; petroleum petroleum
Nitrous oxide N,O As a by product in the| Prohibiting the emission of by
1 production of nitric acid products in the atmosphere directly
7 Fluorinated gases _ Industries
Aerosols _ Combustion of fossil fuels and| Reduction the combustion of fossil
y vehicular exhaust fuels and using engines of latest
3 technology which do not emit
: aerosols

: 4 A layer of ozone (O3) about 20-25 km is present in the atmosphere. The maximum concentration of
ozone is at high altitudes, where it is formed due to the reaction of ultraviolet rays on oxygen.
; 4+ The ozone layer serves as a shield protecting the life of earth from the harmful effects of the
ultraviolet radiations found in the sun rays.
- The ozone layer in the atmosphere is being depleted as ozone reacts with chlorine, water vapour and
u

nitrous oxide released by supersonic high altitude aircraft, chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) which are
widely used in aerosol spray, propellants, refrigerants, fire extinguishers, etc, nitrous oxide
produced by the bacteria and use of nitrogen fertilizers, etc.
4 Qzone layer depletion can be prevented by:
* Gradual reduction in the production of chlorofluorocarbons.
+ Total ban on the chemicals that cause ozone depletion.
* Led to the production of environment friendly CFCs substituent such as dichloromethane, Freon,
j oS etc.
Question 1. Fill in the blanks using the appropriate option(s) given within brackets.
1, Oxides of nitrogen and voc are responsible for acid rain. (carbon, sulphyyy
2. Sulphur dioxide with water forms occ... acid and sulphur trioxide with water forts
casein shea Sie acid, (Sulphuric, Sulphuroys) ”
3. The pH of acid rain is below .................... . (1,5)
4. Nitrogen dioxide with water forms a mixture of .................... AN oesscsescoersorerees acid. |
ug
(Nitric, Nitrous/Sulphuric , Sulphuro
Be eoesseseeeeteerenees is the phenomenon to keep a place warm. (Greenhouse gases/ green house effet)
6. The most abundant green house gas is FOO e tem eee reeenene « (Water vapour/ nitrous oxide —
7. Ozone layer is found in CRS icespeeneone . (Stratosphere/ Mesosphere
8. The chlorofluorocarbons break an ozone molecule into oxygen gas and .....-.-------+---++
(Nascent chlorine/N ascent oxygen} |
9. The adverse effect of green house effect is vececesesssescesees (Global warming/ Ozone layer depletion) ©
10. Concentration of water vapour in the atmosphere is maintained by .........-----.+-++
(Temperature/ human activities) J
11. Substitute of chlorofluorocarbons is or . (Fluorinated gases/ carbon dioxide) _

ad Answers
1. Sulphur 2. Sulphurous, Sulphuric 3. 5 4. Nitric, nitrous 5. Greenhouse effect 6. Water vapour 7. Stratosphere
L

8. Nascent oxygen 9. Global warming 10. Temperature 11. Fluorinated gases

Question 2 : Choose the correct answer from the options given below each of the following questions.
1. Acid rain has the pH less than :
(a) 7 (b) 5 (c) 2 (d) None of these
2. Acid rain kill the :
(a) Animals (b) Birds (c) Soil microbes (d) All of these
3. Oxides of nitrogen form :
(a) Nitric acid (b) Nitrous acid (c) Both (a) and (b) ~—(d) None of these
4. First layer of atmosphere :
(a) Troposphere (b) Stratosphere
(c) Exosphere (d) Mesosphere
5. Ozone layer is found in this layer :
(a) Stratosphere (b) Exosphere (c) Troposphere (d) Mesosphere
6. The rise in global temperature is called :
(a) Green house effect (b) Global warming
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
 . il |

Bi.
ii

|
{

4
|

}
i

Atmospheric Pollution 211

_ 7. Major contributor of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere :

3 (a) Vehicles (b) Combustion of fossil fuels
(c) Carbon cycle (d) None of these
8. Process of keeping a place warm :
(a) Global warming (b) Green house effect
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
. The adverse effect of greenhouse gases :
’

(a) Global warming (b) Green house effect

(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
. Ozone depletion is due to :
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Chlorofluorocarbons
(c) Nascent oxygen (d) None of these
. Oxides of sulphur enter the atmosphere due to :
(a) Human activities (b) Natural activities
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these

Lio! 2tol3s}io] 4 (a) 7. | (b) | 8 | (b) | 9 | (a) 10. (b)

|. | (a)

Question 3. Match the following terms in column A with appropriate terms in column B :
Column A Column B
A | Nitrous oxide P| From livestock
B_ | Water vapour Q_ | Burning of fossil fuels
C_ | Carbon dioxide R_ | Heating of atmosphere
D | Methane S| Agricultural activities

A—S, B—R, C—Q,

4uestion 4 : Name the following :

1. This is killed in the soil due to acid rain.
2. Natural process to produce nitrogen monoxide.
3. Human activity to produce oxides of sulphur.
4. Human activity to produce nitrogen monoxide in the atmosphere.
a The phenomenon which has the adverse effect as global warming.
- The green house gas is emitted as a by product in the manufacture of nitric acid.
 al
—
it}

ICSE Chemistry-9

7. The greenhouse gases emitted during the production of semi conductors.

8. The molecules of this gas break the ozone molecule.
9, Ozone gas is found in this layer,
10. The reactive oxygen liberated in the depletion of ozone layer.
11. Most polluted layer of the atmosphere.

