Dermatol Clin 21 (2003) 595 – 600
Structure and function of ethnic skin and hair
Georgianna M. Richards, MDa, Christian O. Oresajo, PhDb,
Rebat M. Halder, MDa,*
a
Department of Dermatology, Howard University College of Medicine, 2041 Georgia Avenue, NW, Washington, DC 20060, USA
b
Research and Development, Collaborative Group Company, 50 East Loop Road, Stony Brook, NY 11790, USA
Obvious physical differences exist among human
populations in hair color and texture and skin color.
Although all humans are members of the same species,
understanding the causes of skin diseases may hinge
on the structural and physiologic variations that exist
among different ethnic groups in skin and hair.
The demographics of the United States reflect a
constantly changing mixture of people of various
ethnic and racial groups. People with dark skin com-
prise Africans, African Americans, Hispanics, and
Asians. Although most Americans are presently
white-skinned, it has been projected that in the mid
twenty-first century people with dark skin will consti-
tute most of the American and international popula-
tions [1]. This change necessitates the need to
understand the differences in the structure and function
of skin of color, the presentation of disease, and treat-
ment management of disorders of the hair and skin.
Biology, structure, and function of pigmented skin
The stratum corneum of blacks has been found to
consist of more layers when compared with that of
whites. The number of cellophane tape strippings
required to remove the stratum corneum was reported
in 25 whites and 21 blacks in a comparative study [2].
A greater number of strippings were required for
removal of stratum corneum in blacks than was re-
quired in whites. Black subjects were found to have a
greater variance in the thickness of stratum corneum
layers. The thickness of stratum corneum in white and
* Corresponding author.
0733-8635/03/$ – see front matter D 2003 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0733-8635(03)00081-0
black skin is generally similar. In black skin it seems
to be more compact, accounting for the greater number
of layers [2]. Within black individuals, the degree of
pigmentation has no correlation with the number of
cell layers seen [3]. Other differences in the stratum
corneum between black, white, and Asian skin have
also been reported with an increase in spontaneous
desquamation 2.5 times greater in blacks compared
with other races. This was attributed to a difference in
the composition of the intercellular cement of the
stratum corneum. In a study by Sugino et al [4], blacks
were found to have the lowest levels of ceramides in
the stratum corneum. Whites, Hispanics, and Asians
had significantly higher levels. This study also showed
an inverse correlation with the transepidermal water
loss (TEWL) and the ceramide levels; water content,
however, had a direct correlation with the ceramide
levels [5].
Biophysical properties
In a study by Kompaore et al [6], a significantly
higher TEWL after tape stripping of the stratum
corneum was evident in Asians and blacks than ob-
served in whites. In addition to showing the highest
TEWL after stripping, Asians also showed greater skin
permeability than other races. Other studies, however,
while showing variation in the recovery of the barrier
between skin types II and III and skin type IV, showed
generally no difference between races. Darker skin
types have faster recovery and display more resistant
barrier than the skin of lighter pigmentation [7].
To investigate the racial differences in skin
function, various biophysical parameters have been
596 G.M. Richards et al / Dermatol Clin 21 (2003) 595–600
studied. TEWL and water content, skin conductance,
and skin thickness were studied in whites, Hispanics,
and blacks under basal conditions [3]. The data
showed no differences in TEWL between race and
anatomic sites without tape stripping. In Hispanics,
the water content was increased on the volar forearm
compared with blacks, but in whites the water con-
tent was decreased on the dorsal forearm compared
with blacks.
There are several physical factors in addition to
stratum corneum water content that play a role in skin
conductance. This makes it difficult to interpret racial
differences. Increased stratum corneum water content
correlates with a higher TEWL. Higher skin conduct-
ance values in blacks and Hispanics may be the role of
skin lipids [8]. Biomechanical properties, such as skin
extensibility, skin elastic recovery, and skin elastic
modulus, showed more marked variability between
races. Differences were observed between the races
and were found in dorsal sun-exposed and volar non
sun-exposed sites on the forearm. Skin extensibility
differed significantly between sites in both whites and
Hispanics but not in blacks. On the dorsal forearm
blacks had greater extensibility than whites, but were
similar to Hispanics [3]. The results were similar for
elastic recovery. The exposed and unexposed sites in
blacks were the same but different in whites and
Hispanics. Elastic recovery was slightly higher in
black skin than Hispanic and whites. All groups had
the same skin elastic modulus on the volar forearm, but
on the dorsal forearm it was lowest in blacks and
greater in Hispanics than whites [3]. These results may
be caused by the different degrees of solar exposure
between the volar and dorsal sides of the forearm.
