Foundations of High Energy Density Physics Physical Processes of Matter at Extreme Conditions 1st Edition Jon Larsen

Foundations of High Energy Density
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Extreme Conditions 1st Edition Jon
Larsen
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1
Introduction
Our terrestrial environment is, for the most part, a benign environment. Even
catastrophic natural events such as severe hurricanes, explosive volcanic erup-
tions, and massive earthquakes are rather tame compared to physical events
beyond our rocky planet. The stars and the galaxies have environments far too
hostile for our liking.
Even when nature unleashes a violent thunderstorm, the energy may be quite
large, but the energy density is not. However, if Thor hurls a thunderbolt our way,
we take notice of the explosive release of energy in a small volume and we see
firsthand evidence of high-energy density. Generally, we are not aware of everyday
instances of high-energy density that are all around us. That is, we don’t realize
that the energy that holds matter together involves high-energy-density physics.
Early man undoubtedly experienced the violent and often destructive nature of
a lightning strike, but had no comprehension of its energy density and plasma
physics on display. Not until near the end of the nineteenth century did people
realize that larger energy densities existed in nature beyond the uncontrollable
lightning events. Early experiments on the structure of atoms suggested far greater
energies were responsible for keeping atoms whole. The binding of the electron to
the nucleus of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 electronvolts (eV), with even greater
binding for higher atomic number elements. In uranium, for example, the outer-
most electron is bound with an energy of 5.8 eV, while the removal of the last
electron requires 132 kilo-electronvolts (keV) to form the bare nucleus. Even
greater energies, due to the nuclear force, were later found when nuclear structure
experiments were performed; for example, the energy released in the fission of one
uranium nucleus is about 180 mega-electronvolts (MeV).
The structure of our surroundings is dictated by Coulomb forces between
individual atoms, which in the case of a carbon–carbon molecular bond is about
4 eV. Larger assemblies of carbon atoms are held together by even weaker forces.
For example, in graphite, adjacent planes of carbon atoms are bound together by
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2 Introduction
bonds of about 0.05 eV per carbon atom. For reference, this energy corresponds
to a temperature of about 600 Kelvin (K), about twice that of room temperature. By
comparison, iron has a melting point of about 1,800 K.1
Life on Earth is dependent on solar radiation. While the surface (photosphere) of
the Sun has a temperature of roughly 5,800 K, the major portion of the radiant energy
reaching the surface of the Earth has photon energies in the range 0.06–0.4 eV
(wavelengths between 300 and 2,000 nanometers [nm]). It is this matching of photon
energy with molecular bonding energies that allows formation of new molecules,
and thus the rise of biological structures; that is, the creation of life itself.
The wide distribution of binding/bonding energies is better cast in terms of
energy density, which is just another expression for pressure. For example, the
covalent bond energy of the hydrogen molecule is a bit less than 5 eV, which
corresponds to an internal energy density of about 1011 Pascals (Pa) or 1 megabar
(Mbar). We would expect that if an assembly of hydrogen molecules is subjected
to an external pressure in excess of this internal energy density, the structure of the
molecules would be altered. In fact, at these elevated conditions, hydrogen (as well
as for all matter) exhibits a new property: the neutrally charged atom becomes
ionized. This more energetic state is often referred to as the fourth state of matter,
the plasma. Indeed, metals that exhibit a high electrical conductivity have conduc-
tion electrons that are loosely bound to individual atoms, and so tend to wander
through the lattice. These metals, while solid, exhibit many of the characteristics
of plasma.
We are surrounded by plasmas. For example, the radiation from the Sun, which
warms us, is produced by plasma; the “neon” advertising signs light up storefronts;
the welder’s torch assembles useful structures; light from fluorescent electrical
fixtures lets us see in the dark; and so on.
Traditional plasma theory arose from experiments on low-density, high-tempera-
ture gases, where ionization had transformed the neutral atoms into negatively
charged electrons and positively charged ions. The study of this new form of matter
focused on the “individual” behavior of the constituent particles. But for higher-
density plasma, this approach is nearly impossible because of the extreme complex-
ity of the dynamics of ions and electrons in close proximity to one another. It is
far more advantageous to treat the plasma as two fluids: one for the free electrons
and one for the heavy ions. This is the basic approach for describing high-energy-
density matter.
Consider air at its normal density, about 10–3 grams per cubic centimeter (g-cm‒3),
at a pressure of 1 Mbar. At this pressure, the temperature is about 10 keV (~108 K).
1
This reference is a bit careless about equating energy to a temperature. The examples are basically “single-
particle” energies, while temperature implies averaging energies over some distribution function.
1.1 High-Energy-Density on Earth 3
As the density is further decreased, but still has a pressure of 1 Mbar, the
temperature becomes hot enough that relativistic plasma is established. This
regime, too, is beyond the realm of traditional plasma physics.
Dense plasma also exhibits characteristics of condensed matter. Because of the
close proximity of ions, they are highly correlated and form structures not unlike
that encountered in the solid state. Thus, high-energy-density physics concepts also
draw on the wealth of theory developed in condensed matter physics. While high-
energy-density matter is loosely defined as matter with energy density greater than
1 Mbar, recent research has addressed cooler, but still dense, conditions, known as
warm dense matter. This book does not explicitly address the physics specific to
those environmental conditions, but much of what is discussed is directly applic-
able to that topic.
1.1 High-Energy-Density on Earth

Perhaps the earliest demonstration of high-energy-density phenomenon in the
laboratory was conducted by Martinus van Marum in Amsterdam in 1790. He
employed a 1 kilojoule (kJ) capacitive energy store composed of one hundred
Leyden jars, which was discharged into a wire 1 meter (m) long, causing its
explosion and vaporization. A later, independent discovery in Australia (Pollock
and Barraclough, 1905) arose from the radial collapse of a copper tube used at the
Hartley Vale kerosene refinery as a lightning conductor; the outcome of the
experiment is shown in Figure 1.1. The researchers correctly interpreted the results
as being due to the force arising from the lightning’s current interacting with its
own magnetic field.
By the mid-twentieth century, the power of nuclear weapons had been demon-
strated. Based on the exploitation of the energy released in the fission of uranium,
the uncontrolled release of energy created energy densities in excess of 104 Mbar.
Scientists used underground nuclear explosions to explore the physics of matter at
extreme conditions. They quickly realized that if this energy source could be
controlled, it offered a laboratory source for continuing experiments on the nature
of materials at high-energy densities. Thus began the exploration and development
Figure 1.1. A copper tube suffering the effects of a lightning strike