\
eae
re; : 25

1. Microbes; 2. Lightening; 3. Combustion of fossil fuels; 4. Combustion in engines; 5. Green house effect; 6. Nitrous
oxide; 7. Fluorinated gases; 8. Chlorofluorocarbons; 9. Stratosphere; 10. Nascent oxygen; 11. Troposphere

Assignment-SectionB
CONCEPT BASED QUESTIONS
1. Name two gases which together constitute 99% of the atmosphere.
2. What is the impact of acid rain on:
(a) Plants (b) soil (c) water bodies?
8. What is the main source of sulphur dioxide in atmosphere?
4, What is the range of pH for acid rain?
5. Which of the air pollutants causes acid rain?
6. Why do you expect the buildings like the Taj Mahal gets damaged by acid rain?
7 . Why the atmospheric pollution is also called troposphere pollution?
8 . What is the maximum concentration of ozone in the ozone layer?
9 . What is meant by destruction (or depletion) of ozone layer?
10. How industrialisation effects the emission of carbon dioxide?
11. More electricity generation is required for better life style but harmful for our atmosphere. Justify.

APPLICATION BASED QUESTIONS

1. Explain the adverse effect of combustion of fossil fuels on soil.
2. How old heritage buildings like Taj Mahal are affected by acid rain? nev aortas

3. What is the effect of increase in concentrations of acidic gases in atmosphere on aquatic life?
4, Why our life in public places is more adversely affected by gases causing acid rain?
5. After industrialisation the emissions of carbon dioxide increased by 41.2% in troposphere. How is it”
harmful for us? 4
6. How can we contribute to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases by our daily activities?
7. Emissions of greenhouse gases upto certain limit is necessary for us. Explain. 1
j
8. Why ozone layer is considered as protective layer for us?
9. Why cooling devices like A.C., refrigerator, etc. are useful are for short duration?
10. How our life style causes adverse affect on our atmosphere?
11. Give the chemical reactions which save us from ultraviolet rays.
 3 Practice is the Key to Success —
Study the first ones and answer the rest in each question.
Q. 1. Give reason for the following
:
(i) Sulphur dioxide is the cause
of acid rain.
Ans. Sulphur dioxide comes in the atmosphere through combustion of fossil faels which combines with
water and forms sulphurous
acid.
(ii) Acid rain effect the fertility of
soil.
Ans.

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Q. 2. Explain the following:

(i) Acid rain is harmful for aquatic bodies.
Ans. Acid rain is harmful for aquatic bodies because it decreas
es the pH value of aquatic bodies below than
5 which means more acidic and it is not for the survival of aquatic
plants and animals.
(ii) Gases like CO, and CH, are responsible for the increase in atmospheric temperature.
Ans.

(ii) Excess of water vapour in atmosphere is harmful.

Ans.

Gi) Ozone
Ans, Asthama, sore throat, cough and breathing difficulty,
(ii) Carbon monoxide
Ans.
 (iii) Nitrogen dioxide
Ans,

(iv) Lead
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Q. 4. Write the effect of acid rain on following:

(i) Taj Mahal
Ans. Taj Mahal is made up of precious stone marble which reacts with acids of acid rain and form yellyy
layer which finally cause damage to the
structure,
(ii) Soil

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Q. 5. Give the source of following greenhouse gases:

(i) Carbon dioxide
Ans. Combustion of fossil fuels.
(ii) Methane
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2 The process for average rise in temperature.
4. Greenhouse gas found in marshy areas.
5. Layer which protects us from UV rays.
8, Acid formed due to nitrogen dioxide.
~ 1, Phenomenon of global warming.
Down
1. Rain with pH value lower than 5.
3. Major green house gas exhaled during respiration.
§. Major gas causing ozone layer depletion.
7, Acid formed due to sulphur trioxide.
9. Due to these the oxides of sulphur enter the atmosphere.
10. This is most adversely effected due to acid rain.
APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
15 Minutes _— Genius
20 Minutes — Very good
25 Minutes — Good
 ICSE Chemistry-9