Melanin and racial differences
Although the actual number of melanocytes may
vary in different individuals from one anatomic site to
another, there has been no evidence of differences in
the number of melanocytes between races [9]. The
variations in the number, size, and aggregation of
melanosomes within the melanocyte and keratinocyte
result in the racial and ethnic differences in skin color
that are seen [9,10].
Melanosomes occur in groups or aggregates and it
has been demonstrated [11] that the different group-
ings have a correlation to the lightness or darkness of
an individual’s skin. Blacks with dark skin have large,
nonaggregated melanosomes, whereas light-skinned
blacks have a combination of large nonaggregated and
smaller aggregated melanosomes. There is also a
correlation between melanosome groupings and sun
exposure. Dark-skinned white subjects when exposed
to sunlight have nonaggregated melanosomes, and
those with light skin without sun exposure have
aggregated melanosomes. Similarly in Asian skin, on
the unexposed areas of the body there are mainly
aggregated melanosomes, and the sunlight-exposed
areas have predominantly nonaggregated melano-
somes [9,11,12]. Individuals with skin type VI when
compared with those with types I and II have a higher
total melanin content of the skin [9,13]. Differences in
the epidermal distribution of melanosomes between
races have also been documented. In white-skinned
individuals, melanosomes are more numerous in the
stratum corneum, whereas in dark-skinned individuals
(blacks) melanosomes are more numerous in the basal
layer. The distribution of melanosomes and skin tone
seems to be correlated [14]. This is supported by the
findings that dark white skin resembles the melano-
some distribution observed in black skin [11].
Epidermal structure
Some racial differences in epidermal structure have
been shown. Among these differences is the variation
in the thickness of the epidermis, occurring between
black (6.5 mm) and white groups (7.2 mm) (Table 1).
Some individuals were found to have thin epidermis
and others were described as thick [15]. The stratum
lucidum consists of one to two layers in the non – sun-
exposed skins in both black and white groups [15]. In
blacks the stratum lucidum is compact and unaltered in
sun-exposed skin, whereas in white individuals there is
swollen cellular stratum lucidum. In both groups the
stratum granulosum consists of up to three layers.
Dermal structure
There are several differences between the dermal
structures of black and white skin. Black dermis is
generally thick and compact when compared with
white dermis, which is thinner and less compact
[16]. The papillary and reticular layers are more
distinct in white skin. These layers also contain larger
collagen fiber bundles and the fiber fragments are
sparse. Smaller collagen fiber bundles are present in
black skin with close stacking, and a surrounding
ground substance. Fiber fragments are more prominent
and numerous in black skin. Melanophages are larger
in black skin. Fibroblasts and lymphatic vessels are
more numerous in black skin with lymphatic vessels
being dilated empty lymph channels usually sur-
 G.M. Richards et al / Dermatol Clin 21 (2003) 595–600 597

Table 1
Comparison of epidermis of different racial groups
White Black Asians
Stratum corneum thickness 7.2 mm 6.5 mm
Stratum corneum layers 17 layers 22 layers
Stratum lucidum 1 – 2 layers. On exposure Remains compact
to sun becomes swollen and unaltered with
and distinctly cellular sun exposure
Water barrier High Low
Melanosomes Small; group melanosomes Larger; individually Mainly aggregated melanosomes;
in keratinocytes less dense dispersed melanosomes nonaggregated in sunlight
more numerous in in keratinocytes more exposed areas
subcutaneous than basal layer numerous in basal layer
Stratum corneum lipids Low High
Vitamin D production High Low
MED Low High
Photodamage Significant changes in Marginal changes in Significant changes in the epidermis
the epidermis the epidermis
Epidermal cell Less intense More intense
auto fluorescence
Melanin Has greater protective Has less protective
capability in the capability in the
stratum corneum stratum corneum

rounded by masses of elastic fibers [16]. In photo- Cutaneous appendages

damaged white skin, only elastic fibers in the papillary
and reticular dermis stain pink, whereas the others
stain lilac or deep blue. In blacks all the dermal elastic
fibers stain pink similar to that seen in sun-protected
skin (Table 2) [16].