(Credit: Brian James, School of Physics, University of Sydney).
4 Introduction
of magnetic fusion energy (MFE) as a possible source of energy production. In

the later decades of the twentieth century, technological developments saw the
creation of pulsed electrical devices and high-power lasers. These two types of
machines made possible the laboratory study of matter at extreme conditions.
Even with the construction of large Z-pinch machines and multiterrawatt, short-
wavelength optical lasers, it wasn’t until well into the 1980s that the instrumentation
achieved the spatial and temporal resolutions needed for meaningful experiments to
be performed.
With flexible, high-power sources and sophisticated diagnostics available in the
laboratory, the ability to address fundamental physics questions about the structure
and behavior of matter at extreme conditions became a reality. Not only was the
field of fusion research advanced, but important experiments relevant to questions
of interest in astrophysics and planetary science caught the attention of researchers
worldwide.
1.2 Some Connections to Prior Work

Since the mid-1960s, the “bible” of high-energy-density physics has been the two-
volume set by Ya. Zel’dovich and Yu. Raizer (1966), Physics of Shock Waves and
High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena. Their work was complemented by
an exquisite treatise on radiation hydrodynamics by D. Mihalas and B. Mihalas
(1984), Foundations of Radiation Hydrodynamics. These two books are aug-
mented by many physics texts on specific topics, including statistical mechanics,
electrodynamics, hydrodynamics, equation of state, plasma physics, atomic phys-
ics and spectroscopy, and radiative transfer, to name but a few.
It is important to note that many of the topics we will address were first explored
by astronomers and astrophysicists in their attempts to explain the structure of the
stars and the formation of the galaxies. Much of this work was pioneered by
S. Chandraskehar and other preeminent physicists of the twentieth century.
In the late 1990s and the first years of the twenty-first century, numerous books
appeared addressing specific aspects of high-energy-density physics. The first
comprehensive work is the textbook by R. P. Drake (2006), appropriately named
High-Energy-Density Physics, and more recently, my book with J. Colvin,
Extreme Physics (Colvin & Larsen, 2014). As I proceed into the depths of high-
energy-density physics in this book, I will note numerous references to prior work
to consult for additional information.
There is always a dilemma in preparing a comprehensive work: what to include,
what to develop in some detail, what to hint at, and what to ignore. Since this work
is the outgrowth of the development of the radiation hydrodynamics simulation
code HYADES, I have included those subjects of most interest needed to achieve
1.3 Outline 5
that goal. There remain a number of topics that should have been included, but
page limitations prevailed. Preparation of the manuscript for this book relied
heavily on handwritten notes dating back to the 1980s, many of them rather
sketchy. Unfortunately, some attributions have been lost over time and have not
been readily relocated; I take full responsibility for this deficiency.
1.3 Outline
High-energy-density physics draws on many physics disciplines, from classical, to
quantum, to relativistic topics. Central to high-energy-density physics is the bulk
motion of matter and its associated energy content and transport, especially that of
radiative transfer. As high-energy-density matter is ionized plasma, the free elec-
trons and ionized atoms (the ions) are given equal importance. As we shall see,
thermal radiation is an essential ingredient of high-energy-density matter. This
requires that the radiation be treated as a third “fluid,” on an equal footing with the
electron and ion fluids, taking account of the mass difference between the photons
and material particles.
There is one additional aspect of high-energy-density physics that is not found
in traditional plasma physics, and that is electron degeneracy. This condition arises
when plasma is at high density and low temperature. Degenerate electrons have a
profound effect on nearly all aspects of high-energy-density matter.
There are aspects of the physics that should be treated in addition to those
discussed here. The list includes gravity, relativistic effects, etc., but they are of
little or no concern in the terrestrial laboratory. Further, I omit any discussion of
atomic spectroscopy, fusion applications, and diagnostic instruments and nearly all
mention of experimental results.
The objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive collection of the most
important physical phenomena encountered in high-energy-density matter. Chapter 2
is a brief summary of the topics that define high-energy-density matter and possible
ways to characterize it from matter in other states.
Chapter 3 is a collection of many fundamental physics concepts that are often
covered in undergraduate and first-year graduate physics courses. I refer back
to this chapter many times throughout the text. The reader well versed in basic
physics can skip this chapter; I include it for reference for those individuals who
are a bit “rusty.”
The real substance of this book begins with Chapter 4. A most important
quantity in high-energy-density plasma is the ionization level, that is, the average
number of unbound electrons per ion. In traditional plasma, this is determined by
binary collisions among the particles, which are controlled by the temperature. In
high-energy-density matter, the close proximity of one atom to another causes a
6 Introduction
change in the overlap of electron orbitals. The outermost electrons become pres-
sure ionized even for very low temperatures. Another important ionization mech-
anism is that due to the radiation field – photoionization. Higher-energy photons
can interact with the deeper-lying atomic levels, causing those electrons to be
removed from the atom. In fact, the combination of processes leads to time-
dependent, nonequilibrium ionization.
Chapter 5 discusses the properties of matter at extreme conditions as character-
ized by the equation of state (EOS). We are familiar with the EOS for a perfect gas,
but this simple model is of limited use in high-energy-density physics because it is
an “isolated atom” model. The problem of calculating the internal states of matter
(pressure and specific energy) as functions of environmental variables (density and
temperature) is exceedingly difficult for strongly coupled plasma. Realistic models
need to account for more than just “closest neighbor” atoms; there are several
computational approaches that yield sensible results. The basis for some of this
work comes from solid-state theory.
Chapter 6 develops the equations of material response. Based on the conser-
vation equations of mass, momentum, and energy, and using an EOS for a
particular material, the basic model of gas dynamics is developed. Because we
are dealing with high-energy-density matter, shock waves are likely to form. Their
behavior is easily found from the hydrodynamic equations. A better approxima-
tion includes the effects of viscosity and thermal conductivity, which leads to a
picture of the structure within the shock front. A further improvement for model-
ing the response of “solid” materials is based on an elastic-plastic description of
deformation. Finally, we briefly address the complex topic of fluid instabilities.
This chapter does not include the effects of the radiation field; that topic is left to
Chapter 10.
Chapter 7 discusses the heat flow in high-energy-density matter. For the most
part, this conductive transfer of energy is due to the electron fluid. After con-
sidering the basics of nonlinear thermal conductivity, I address the thermal and
electrical transport coefficients that are determined by density and temperature
gradients. Electron degeneracy effects play a significant role in determining the
rate of heat flow. The issue is complicated even further by the existence of steep
temperature gradients, which result in a nonequilibrium electron velocity distri-
bution, leading to thermal energy transport inhibition.
Chapter 8 is devoted to the development of radiation transport theory. Because
photons can have a wide range of mean free paths and are moving at the speed of
light, the theory is complex, and we must begin from the basic concepts, then turn
to the fundamental issue of how radiation interacts with the electrons by their
absorption, emission, and scattering. The full set of radiation transport equations is
“impossible” to solve, even with advanced computational resources, so I reduce
1.3 Outline 7
the set to several approximations, each of which is relevant under certain condi-
tions. I also find that even in the most basic conditions, certain aspects of the
transport theory must include relativistic effects, and that there is a preferred
frame of reference for calculating radiation transport. Lastly, I address the topic of
view factors.
Chapter 9 focuses on atomic theory and the calculation of the radiative absorp-
tion, emission, and scattering coefficients. My approach is to treat the electron
quantum mechanically, in the hydrogenic approximation, but the radiation classic-
ally. Rate coefficients are also developed for collisional processes that necessarily
include electron degeneracy effects.
Chapter 10 begins the discussion of combining the basic hydrodynamic theory
with radiation transport theory. This makes for some very interesting situations,
and I can only lightly touch the subject; several excellent books on this topic have
been published in recent years. I consider a number of situations that might be
encountered in the laboratory or in the astrophysical environment, developing the
essence of each.
Chapter 11 examines the magnetic fields that are known to play a prominent
role in some astrophysical phenomena. They also occur in the laboratory setting,
but usually are not given a position of importance. Magnetic fields affect plasma
in nearly all aspects, from altering the hydrodynamic response, to modifying
the thermal conductivity and associated transport coefficients, and to creating an
environment where collisions between magnetic field geometries can cause ener-
getic mass ejections, which, for example, are readily observed in the solar environ-
ment. An additional equation describing the diffusion of magnetic fields in plasma
is introduced. Further, magnetic fields can be produced by pulsed-power devices
to create high-energy-density plasma; the most common configuration is that of
the Z-pinch. I discuss some simple models of how the Z-pinch forms as a result of
the magnetic pressure created by high-current flow.
The last chapter, Chapter 12, focuses on the interaction of electromagnetic
waves with plasma. This topic is the outgrowth of the investigation of atmospheric
propagation and heating (absorption) of the ionosphere in the mid-twentieth
century. The most important aspect of this topic is oblique incidence of the wave
on a stratified planar medium. If the polarization is such that the electric vector lies
in the plane of incidence, a number of phenomena can occur at the so-called
critical-density point. These include profile modification due to the ponderomo-
tive force and formation of plasma instabilities that can create very energetic
electrons. I also consider the spontaneous creation of magnetic fields and the
effects of magnetic fields on changing the identity of the electromagnetic wave.
I conclude with a brief discussion about very high-intensity electromagnetic
waves, which produce relativistic effects.
8 Introduction
1.4 Notation, Variables, and Units