Word Search P
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this chapter:
Acid rain, Fossil fuel, Global warming, Green house effect, Ozone dep! etion, Methane, Water Vapoy,
Sulphuric acid, Nitric neid, Chlorofluorocarbons, Ozone.
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APPRAISAL KEY
Time taken IQ Level
10 Minutes — Genius
15 Minutes — Very good
20 Minutes os Good
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Appendix-1 : General Characteristics of Gases 41] Sate

|_APPENDIX-1 _|
eneral Characteristics of Gases

yy, CO. 18: CHaAq, Gotta, Hp, On, HCL, tH,

Gotan Ma 9p 20(y), C.K
Oy
a CH,

Colourless Gases ae

Cl
greenish yellow

Br,
bomine vapour Fy
reddish brown pale yellow

ly
vapour violet NO,
light brown

So
So

Soluble :
;
i Insoluble in
wa wo water
ne ”
4 cr’ co,
ases
SO,, Fe) Oz, “
HS, No
co,

Hp, He Lighter than air

CO, No, CH, zi As heavy as air
CO2, SO3, Clz, H2S, O, | Heavier than air
 HiIl
a=
it!

“t)

Acidic Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO,) Burning wooden splinter is extinguish ed in COy,.
milky.
Colourless, 2. | On passage through lime water it turns lime water
Odourless, Ca(OH), + CO, —> CaCO, + [White ppt. insoluble] + H20
Moist blue litmus turns The milkiness disappears on passage of excess carbon dioxide
faint red CaCO, + H,O + CO, —> Ca(HCO3)z [Soluble]
3. | The gas has no effect on acidified KMnO , or K2Cr207 solution.
Sulphur dioxide (SO, ) 1. | Burning wooden splinter is extinguished in sulphur dioxide.
Colourless, 2, | Lime water test is similar to CO, gas.
Suffocating, 3. | Turns acidified potassium permanganate from pink to colourless.
Moist blue litmus turns red 2KMnO, + 2H,0 + 5SO, —» K2SO, + 2MnSO, + 2H,SO,
4, | Turns acidified potassium dichromate from orange to green.
K,Cr,07 + H,SO, +380, —> KySO, + Cro(SO4)3 +H20
Chlorine (Cl,) 1. | Turns moist blue litmus red and then bleaches it.
Greenish yellow Cl, + Hz3O—+ HC1+ HOC], HOCI—— HCl + [O] (nascent)
Pungent, Colouring material +[O] colourless or bleached product
Moist blue litmus bleached 2. | Turns moist starch iodide paper (Kl + starch solution) blue black
Cl, + 2KI—> 2KCl1+I, ; Starch +1, —~> Blue black colour
Hydrogen sulphide (H,S)| 1. | Turns acidified potassium permanganate from pink to colourless.
Colourless, smell like 2KMnO, + 2H,SO, +5H,S—> K,SO, +2Mn0O, + 8H,0+5S
rotten eggs, 2. | Turns acidified potassium dichromate from orange to green.
3. | Turns moist lead acetate paper silvery black.
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) Gives dense white fumes when a glass rod dipped in ammonia
Colourless solution is brought near hydrochloric acid vapours.
Pungent, NH3 + HC] [Vapours]> NH, Cl [dense white fumes]
Moist blue litmus turns red | 2. | Forms a curdy white precipitate on passage through AgNO,
solution.
AgNO gaq) + HC1—> AgCl (Curdy white ppt.) + HNO;
The precipitate of AgCl is soluble in NH ,OH but insoluble in dil.
HNO;.
AgCl + 2NH ,OH—-> Ag(NH3).Cl (Soluble diaminesilver
chloride) +2H,0
Nitrogen oxide (NO,) 1. | It liberates iodine (violet vapours) from potassium iodide solution.
Reddish brown irritating 2. | Turns potassium iodide paper brown.
3. | It dissolves in cold water to give a mixture of nitrous and nitric acid
in solution which act on blue litmus and turn it red.
2NO, + H,0—> HNO, + HNO,
Hence, NO, is called a mixed acid anhydride.
 mM
Wy)
Appendix-1 ; General Characteristics of Gases
70
Basic Gas
ee

Ammonia (NH 3) Gives dense white fumes when a glass rod dipped in conc. HCl acid is
Colourless, brought near ammonia gas,
Pungent, NH, + HCl(Cone,)—> NH, Cl (Dense white fumes)
Moist red htmus turns blue} 2. | On passage through coper (IT) sulphate solution (CuSO, ), it gives a
pule blue precipitate. [Ammonia dissolved in water gives NH ,OH]
CuSO, + 2NH,OH—> (NH, ),50, + Cu(OH)» (Pale blue ppt.)
On passage of excess ammonia (or excess NH 4,OH solution), the pale
blue precipitate dissolve to give a deep blue (inky blue) solution of
the complex salt tetramine copper (II) sulphate
Cu(OH), +(NH,)SO, + 2NH,OH—-> (Cu(NHz),S0, +4H2O0
(Pale blue ppt (‘Tetramine copper (IJ)
| sulphate]

3. | Turns Nessler’s reagent from colourless to pale brown or gives a

L reddish brown ppt. on passage of NH, in excess.