In a study of black and white female subjects, the
appendages, such as sweat glands and hair follicles in
blacks, generally were found to be similar to those of
white subjects, but contained more pigment. In black

Table 2
Table showing comparison of dermal structure between black and white skin
Dermis
Papillary and reticular layer
Collagen fiber bundles
Fiber fragments
Melanophages (macrophages that
phagocytise; melanosomes that
spill into the dermis)
Lymphatic vessels
Fibroblasts
Elastic fibers
Superficial blood vessel
Glycoprotein molecules
White Black
Thinner and less compact Thick and compact
More distinct Less distinct
Bigger Smaller; close stacking and
surrounded by ground substance
Sparse Prominent and numerous
Many Numerous and larger
Moderate, dilated Many, dilated empty lymph
channels usually surrounded
by masses of elastic fibers
Not as numerous; some binucleated cells Numerous and large; many
binucleated and multinucleated cells
More; in photodamage, only fibers in Less; all dermal elastic fibers stain
papillary and reticular dermis stain pink, pink, just like in sun protected skin;
the others stain lilac or deep blue. elastosis is uncommon
Sparse to moderate More numerous, mostly dilated
Variable Numerous in the dermis
598 G.M. Richards et al / Dermatol Clin 21 (2003) 595–600
skin, the bulbs of vellus hair follicles are frequently
pigmented, whereas in white skin they do not contain
any melanin [15].
The variation in eccrine sweat gland quantity,
structure, and function between different racial or
ethnic groups is controversial. No significant differ-
ences have been found [9]. Apocrine glands in differ-
ent groups show interindividual variation but one
study had shown that these glands are found more
frequently in female black facial skin than in female
white facial skin. They are also found in all levels of
the dermis [15]. Some studies have suggested racial
differences in sebaceous glands size and activity [17];
however, no significant difference has been shown in
sebum production between black and white skins. In
another study of black and white subjects, blacks were
found to have much larger sebaceous glands than
whites [18].
Irritation
Cutaneous reactions to 1% dichlorodiethyl sulfide
showed erythema in 58% of white subjects but in
only 15% of black subjects [19]. Another study using
o-chlorobenzylidenemalonitrile to elicit patch test
reactions showed that blacks had decreased suscepti-
bility to cutaneous irritants and required much longer
exposure to develop irritant reaction [20]. Blacks
were found to be less susceptible to cutaneous irri-
tants before the stratum corneum was removed by
tape stripping.
Sensory irritation has also been reported after
application of an irritant; it is described as a stinging
sensation occurring in the nasolabial folds and on
cheeks [14,21]. It was reported as occurring more of-
ten in light-complexioned persons who tanned poorly
and burned easily; however, later studies showed that
there was no skin-type association with stinging [22].
Allergic contact dermatitis
Reports on the incidence of allergic contact derma-
titis have been conflicting. In several studies, the
incidence was found to be less in blacks [23]. South
African darkly pigmented blacks were found to have
lower incidence of industrial contact dermatitis [24].
After testing many topical materials on both black and
white subjects, however, there was no significant
difference in the two races [25]. Similarly, an approxi-
mately equal incidence of contact dermatitis, most
commonly to p-phenylenediamine, nickel, and potas-
sium bichromate, was reported by Fisher [26] in blacks
and whites. The clinical presentation of acute contact
dermatitis is usually different in blacks and whites.