As the material presented in this book is drawn from a number of disciplines and
different authors, using the notation from those sources results in a less than
uniform description. I have made every attempt to keep the notation consistent
within this book, yet retain some of the original description. Consequently, the
reader will find more than one mathematical symbol is used to describe the same
quantity; for example, the radiation energy density is designated both by ur and E r .
And of course, a specific symbol is used for multiple quantities, such as σ for a
cross section, for the electrical conductivity, and for the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
I make clear the particular use as the book progresses.
The mathematical expression of the physics, for the most part, is written as
vector differential equations. I assume the reader is familiar with the mathematical
symbols used, such as the differential operators: r, r, and r. Variables appear
as scalars, such as ω for frequency; vectors, such as v for the velocity (with the
scalar representation v); and tensors, such as P for pressure. I introduce four
vectors in Chapter 8, where it is natural to discuss certain aspects of radiation
transport with this formalism.
For the most part, I work in a Cartesian coordinate system. Occasionally I find it
appropriate to use some other system, such as spherical.
I prefer (and use) the Gaussian cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system of units,
with temperatures expressed in keV (thousands of electronvolts), and occasionally eV.
At times it is more convenient to use other units common to a specific instance,
especially when noting values for real quantities; for example, for the “modest”
temperatures of the outer layers of the Sun, I use degrees Kelvin. Another measure
employed for measuring pressure and energy density is the megabar (Mbar), which
is commonly used in the industry, but is not consistent with the cgs system. And
then there is laser intensity, for which the practitioners use the measure watts-cm‒2,
which is really a flux (the true use of “intensity” implies a solid angle). Also, they
measure the laser wavelength in micrometers.
2
Characteristics of High-Energy-Density Matter
The early part of the twentieth century saw the beginnings of plasma physics with
research on gaseous discharges done by Langmuir, Penning, and others. These low-
density discharges produced plasma with a great number of particles per Debye
sphere and thus define the term “ideal plasma.” Ideal plasma is characterized as
being quasineutral, spatially uniform, and having equilibrium (Maxwell-Boltzmann)
particle distributions. For the most part, these “early” plasmas were treated as ionized
hydrogen gas, even though other (higher atomic number) gases were studied.
As research progressed, many phenomena were observed that required an expan-
sion of the basic definition of plasma. Most notable were the discovery of instabil-
ities that could only be explained by nonequilibrium particle distributions and
fluctuations in the distributions. The complexity of the ideal plasma now required
additional descriptive terms to characterize these energetic gases adequately.
In particular, the role of unbound and weakly bound charged particles provides
one way to distinguish this state of matter from those of a solid, liquid, or gas.
In ideal plasma, the presence of a distribution of ion stages is treated as a
perturbation of the thermodynamic properties. These “traditional” plasmas are
analyzed assuming that individual particles interact in pairs and the interaction
energies are small compared to thermal energies.
In contrast to the relatively benign ideal plasma, high-energy-density plasma is
much more than just an extension of the basic ideas of ideal plasma physics. One
defining quantity of high-energy-density physics is that now there are (quite likely)
very few particles in a Debye sphere, and for materials other than hydrogen,
the matter will be undergoing ionization, thus forming ions with different elec-
tronic configurations, even though they are of the same atomic number. Indeed,
high-energy-density materials rarely consist of hydrogen. But that is not to say
that hydrogen is unimportant, because experiments involving hydrogen can lead
to improved theoretical models, which become the basis for high-energy-density
physics.
10 Characteristics of High-Energy-Density Matter
The first theories about high-energy-density physics originated with investi-