Neutral Gases
Physical properties Chemical test
Water vapour 1. | Turns white anhydrous copper sulphate blue
(H,0) CuSO, +5H,0—> CuSO, -5H,0
Colourless, 2. | Turns blue cobalt chloride paper pink.
Odourless, CoCl,+ 2H2,0—> CoCl, -2H,0
Neutral to litmus, [Blue] [Pink]
Hydrogen H, 1. | Burning wooden splinter is extinguished in Hy
Colourless, 2. | Hydrogen burns with a pale blue flame producing a pop sound.
Odourless, 2H», +O, —> 2H,0 [on kindling]
Neutral to litmus.

Oxygen O, 1. | Rekindles a glowing wooden splinter.

Colourless, 2. | Absorbed in colourless alkaline pyrogallol solution which turns
Odourless, brown.
Neutral to litmus.

noo
 y-9

| APPENDIX-2 |
Do You Know

1. A pure element can take many forms. For example, diamond and graphite both are forms of pur,
carbon.
. Above 4°C, water expands when heated and contracts when cooled. But between 4°C and 0°C it dogs
to

the opposite, contracting when heated and expanding when cooled. Stronger hydrogen and oxygen
bonds are formed as the water crystallizes into ice, By the time it’s frozen it takes up around 9% mor,
space.
3. Although oxygen gas is colourless, the liquid and solid forms of oxygen are blue.
4. Approximately 20% of the oxygen in the atmosphere was produced by the Amazon rainforest.
5. Around 1% of the sun’s mass is oxygen.
6. Athletes at the Olympic Games have to be careful how much coffee they drink. The caffeine in coffec
isa banned substance because it can enhance performance. One or two cups are fine but they can go
over the limit with more than five.
7. Balloons filled with helium float because it is lighter than air.
8. Bee stings are acidic while wasp stings are alkaline.
9. Carbon comes in a number of different forms (allotropes), these include diamond, graphite and
impure forms such as coal.
10. Chemical reactions occur all the time, including through everyday activities such as cooking. Try
adding an acid such as vinegar to a base such as baking soda and see what happens!
11. Coca Cola originally contained cocaine.
12. Dry ice is the solid form of carbon dioxide, COg.
13. Fish scales are a common lipstick ingredient.
14. Hot peppers get their heat from a molecule called capsaicin. While the molecule acts as an irritant to
mammals, including humans, birds lack the receptor responsible for the effect and are immune to the
burning sensation from exposure.
15. Humans breathe out carbon dioxide (CO). Using energy from sunlight, plants convert carbon ©
dioxide into food during a process called photosynthesis.
acid
16. Hydrofluoric acid is so corrosive that it will dissolve glass. Although it is corrosive, hydrofluoric
is considered to be a ‘weak acid’.
17. Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, while oxygen is the most abundant element
in the earth’s atmosphere, crust, and oceans (about 49.5%).
18. If you pour a handful of salt into a full glass of water, the water level will actually go down rather
than overflowing the glass.
19. Lemons contain more sugar than strawberries, for the same mass.
20. Liquid air has a bluish tint, similar to water.
21. Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 kelvin (-196°C, —321°F).
22. Lobster blood is colourless until it is exposed to air. Then the blood appears blue.
 Appendix-2 ;

23. Some lipstick contains lead acetate or sugar of lead. This toxic lead compound makes the lipstick
taste sweet.
24. The average shot of espresso contains less caffeine than a typical
cup of coffee.
25. The chemical name for water (HyO) is dihydrogen monoxide,
96. The eyes of goldfish perceive not only the visible spectrum,
but. also infrared and ultraviolet light.
27. The only elements that. are liquid at room temperature are bromine and mercury. However,
you can
melt galhum by holding a lump in the warmth of your hand.
28. The only letter that doesn't appear on the periodic table is J.
29. The rarest naturally-occurring element in the earth's crust may be astatine. The entire crust appears
to contain about 28 g of the element.
30. The human body contains enough carbon to provide ‘lead’ (which is really graphite) for about 9,000
pencils,
31. There is about 250 g of salt (NaCl) in the average adult human
body.
32. Things invisible to the human eye can often be seen under UV light, which comes in handy for both
scientists and detectives.
38. Unlike many substances, water expands as it freezes. An ice cube takes up about 9%
more volume
than the water used to make it.
34. When you freeze saltwater or seawater slowly, you get freshwater ice. Icebergs are fresh water, too,
although that is because they come from glaciers, which are made from freshwater (snow).