Blacks tend to develop disorders of pigmentation and
lichenification more commonly. Contact dermatitis
with exudation, vesiculation, or bullae occurs more
commonly in whites.
Racial and sex-related differences in sensitization
were identified using transdermal clonidine. The oc-
clusive patch was applied to the skin for 1 week. The
results showed significant differences both between
the races and sexes: sensitization of white women
34%, white men 18%; black women 14%; and black
men 8% [8].
Cultural practices may also play a role in the racial
differences observed in chemical sensitivity. The
higher incidence of contact dermatitis seen in blacks
among users of hair dye may be explained by the
higher levels of paraphenylenediamine contained in
darker shades of hair dyes that are used by blacks [9].
Black persons may also have cross-sensitization to
other chemically related substances that are more
frequently used by blacks, causing a higher sensitivity
to paraphenylenediamine [9].
Hair
Of the four recognized hair types, most blacks have
spiral hair. Some characteristics observed on cross-
sectional evaluation of black hair include a longer
major axis and flattened elliptical shape; they also
have curved follicles. Asian hair type had the largest
cross-sectional area and that of Western Europeans had
the smallest area [27]. In a comparative study of
different racial and ethnic groups, there was no signifi-
cant difference in the thickness of the cuticle, scale
size, and shape, and cortical cells of whites compared
with blacks. Black hair has an elliptical shape, whereas
Asians have round shaped, straight hair; the hair of
whites is intermediate (Table 3). The length and degree
of curliness is determined genetically. The curly nature
of black hair is believed to be caused by the shape of
the hair follicle [28].
In studies of the hair follicles, blacks were found to
have fewer elastic fibers anchoring the hair follicles to
the dermis, when compared with white subjects. Mela-
nosomes were found to be in both the outer root sheath
and in the bulb of vellus hairs in blacks but not in
whites [15]; black hair also has more pigment and on
microscopy has larger melanin granules in comparison
with hair from light-skinned and Asian individuals [9].
Similar structural characteristics of hair are shared
by members of all races, although several differences
 G.M. Richards et al / Dermatol Clin 21 (2003) 595–600
Table 3
Differences in skin appendages among different groups
White
Sweat glands Few apocrine-eccrine mixed glands
Hair follicles Anchored by more elastic fibers; ovoid
Hair appearance Wavy
Hair diameter Intermediate
have been identified. There is no difference in keratin
types between hair from different races, and no differ-
ence has been found in the amino acid composition of
hair from different races [29], although one study
found variation in the levels of some amino acids
between the hair of blacks and whites [30]. Black
subjects had significantly greater levels of tyrosinase,
phenylalanine, and ammonia in the hair, but were
deficient in serine and threonine [30].
Black hair has a tight-curl pattern, which makes it
particularly susceptible to breakage when manipulated
mechanically [31]. To obtain the widest variety of
styles people with excessively curly hair, as in blacks,
often straighten the hair by either heat pressing or use
of chemical relaxers and straighteners [31]. These are
among the many cultural practices that may impact on
disorders of the skin and hair that are experienced by
people of different ethnic groups.
There are many racial and ethnic groups that may
be categorized as people with skin of color. These
include Asians, African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans,
Africans, Native Americans, and Hispanics. Within
each of these racial groups, there are subgroups. Al-
though obvious differences exist among human popu-
lations, little data exist in defining ethnic and racial
differences in skin and hair structure and physiology.
Summary
Differences have been found among blacks, whites,
Asians, and Hispanics in various areas of skin structure
and function. Among them is the stratum corneum
lipid (ceramide) content, which is highest in Asians,
then Hispanics, then whites, and lowest in blacks.
Melanosomal packaging and percutaneous absorption
rates for specific compounds also vary among the
different races. Reports supporting the occurrence of
difference in TEWL, tyrosinase levels, skin elasticity,
and water absorption rates between blacks and whites,
and reaction to skin irritation have been conflicting.
No significant differences in corneocyte size, skin
thickness, and skin biomechanics have been reported.
599
Asian Black
More epocrine-eccrine mixed glands
Round Flat and elliptical
Straight Spiral
Largest Smallest
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