gations about the structure of stars. Eddington, Chandrasekhar, Schwarzschild, and
others developed theories about strongly compressed, ionized matter within which
the transport of radiant energy was essential to explain astrophysical observations.
In turn, these theories were essential to the development of nuclear weapons, which
became the foundation for modern high-energy-density investigations.
Formation of a galaxy involves the gravitational interaction among the billons of
stars, while high-energy-density matter relies on the Coulomb interaction between
the charged particles. There is a close similarity between a gas of charged particles
interacting by electrostatic forces and galactic dynamics where the gas of particles
is replaced by a “gas of stars” interacting by gravitational forces. Both forces have
potentials that are proportional to the inverse of the distance between their constitu-
ent particles.
2.1 Landscape of High-Energy-Density Matter

As noted in the previous chapter, the simplistic definition of high-energy-density
matter having a minimum pressure of 1 Mbar greatly limits the discussion of
important physical regimes. Figure 2.1 sketches an expansive density-temperature
space in which several regions of conditions are indicated. The 1 Mbar pressure
contour crosses this space and does not really separate high-energy-density matter
from ideal plasma or condensed matter regions.
The region of the figure for temperatures greater than 511 keV is the realm of
relativistic plasma, which we pay little attention to because it is much more complex
than we have space to deal with in this book. Of greater interest is the lower portion,
but largely excluding the lower-left corner where “normal” matter resides. For low
density, ionization begins when the temperature is about 1 eV. The line separating
ionized and un-ionized gas increases in temperature as the density increases,
reflecting the increasing density of electrons that can recombine with the ions. As
the density approaches 1 g-cm‒3, hydrogen is completely ionized for any tempera-
ture; this occurs because of pressure ionization/continuum lowering.
Excluding the region marked “warm dense matter,” the remainder of the space
can be roughly divided into “ideal” plasma and high-energy-density plasma.
A convenient division for the two is the line for the coupling parameter Γ ¼ 1,
even though the traditional plasma has Γ 1. The most important characteristic of
high-energy-density plasma is that it has less than about one particle per Debye
sphere. The second line, labeled Ψ ¼ 0, defines the boundary where the electrons
are no longer considered “classical” but exhibit Fermi degeneracy.
The heavy solid line, the 1 Mbar pressure contour, is vertical at low temperature
because matter is Fermi degenerate there, while at high temperature the pressure is
2.2 Compressing Atoms 11
Ion density (cm–3)

1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028
103 103
102 109
1 0
Gb Hot dense matter y=
1 ar
M
101 ba 108
r
Pr = 1 Gbar r-T track
for sun
Temperature (keV)
Temperature (keV)
100 107
Pr = 1 Mbar
10–1 G=0 106
10–2 y 105
ar
Ionized
n et s
a e
Un-ionize
d Warm Pl cor
10–3 104
dense matter
10–4 103
10–5 102
10–5 10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Density (g-cm–3)
Figure 2.1. Density-temperature space of interest to high-energy-density physics.

While off the scale of the figure, supernova progenitors occupy the region where
the density is greater than about 107 g-cm‒3 and temperatures are hundreds of
keV. At the extreme low-density side, but with similar temperatures, is the realm
of gamma-ray bursters.
linearly proportional to density and temperature as described by a perfect gas

equation of state. For comparison, the other heavy dashed line indicates pressures
of 1 gigabar (Gbar). These pressure lines omit the thermal radiation contributions.
On the left-hand side are two dashed lines, one for 1 Mbar and the other for 1 Gbar
radiation pressures. When sufficient thermal radiation is present, it too can exert a
force on matter, and for high enough equilibrium temperatures, the matter becomes
radiation-dominated. Upon moving to higher density, at some point the matter
pressure exceeds the radiation pressure, and the two pressure lines descend with
increasing density to join the Fermi degenerate pressure.
We now explore in more depth some of the features just discussed.
2.2 Compressing Atoms

The hallmark of high-energy-density plasma is that, whether solid or liquid, matter
can be compressed to densities higher than that of their normal state. In doing so,
adjacent atoms are forced together so that their electronic wave functions overlap.
R0 >>lD R0 ª lD R0 <<lD
Figure 2.2. Schematic representation of atomic structure for increasing compression.
Figure 2.2 sketches this in terms of the merging of energy levels as the density
increases. At intermediate densities, a particular high-lying level may be shared by
the two ions; these loosely bound electrons tend to wander in the crystal-like
lattice, much as conduction electrons do in metals. At the higher densities, the
highest-lying levels become unbound; this phenomenon is referred to as pressure
ionization or continuum lowering, depending on the point of view. The two
parameters of interest are the ion-sphere radius R0 and the Debye length λDi . The
ion sphere is the volume occupied by one atom (ion), and thus twice the sphere’s
radius is a measure of the average separation of adjacent ions
1=3
3
R0 ¼ , (2.1)
4πni
where ni is the particle number density. The second parameter, the ionic Debye
length, is the range of the screened Coulomb potential, which measures the
strength of the electrostatic force between adjacent particles in competition with
the thermal motion
" #1=2
kB T i
λDi ¼ , (2.2)
4πni ðZ Þ2 e2
where k B is Boltzmann’s constant, T i is the temperature of the ions, and Z is the

ion charge (ionization level). We have assumed, for the present, that only one
charge state exists.1
1
Strictly speaking, the Debye length is a combination of the interaction between the electrons and the just-
mentioned ionic term. We do not consider the electronic component unless the time scales of interest are fast
enough so that the ions appear to be stationary. In traditional plasma theory, it is the electronic Debye length that
is of interest.
2.2 Compressing Atoms 13
The importance of the Debye length is demonstrated in a simple calculation that

shows the limitation of traditional plasma theory. The spherically symmetric
Debye model of the atom is introduced in Chapter 3. For an ion with charge Z ,
Poisson’s equation becomes