000
 | APPENDIX-3 | 4
Elements and their Discoverer mt

Name
Semaineof Atomic
Auatues b | Atomic mass
Symbol oe Name of discoverer ate | tfP

Actinium 89 Ae a , : 1
— |e | (227) 1899 André Debierne — ;
Alamo 13 Al 26.98 1824 Hans Oersted (also attributed to Friednch Wohle, :

\ iclum 5 a :
eS 28 Am 243 1944 Glenn Seaborg, Ralph James, Leon Morgan, and)
ee = Albert Ghiorso
: : 2 Sb 121.76 prehistoric | Unknown ;
Argon 18 Ar
39.95
za
1894
aa
John Rayleigh and William Ramsay |
j

774.92 ee e
Arseni
== 33 As prehistoric | Unknown |!

Bee 85 At (210) 1940 K. R. MacKenzie, and Emilio Segre

Dale R. Corson, |
aaesciae 56 Ba 137.33 1808 | Humphry Davy 14
Berkelom a7 Bk (247) 1949 Glenn Seaborg. Stanley Thompson, and Albert
: Ghiorso } |
Beryllium 4 Be 9.01 1798 | Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin (isolated by F riedrich!| !
t Wobler and Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy 1828); ,
: ; ) |
| Bismuth 83 Bi 208.98 prehistoric | Unknown ,.
I : ee
Bohritim 107 Bh (262) 1976 Georgii Flerov and Yuri Oganessian (confirmed by! 3
> German scientist Peter Armbruster and coworkers)
Boron 5 B 10.81 1808 Humphry Davy, and independently by Joseph
Gay-Lussac and Louis-Jacques Thénard
Bromine 35 Br 79.9 1826 | Antoine-Jéréme Balard
Cadmium 48 Cd 112.41 1817 Friedrich Strohmeyer
Calcium 20 Ca 40.08 1808 Humphry Davy
Californium 98 Cf (251) 1950 Glenn Seaborg, Stanley Thompson, Kenneth Street.
Jr., and Albert Ghiorso
Carbon 6 C 12.01 prehistoric | Unknown
Cerium 58 Ce 140.12 1804 |Jéns Berzelius and Wilhelm Hisinger, and
independently by Martin Klaproth
Cesium 55 Cs 132.91 1860 Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
Chlorine 17 Cl 35.45 1774 Karl Scheele ___
Chromium 24 Cr 51.99 1797 Louis-Nicolas Vauquelin

Cobalt 27 Co 58.93 1730 Georg Brandt

Copper 29 Cu 63.55 prehistoric | Unknown ——
 Appendix-3 ; Elements and their Disco

T [Name of Atomic | Symbol | Atomic mass| Year of Name of discoverer

it element number discovery
\ Curium 96 Cm (247) 1944 Glenn Seaborg, Ralph James, and Albert Chiorso
\ Copernicium 112 Cn (277) 1996 toam at the Heavy-lon Research Laboratory,
Darmstadt, Germany
\f [Darmstadtium 110 Ds (271) 1994 team at the Heavy-lon Research Laboratory,
‘ Darmstadt, Germany

$ Dubnium 105 Db (262) 1970 claimed by Albert Ghiorso and coworkers (disputed
\ = by Soviet workers)
| Dysprosium 66 Dy 162.5 1886 Paul Lecoqg de Boishaudran

2 Sinsteinium 99 Es (252) 1952 Albert Ghiorso and coworkers

. Erbium 68 Er 167.26 1843 Carl Mosander
Europium 63 Eu 151.96 1901 Eugéne Demargay
Fermium 100 Fm (257) 1955 Albert Ghiorso and coworkers

Fluorine 9 F 19 1771 Karl Scheele (isolated by Henri Moissan 1886)

Francium 87 Fr (223) 1939 Marguérite Perey
Flerovium 114 Fl (285) 1998 team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Dubna, Russia
Gadolinium 64 Gd 157.25 1886 Paul Lecog de Boisbaudran
Gallium 31 Ga 69.72 1875 Paul Lecog de Boisbaudran
Germanium 32 Ge 72.61 1886 Clemens Winkler
Gold 79 Au 196.97 prehistoric | unknown
Hafnium 72 Hf 178.49 1913 Dirk Coster and Georg von Hevesy