1 d 2 dϕ ϕ
r ¼ 4πZ eδð0Þ þ 2 , (2.3)
2
r dr dr λD
whose solution gives the radial dependence of the electrostatic potential
Z e r=λD
ϕ¼ e : (2.4)
r
Clearly, this derivation requires a substantial number of particles within the sphere
of radius λD , which is the case for ideal plasma; correlation effects between pairs of
particles are unimportant. Hence, when the number of particles in the Debye sphere
drops to just a few, the plasma is no longer considered ideal.
The preceding derivation also requires jqϕj k B T. If the average separation
between particles is 2Rav , then from an analogous form of (2.1) including the
electrons, we find
" #1=3
Ze Ze 3
ϕ¼C ¼C , (2.5)
2Rav 2 4πne 1 þ Z1
where C is a constant. Thus,

jqϕj 4πne 1 þ Z1 e2 Z λD 1 1
!C ¼ ¼ 1, (2.6)
kB T 2k B T 4πRav ne ð1 þ Z Þ 6Rav N D 6N 2=3
D
where N D is the number of particles in the Debye sphere. Thus, the two assump-
tions of Debye shielding theory are related. We note (2.6) is violated over much of
Figure 2.3.
The quantity jqϕj=k B T is referred to as the coupling parameter Γ. It comes in
different flavors, depending on the nature of q. Interactions between two ions use
Γii , interactions between electrons and ions use Γei , while electron–electron inter-
actions use Γee . In the realm of high-energy-density matter, it is the ion–ion
coupling that is important. In ideal plasma, with many electrons surrounding the
ion, shielding isolates one ion from adjacent ones and ion–ion coupling is not
important, but electron–ion coupling is. High-energy-density plasma is character-
ized by
ðZ eÞ2
Γii ¼ , (2.7)
R0 k B T i
101
10.0
100
Temperature (keV) 1.0
0.1
10–1
0.01
10–2
10–3
1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024
Ion density (cm–3)
Figure 2.3. Contours of number of particles in a Debye sphere. The dashed line is
for zero chemical potential. The material is aluminum.
which is the ratio of the electrostatic energy to the ion thermal energy. When
Γii 1, plasma is said to be strongly coupled, since the temperature is relatively
low but the matter is highly compressed, resembling a liquid metal. Figure 2.4
shows contours for several values of the coupling parameter calculated with the
Thomas-Fermi ionization model. Comparing this figure with Figure 2.3 shows
much of the parameter space is strongly coupled.
2.3 Electron Degeneracy

The previous section addressed the behavior of the atoms (ions) in a highly
compressed state. We now look at what happens to the electrons under such
conditions. We noted in the previous section that the least-bound electrons are
pressure-ionized, thus forming free electrons, or they may be liberated by impact
ionization or by the photoelectric effect. Assuming these free electrons are not
perturbed by outside influences, their distribution is given, in general, by the
Fermi-Dirac distribution function
ð∞
4π p2 dp 4 1 μ
ne ¼ 2 3 ¼ pffiffiffi 3 F 1=2 , (2.8)
h exp Eμ
þ1 π λde kBT e
0 kB T e
2.3 Electron Degeneracy 15
101
G=1
100
G = 10
Temperature (keV)
10–1
G = 100
10–2
10–3
10–4 10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103 104
–3
Density (g-cm )
Figure 2.4. Contours of Γii for iron. The dashed line is for zero chemical potential.
where p is the electron’s momentum, μ is the electron chemical potential, λde is the
electron de Broglie wavelength (related to the momentum of the electron), and F 1=2
is a Fermi-Dirac integral. At sufficiently high density, the quantum-mechanical
Pauli exclusion principle alters the occupation of the free electron states and the
electrons become degenerate. The degeneracy parameter describing the relation
between the chemical potential and the thermal potential is
μ
Ψ¼ : (2.9)
kBT e
If Ψ 0, the electron distribution is just that of a Maxwell-Boltzmann, but if
Ψ 0, the electrons are fully Fermi degenerate.
The degenerate electron pressure is found by averaging the energy of each state
over the probability of the states, which is just to include the electron’s kinetic
energy E in the integrand of (2.8). Then we find

μ
Pe F 3=
2 kB T e
¼ : (2.10)
ne k B T F 1 μ
=2 k B T e
Figure 2.5 shows this behavior, where the electron pressure increases with higher
chemical potential. We note, however, that even when they are degenerate, the electrons
still behave as a gas with polytropic index γ ¼ 5=3; they do not tend to “crystallize.”
3
Fundamental Microphysics of Ionized Gases
From the characterization of high-energy-density physics in Chapter 2, one might

think this subject is a relatively new field of physics. But it is nothing more than a
combination of classical and modern physics concepts to describe the state of high-
energy-density matter and its interactions with environmental conditions beyond
our normal realm of experience.
Nearly all of the topics addressed in the following chapters have roots in just a
few disciplines. They include the following:
1. Single-particle mechanics
2. Continuum mechanics
3. Thermodynamics
4. Statistical mechanics
5. Electromagnetics and electrodynamics
6. Elementary quantum mechanics
7. Atomic structure
8. Special relativity
This work also draws upon allied fields such as condensed-matter physics
and plasma physics. Even though the high-energy-density material of interest is
ionized, perhaps even highly ionized, and as such is plasma, this book does not
treat it with the traditional techniques of plasma physics, which emphasizes the
low-density aspects of the topic.
No doubt you have encountered these fundamental topics, but with today’s
“specialization,” few researchers are able to work easily with all of the concepts.
The objectives of this chapter are to develop the basic topics in an elementary
fashion, providing as much physical insight as possible and leaving you with
numerous mathematical expressions of importance for “everyday” life. These
expressions are often referred to throughout the remainder of this book.
27
28 Fundamental Microphysics of Ionized Gases
There is a large body of readily available literature covering these topics. Three
excellent references on mechanics are Goldstein’s Classical Mechanics (1965) and
Landau and Lifshitz’s Mechanics (1960a) and Fluid Mechanics (1959). Also
recommended are Huang’s Statistical Mechanics (1963), Kittel’s Elementary
Statistical Physics (1958), and Landau and Lifshitz’s Statistical Physics (1958).
Kinetic theory is introduced in Krall and Trivelpiece’s book Principles of Plasma
Physics (1973). Important books on electrodynamics are Jackson’s Classical
Electrodynamics (1999) and Landau and Lifshitz’s Electrodynamics of Continuous
Media (1960b). An excellent reference for atomic physics is the text by Leighton,
Principles of Modern Physics (1959). And of course, there is the excellent and
definitive three-volume set by Feynman, Leighton, and Sands, The Feynman
Lectures on Physics (1966).
Perhaps the oldest description of the behavior of gases is the theory of thermo-
dynamics. Although it is possible to develop a consistent theory of thermodynam-
ics within a purely axiomatic framework, the equations in this work are the
expression of empirical results obtained from experimentation. Unfortunately,
thermodynamics theory by itself does not lead to the detailed knowledge required
for describing high-energy-density material, so kinetic theory provides that infor-
mation. An alternative to kinetic theory is the more powerful approach of classical
statistical mechanics. This approach uses calculations based on the most probable
state of a gas under prescribed external conditions and evaluates all of its properties
in terms of fundamental atomic constants and an irreducible set of thermodynamic
parameters. This technique works well only for gases in equilibrium. Kinetic
theory, based on a simplified atomic model, permits one to treat nonequilibrium
gases in regimes where both thermodynamics and statistical mechanics provide
little, if any, information.
3.1 Kinetic Theory

Many aspects of high-energy-density matter are adequately described by simple
fluid theory. However, there are some phenomena for which the fluid treatment is
inadequate, and the macroscopic fluid picture must be replaced by a microscopic
kinetic theory. Kinetic theory also provides deeper insight into the physical
properties of dense matter. For our present purposes, we consider high-energy-
density matter to be a gas composed of a single species of particles.
Consider a small volume of gas at low density. For example, room-temperature
air is composed largely of electrically neutral nitrogen molecules at density
ρ 1:2 103 g-cm‒3. A volume of one cubic centimeter has about 2:7 1019
particles. This quite large number precludes (nor is there any point to) developing
an exact particle-by-particle description of the system. Rather, we develop a
statistical picture that gives the distribution of particles in space and over velocity.
Another random document with
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Night and Day therein for ten Days and for
Intelligence of the Motions of the Rebells and other
Expences
The Rebells having upon the 13th of Septemr.

crossed the Forth at a Ford some miles above Sterling;
Mr. Grosett by Direction of Lord Justice Clarke removed
the Ships and Vessells from the Harbours of
Borristounness and Queen’s Ferry, on the south side of
the River, to prevent the Cannon, Arms and Amunition
on Board of these Sloops and Vessells from falling into
the hands of the Rebells to prevent their having any
communication with the North side of the River Forth
otherwise than by going round the Way they came, and
which Mr. Grosett did, though the Rebells had at this
time by an advance party taken Possession of the Town
of Borristouness, about 12 miles to the West of
Edinburgh; Upon Mr. Grosett’s return to Edinburgh, upon
Sunday the 15th in the Evening he found General
Fowke,[591] who was just arrived from England with Lord
Justice Clarke, together with General Guest, and who
approved of what Mr. Grosett had done, and sent him
with Orders to Colonel Gardiner, to remain that Night
with the Troops at Coltbridge, about a Mile to the West of
the Town.
No. Expended in this service

2
7 12 0
Upon the 16th of September Mr. Grosett was sent out

twice in the morning to get Intelligence of the Motions of
the Rebells, and to let General Fowkes, who was then
posted at Coltbridge, know their Motions, and the last
Account he brought was that the Rebells had lain down
upon their Arms, about Twelve that Day near Kirklisten,
about 6 Miles to the West of Edinburgh, that the
Dragoons having soon after this upon the motion of the
Rebells towards them quit their Post at Coltbridge and
retired in some haste by the North side of the Town
about 3 that afternoon, without sending the Party of
Dragoons into the Town as had been conserted in the
morning of that Day, and Lord Justice Clarke observing
that this might give a Handle for justifying the Provest to
give up the Town to the Rebells, he sent Mr. Grosett to
the Provest, to press the Defence of the Town, and to
assure him, that as many of the Dragoons as he pleased
to desire should forthwith be sent in, to assist in the
Defence thereof, till Sir John Cope, who was then hourly
expected by sea from Aberdeen, should come with the
Troops to their Relief. But the Provost, declining to
defend the Town upon Pretence of the Uncertainty of Sir
John Cope’s coming in time to their Assistance, Mr.
Grosett returned and acquainted Lord Chief Justice
Clarke thereof; and as by this time an Express was
arrived from Dunbar with Letters for Lord Justice Clarke,
giving an Account of the Arrival of the Troops under Sir
John Cope off Dunbar; Mr. Grosett was the only Person
who would undertake to go back into the Town with these
Letters; but not being able to prevail with the Provost to
agree to the Defence thereof, he left it about One in the
Morning, and brought Lord Justice Clarke an Account of
what had past [narrowly escaped falling into the Hands
of the Rebells, who by 5 in the Morning were in full
Possession of the Town, the Gates having been opened
to them; But the Particulars of Mr. Grosetts Transactions,
and the Provosts Behaviour at this Juncture, will more
fully appear from a Narrative relating thereto, formerly
delivered by Mr. Grosett to His Grace the Duke of
Newcastle.[592]]
No. 16 17 0
Expended and Lost in this Service, Mr.
3 Grosett in his speedy Return to Edinburgh having
lost both his Hatt and Wig and killed one of his
Horses
Sep Mr. Grosett having retired with Lord Justice