Hassium 108 Hs (263) 1984 Peter Armbruster and coworkers

Helium 2 He 4 1868 Pierre Janssen
Holmium 67 Ho 164,93 1879 Per Cleve
| Hydrogen 1 H 1.0079 1766 Henry Cavendish
Indium 49 In 114.82 1863 Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymus Richter
Iodine 53 I 126.9 1811 Bernard Courtois
Iridium 77 Ir 192.22 1804 Smithson Tennant
Sear 26 Fe 55.85 prehistoric | Unknown
Krypton 36 Kr 83.79 1898 William Ramsay and Morris Travers
| —e 57 La 138.91 1839 Carl Mosander

| Lawrencium 103 Lr (260) 1961 Albert Ghiorso, Torbjorn Sikkeland, Almon Larsh,
and Robert Latimer
ee 82 Pb 207.2 prehistoric | Unknown
Lithium 3 Li 6.94 1817 Johan Arfwedson
Seay y7] ¥ ICSE Chemistry-9
ios re

Year of Name of discoverer |

sre corer Symbol | Atomic mass|
: discovery |
Lutetium 71 Lu 174.96 1907 Georges Urbain and Carl von Welsbach |
independently of each other |
Livermorium 116 Lv (292) 2000 team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research|
Dubna, Russia ——|
Magnesium 12 Mg 24.31 1755 Joseph Black (oxide isolated by Humphiey Davy
Dae!
pure form isolated by|
1808:
Antoine-Alexandre-Brutus Bussy 1828)
wives 25 Mn 54.94 1774 | Johann Gottlieb Gahn
Meitnertum 109 Mt (268) 1982 Peter Armbruster and coworkers
Mendelevium 101 Md (258) 1955 Albert Ghiorso, Bernard G. Harvey, Gregory
Choppin, Stanley Thompson, and Glenn Seaborg |

Mercury 80 Hg 200.59 prehistoric | Unknown

Molybdenum 42 Mo 95.94 1781 |named by Karl Scheele (isolated by Peter Jacob
Hjelm 1782)

Moscovium 115 Mc (288) 2004 team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research.
Dubna, Russia
Neodymium 60 Nd 144.24 1885 Carl von Welsbach
Neon 10 Ne 20.18 1898 William Ramsay and Morris Travers
Neptunium 93 Np (237) 1940 Edwin McMillan and Philip Abelson

Nickel 28 Ni 58.69 1751 Axel Cronstedt

Niobium 41 Nb 92.91 1801 Charles Hatchett
Nitrogen 7; N 14 1772 Danie] Rutherford
Nobelium 102 No (259) 1958 Albert Ghiorso, Torbjorn Sikkeland, J. R. Walton,
and Glenn Seaborg
Nihonium 113 Nh (284) 2004 team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research,
Dubna, Russia

Osmium 76 Os 190.23 1804 Smithson Tennant

Oxygen 8 O 16 1774 Joseph Priestley and Kar] Scheele, independently of

each other
Oganesson 118 Og (294) 2006 team at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research.
Dubna, Russia
Palladium 46 Pd 106.42 1804 William Wollaston

Phosphorus 15 P 30.97 1674 Hennig Brand

Bisticow 78 Pt 195.08 1557 Julius Scaliger
Plutonium 94 Pu (244) 1940 | Glenn Seaborg, Edwin McMillan, Joseph Kennedy, |
and Arthur Wahl od
{
Palontun 84 Po (209) 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie —
 Name of Atomle Symbol | Atomic mass| Yar of Name of discoverer
eremene | number | discovery
ytasaln ee ee K 40 1807 Humphry Davy
‘prasoodymium: _ bo “7 Pr mi 140.91 1885 Carl von Welsbach
yromethium 61 Pm (146) 1945 J. A. Marinsky, Lawrence Glendenin, and Charles
Coryell

‘potactiniun 91 Pa 231.04 1913 Kasimir Fajans and O. Gohnng

“Radivum 88 Ra (226) 1898 Marie Curie

“Radon 86 Rn (222) 1900 | Friedrich Dorn
“Rhenium 75 Re 186.21 1925 Walter Noddack, Ida Tacke, and Otto Berg
Rhodium 45 Rh 102.91 1804 William Wollaston
‘Rubidiu m 37 Rb 85.47 1861 Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
‘Ruthenium 44 Ru 101.07 1827 G. W. Osann (isolated by Kar] Klaus 1844)
Rutherfordium 104 Rf (261) 1969 claimed by U.S. scientist Albert Ghiorso and
coworkers (disputed by Soviet workers)

‘Roentgenium 111 Rg (272) 1994. |team at the Heavy-Ion Research Laboratory,

Darmstadt, Germany

‘Samarium 62 Sm 150.36 1879 | Paul Lecoq de Boisbaudran

Scandium 21 Se 44.96 1876 Lars Nilson
Seaborgium 106 Sg (266) 1974 claimed by Georgii Flerov and coworkers, and
independently by Albert Ghiorso and coworkers
Selenium 34 Se 78.96 1817 Jons Berzelius