t. Clarke to Dunbar, and his Lordship having upon
174
5
the 18th Septemr. received Information that the
young Pretender was to be that Night with some
of the Chiefs of his Party at the Dutchess of
Gordon’s house,[593] about 7 miles to the South-East of
Edinburgh on their Road to England, and that the First
Column of the Rebell Army was to march that way, Mr.
Grosett was sent by Lord Justice Clarke with proper
Guides and Assistants in the Night to reconnoitre and
send certain Intelligence of their Motions and number;
But receiving Information near the Dutchess of Gordon’s
House, that they had changed their Resolution he
returned and acquainted Lord Justice Clarke thereof;
From this time to the Battle of Preston, Mr. Grosett was
employed in reconnoitering and procuring Intelligence of
the Motions and Designs of the Rebells [narrowly
escaped being killed the Night before the Battle, by a
Party of the Rebells who lay in ambuscade in a Thicket
of Wood on the side of a hollow way, Mr. Grosett had to
pass through in going by the Directions of Sir John Cope
to observe their motions and numbers, as they were
drawing up in front of our army from whence they fired
close upon him, as he went along, and from which Place
they were drove by our Cañon after Mr. Grosett’s return
with an Account of their Situation]; and the Day of the
Battle he Lost a Horse and all his Baggage, the servant
who had charge thereof being made Prisoner by the
Rebells.
No. Expended and lost in this Service

4
33 6 0
Sep After the Battle of Preston Mr. Grosett went
t. from place to place to receive Information and
and
Oct
Intelligence of the Motions and Proceedings of
. the Rebells and so soon as he heard of General
174 Handasyde’s commanding at Berwick sent his
5 brother Captain Grosett, who was Aid-de-Camp
to the General, the Intelligence he from time to
time procured of the Motions, and Designs of the
Rebells, and amongst other services brought Prisoner to
Edinburgh Castle with the assistance of Mr. Brown and
some Farmers, Spalding of Whitefield[594] one of the
Chiefs of the Rebells, with Two others, who were
secured as they were returning, thro’ the West of
Scotland from the Rebell Army near Carlisle to the North,
in order to bring up about 3000 men more from that
Country, and for which purpose he had written Orders
from Mr. Murray, the young Pretenders Secretary, Duke
of Perth, Lord George Murray, and others of the Rebell
chiefs: As also the particular Route they were to take
with these men until they should join the Rebell Army,
who were to halt for them at Carlisle. All which Orders,
Route and other Letters and Papers found upon
Whitefield and his servant were delivered over with them
to General Guest, then in the Castle of Edinburgh.
No. Expended in this Service

5
24 8 0
Nov Upon the 13th Novemr. Mr. Grosett met Lord

. Justice Clarke at Musselburrow, and returned
with his Lordship to Edinburgh,[595] and the Day
after General Handasyde[596] arrived there with two
Regiments of Foot and the Remains of Hamilton’s and
Gardiner’s Dragoons; That the Castle of Edinburgh being
at this time in great want of Provisions of all sorts Mr.
Grosett by order of General Handasyde of the 16th
Novemr. procured and laid in a sufficient supply thereof
not only for the Garrison but for the Troops, that should
be employd in the Defence of the Town.

6
5 11 0
About this time the Rebells at Perth who were about

3000 in number being reinforced by the Landing of
Troops in the North, with Cannon and Stores from
France; Therefore in order to prevent the Kings Troops
from being surprized, and the Town of Edinburgh falling
again into the hands of the Rebells, Mr. Grosett by
Direction of Lord Justice Clarke, and Orders from
General Handasyde of the 26th and 27th November
1745,[597] went with proper Assistance and removed all
the Boats and Vessells that were at that time to be found
at the different Ports and Creeks on the Northside of the
River Forth, between Kinghorn and Aloa, to the
Southside thereof.

7
11 10 0
[Mr. Grosett at this time recovered seized Goods to

the value of £1800 which the Rebells had carry’d off from
the Kings Warehouse at Leith, and in which he was
greatly assisted by Genl. Handasyde.]
When the Rebells came to Edinburgh there were of
seized and condemned Goods, in the King’s Warehouse
at Leith, to the Value of about Ten Thousand Pounds,
and as these Goods were all carry’d off by the
assistance of the Rebells, and Mr. Legrand Collector at
Leith having upon their approach left Scotland, Mr.
Grosett at this time saved no Labour or Expense to get
Information by whom these Goods had been carried off,
and where lodged, found out and secured with the
assistance of a Company of the Military which he
procured from General Handasyde, as many of these
Goods as were sold for about £1500 and procured
Information of the Names of the Persons who with the
assistance of the Rebells carried these and the greatest
part of the other Goods from the Kings Warehouse, and
who are now under Prosecution for that offence, as well
as for the value of the Goods, that Mr. Grosett did not
recover.

8
68 14 0
Dec That after the Removal of the Boats and

. Vessells as above others having arrived, and
174
5
some of those that had been removed gone back,
and that it was found absolutely necessary for the
Service, that all Boats, Ships, and Vessells
whatsoever on the North Coast betwixt Kinghorn and St.
Andrews down the River as well as those formerly
ordered to be removed betwixt Kinghorn and Alloa up the
River should be removed to prevent the Rebells from
getting across with their Cannon, and as this cou’d not
be done without the assistance of some Ship of Force to
secure a Retreat in case of being surprized by the
Rebells who were in possession of that Part of the
Country; and as the Captain of the Milford Man of War
was ordered to concert proper measures with and assist
Mr. Grosett therein; Mr. Grosett by Order of Lord Justice
Clarke and General Guest the 8th Decemr. 1745 went
with the Custom House Boats and other proper
Assistance and performed what was required above.
No. Expended in this Service for Intelligence
9
6 10 0
Dec Mr. Grosett by Warrant of Lord Justice Clarke

.
174 and General Guest[598] of the 16th Decemr. 1745
5 removed with the Assistance of the Kings Boats
and Happy Janet armed Vessell, all the Boats
and Vessells at the Creeks on the South side of
the Forth betwixt Borristouness and Sterling to the
Harbour of Borristouness to prevent their being forced
from these Places by the Rebells. As also from Alloa a
Quantity of large Loggs of Wood and long Planks to
prevent the Rebells making Floats thereof to cross with
their Cannon at Alloa, with which they proposed to attack
Sterling Castle.