Silicon 14 Si 28.09 1823 Johan Arfwedson

Silver 47 Ag 107.87 prehistoric | Unknown
Sodium 11 ' Na 23 1807 Humphry Davy

Strontium 38 Sr 87.62 1808 Humphry Davy

Sulphur 16 Ss 32.07 prehistoric | Unknown
Tantalum 73 Ta 180.95 1802 Anders Ekeberg

Technetium 43 Te (98) 1937 Carlo Perrier and Emilio Segré

Tellurium 52 Te 127.60 1782 Franz Miller
Terbium 65 Tb 158.93 1843 Carl Mosander
Thallium 81 Tl 204.38 1861 William Crookes (isolated by William Crookes and
Claude August Lamy, independently of each other,
in 1862)

4 = 90 Th 232.04 1828 Jons Berzelius

= | Thulium 69 Tm 168.93 1879 _ | Per Cleve
. Tin 50 Sn 118.71 | prehistoric | Unknown
 PPR an >] of discoverer
Name of eS Cea Name
element number Symbol |Atomic mass| Year of
discovery
Ty 47.87 1790 | William Gregor ek
Wddsc meai a José
’
Blhuy ar an u
=e Uyar
if
WwW 183.84 1783 iaolated by Juan
| Tungsten 74
. ; Eugen 1841),
e a igot .
1789 | Martin Klaproth (isolated by ah
{ren 92 U 238.03 j 3
ets
;
50.96 180] Andrés de} Rio (disputed), or Nils
lw.
Vanadium 23 V
Morris Travers
— —
1898 | William Ramsay and Mo —
; Sener is Xe 131,29 !
= Yb 173.04 1878 | Jean Charles de Marignac
| Ytverbium —
| ¥teriem 39 ¥ 88.91 1794 | Johan Gadolin
—
30 Zn 65.41 prehistoric | Unknown
| Zine
| Zirconium 40 Zr 91.22 1789 | Martin Klaproth =
oo00
 Appendix-4 : Some Useful Compounds and Formulae 4] Bae,

| APPENDIX-4 a

Some useful Compounds and Formulae

.No. Chemical name Common name Molecular formulae

1. | Acetic acid Vinegar CH,COOH
2. | Aluminium oxide Alumina Al,03
3. | Aluminium phosphate Aluminium salt AIPO,
4. | Ammonium carbonate Smelling salt (NH,)2COs
5. | Ammonium chloride Sal ammoniac NH,Cl
6. | Ammonium ferrous sulphate | Mohr’s salt FeSO 4(NH,)2SO, -6H20
7. | Barium carbonate Witherite BaCO,
8. | Barium phosphate Tribarium triphosphate | Baz(PO,)>
9. | Barium tetraoxochromate Barium chromate BaCrO,
10. | Cadmium fluoride Cadmium difluoride CdF,
11. | Calcium carbonate Marble CaCO,
12. | Calcium hydroxide Slaked lime Ca(OH),
13. | Calcium oxide Quick lime CaO
14. | Calcium oxychloride Bleaching powder CaOCly,
15. | Calcium sulphate dihydrate | Gypsum CaSO, -2H,0
16. | Calcium sulphate hydrate Plaster of Paris CaSO, -1/2H,0
17. | Carbolic acid Phenol CsH;0H
18. | Carbon Graphite C
19. | Carbonic acid Carbonic acid H,CO;
20. | Conc. nitric acid + Conc.| Aqua regia HNO, + HCl
hydrochloric acid (3 : 1)
21. | Copper (I) bromide Cuprous bromide CuBr
22. | Copper (I) chloride Cuprous chloride CuCl
23. | Copper (1) iodide Cuprous iodide Cul
24. | Copper (ID) hydroxide Cupric hydroxide Cu(OH)>
25. | Copper (II) phosphate Cupric phosphate Cu3(PO4)>.
26. | Copper sulphate Blue vitriol CuSO, -5H,O
27. | Dichlorodifluoromethane Freon CF,Cl,
28. | Dilute acetic acid Vinegar CH,COOH
29. | Dinitrogen oxide Laughing gas NO
30. | Ethanedioic acid Oxalic acid (COOH), -2H,0
31. | Ferrous sulphate Green vitriol FeSO, -7H,0
(iJ
te

Sho] 5 Ghenteal neve... |S Genunen tame Molecular formulae

Jae uN vdrated sodium carbonate | Washing soda Na,CO; -10H,0 —
| 83. [Hydrated sodium sulphate Clauber's salt Na ,SO, 10H20
84. [Mydivehtore acid Muriatie acid HCI _
35. Inn (1) fluoride Ferrous fluoride FeF,
$6. | leon (ID hydroxide Ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)> |
87. | Tron (TDhydroxide Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH),
$8. | Iron CIID phosphate Ferric phosphate FePO,
39. | Iron sulphide Iron pyrite FeS.

40. | Iron (1D carbonate Ferrous carbonate FeCO, if

41. | lsopropyl alcohol Rubbing alcohol (CH3)2CHOH
42. | Lead (LD sulphide Galena PbS
43. | Lead bromide Lead dibromide PbBro
44. | Lead carbonate Cerussite PbCO;
45. | Lead chloride Cotunnite PbCl.
46. | Lead fluoride Plumbous flouride PbF,
47. | Lead hydroxide Plumbous hydroxide PWKOH)>,
48. | Lead monoxide Massicot (Lithary) or PbO
Litharge
49. | Lead sulphate Anglessite PbSO,
50. | Lead sulphide Galena PbS
51. | Liquor ammonia Ammonium hydroxide NH,OH
52. | Lithium carbonate Zabuyelite LisCO,
53. | Magnesium fluoride Sellaite MgF;
54. | Magnesium hydroxide Milk of magnesia Mg(OH).
55. | Magnesium sulphate Epsom salt MgSO, -7H 20
heptahydrate
56. | Mercuric sulphide Cinnabar HgS
57. | Mercury Quicksilver Hg
58. | Mercury (I) bromide Mercurous bromide HgBr

59. | Mercury (I) carbonate Carborundum Hg.CO,

60. | Mercury (1) chloride Calomel Hg.Cl,
61. | Mercury (1) fluoride Mercurous fluoride Hg oF,
62. | Mercury (1) iodide Red mercury Hg ols
63. | Methane Fire damp CH,
64. | Nitre Potassium nitrate KNO,
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ICSE Chemistry-9
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Common name Molecular formulae _
S.No, Chemical name
95, | Sulphuric acid Oil of vitriol H,SO,

96. | Tin (11) hydroxide Stannous hydroxide Sn(OH)g

97. | Trilead tetroxide Red lead Pb,0,4

98. | Urea Carbamide NH,CONH 2

Zine difluoride ZnF, aaa
99. | Zinc fluoride
100. | Zinc sulphate White vitriol ZnSO, -7H20

000
 thetric of SA Prefixes ae

Metric or SI prefixes
Prefix Symbol x from 10%

yotta Y 2A II ISIIIO!SL IISSIS SLI

zetta Zz 21 1 IOLIDIID) IIIO SIO SIS IIIS.
exa E 18 $I LIL) IL) ISI IIS0 ILI
peta P 15 LAISIDIIS) ISIS)
tera T 12 | LSD SSII SID) LISs
giga G g BSS SESS SBS SS
mega M 6 106 OG

kilo k 2 LOH
hecto h 2 106
deca da 1 ify
base 0 i
deci d -l 6.1
centi c 2 0.01
milli m -3 6.001
micro “ 4 0.000001
nano n -9 0.900000001
pico Pp ~12 0.000000000001
femto f -15 0.00000000000000 1
atto a -18 0.000000000000000001
zepto z <21 0.00000000000000000000 1
yocto y 24 0.00000000000000000000000 1
ae)
j ieee y£74 ICSE Chemistry-9

APPENDIX-6
Physical Constants, Prefixes and Conversion Factors

Acceleration of Gravity [9.806 mis* Factors Prefix

| Avogadro's Number | 6.022 x10 10!= Cera

| Electronic Charge |1.602x107"° ¢ | 208 giga

Faraday Constant 19.6485 x 104 JV * { | 10° megs
Gas Constant 0.08206 L-atm/(mol KD | 10° milo
8.314 Jmol KE) 10° hecto
{8.314 «10° gems? mol K) | 10 deca
| Planck's Constant | 6.626 x10 Js 1072 deci
| Speed of Light |2.908x108 mis 10-2 centi |
bs 3.14159 10-8 milli
|2 2.718 108 micths n
inx 2.3026 log x 10-2 nano n }
|} 2.3026 R 19.14 J/(mol KE) 10-22 pico p
| 2.3026 RT (at 25°C) 5.708 kJ/mol 08 — P
10735 atto a

Quantity Si Unit Other Unit Conversion Factor

oe joule calorie lcal= 4.184 J
oe erg lerg=10‘ J

Force newton dyne 1 dyne=10~N

Length metre angstrom 1 A=107 m=10 em =107' nm

Mass kilogram pound 1 Ib = 0.453592 kg

bar 1 bar =10° Pa
cubes pascal tan 1 atm =1.01325x=10° Pa
j = 1 mm Hg = 133.322 Pa
Ib/in” 1 Ib/in? = 6894.8 Pa
Temperature kelvin ee : ae aie .
Fahrenheit 1°F = 9/5 K
litre 1 L=1dm*
=107 m?
— en gallon (U.S.) 1 gal (U.S.) =3.7854 x 10~ m*
gallon (U.K.) 1 gal (U.K.) =4.5641= 1073 m?
cubic inch 1 in? =1.6387 x10 m3
000