10
22 9 0
Dec Lord Justice Clarke having received

. Intelligence that the Rebells from the North were
174
5
to force their Passage across the River Forth at
Haigens and Carsy Nooks in flat bottomed Boats
they were bringing over Land from the Water of
Earn, to prevent which Mr. Grosett by Directions of his
Lordship the 19th Decemr. 1745[599] went and got that
Part of Sterling Shire which lies next to the River put in
arms to defend the Banks thereof, and by Order of
General Guest of the same Date engaged and stationed
the Pretty Janet armed Vessell with proper Hands, which
he procured at Borristouness to defend the Passage at
Haigen’s Nook and the Jean armed Sloop that at Carsey
Nook which effectually prevented the Designs of the
Rebells at this Juncture.

11
17 4 0
Dec To prevent the Rebells, upon their crossing

. the River Esk in their Return from England into
174
5
Scotland, having it in their Power to secure a
ready communication between them and their
friends in the North, and to get from thence the
Cannon and other Military Stores that had been landed
there by the French; Mr. Grosett by order of Lord Justice
Clarke and General Guest of the 21st December
1745[600] was directed instantly to remove all Vessells
and Boats of whatever Size out of the Harbours of
Borristouness, Queens Ferry or any where else upon the
South Coast of the Forth to such Places as he should
think most proper for his Majesty’s Service at so critical a
juncture and who accordingly removed all Boats and
Vessells whatever that could be floated [to the Roads of
Queens Ferry and Borristouness under the command of
the armed vessells lying there, which effectually
frustrated the Designs of the Rebells.]
Expended in this Service 860
Expended in forwarding from Borristouness Powder,

Ball, Grape Shot, and other ammunition sent thither from
the Castle of Edinburgh for the use of the Castle of
Sterling: Pretty Janet armed Vessell stationed at Haigens
Nook and the Jean armed Sloop at Carsy Nook to
prevent the Rebells crossing at these Ferries by order of
General Guest of 22nd Decemr 1745[601] 3 12 0
Upon the Return of the Rebells from England to
Scotland Orders being given to the two Regiments of
Foot Prices and Ligoniers, and to the Glasgow Regiment
and three Paisly Companies,[602] to march from Sterling
to Edinburgh for the Defence of that Place, Intelligence
being then received that the Rebells were at Moffat, in
their Road to Edinburgh which City was at this time (by
the Retreat of the two Regiments of Dragoons from
thence to Haddington in their way to Berwick) left without
any other Force but the Edinburgh Regiment[603] and as
it was probable, that the Rebells might in this situation
attempt to intercept the Troops in their March from
Sterling to Edinburgh; Mr. Grosett was Dispatched, with
Orders from Lord Justice Clarke and General Guest[604]
for hireing and pressing a number of Boats and Ships,
for embarking if necessary the Troops at Borristouness,
at which place they were expected from Sterling that
night; that Provisions should be laid in for Berwick but
that they should stop at Leith Road for Orders. Mr.
Grosett having agreeable to these Directions saved no
Expense and Labour in a service of so much Importance
had Ships and Boats at Borristouness for embarking and
transporting the Troops by the time they came there
which was about Twelve at Night. By these means the
Troops and the Glasgow and Paisly Militia, about a
Thousand in Number, who unable to continue their
march being embarked at Borristouness with the
Baggage belonging to the whole. They arrived on the
morning of the 24th Decemr. in the Road of Leith much
about the Time that the other Troops, who were
forwarded by Horses from Linlithgow, arrived at
Edinburgh; and who upon their Arrival at Leith were
ordered to disembark there, and by that Means and the
Number of Volunteers One Thousand and upwards
whom Lord Justice Clarke got to take up Arms in the
Neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and march immediately
into the Town. The Rebells being deterred from coming
forward to Edinburgh took the Road to Glasgow, where
they arrived the 25th Decemr. 1745.
To forward this Service Mr. Grosett got from General

Guest 100 gunners and expended therein 74 8 0
To Charges sending from Borrostownness and

destroying two Boats by Order of Lord Home 23d
Decemr. 1745[605] which the Friends of the Rebells had
got privately concealed, and made use of for carrying
Intelligence, and Dispatches to and from their friends on
the opposite side of the Forth the one at Newton Pow
and the other at Carron Water 2 16 0
Dec The Castle of Edinburgh being at this time

. crowded with a great Number of Prisoners, and
174
5
particularly with those taken by Captain Hanway
of the Milford Man of War, near Montrose, on
Board the Lewis a French Transport from
Dunkirk;[606] and as the keeping them there was looked
upon to be at this time dangerous Mr. Grosett by Order
of Lord Justice Clarke and General Guest hired to
Transports and shipt off these with other Prisoners at
Leith for Berwick the 26th Decemr. 1745 with a Company
of Foot on Board each Transport as a Guard.

16
640
Jan Lord Justice Clarke having received

. 7, Intelligence that the Rebells at Glasgow, being
174
5-6
reinforced by their Friends from the North were
preparing to March from that to attack Edinburgh
Mr. Grosett was thereupon sent with a Warrant
from his Lordship and from General Guest of the 1st
Janry.[607] to take and bring from Borristowness or from
on Board the Shipping lying in the Road of that Place all
the Cannon he could meet with to be placed upon the
Walls of the City of Edinburgh for the Defence thereof.
The Rebells upon their going into England, having
carried off or destroyed all the Cannon that were formerly
placed there for that purpose: Mr. Grosett went
accordingly and provided them, and brought them in a
vessell to Leith; But the Troops under General
Hawley[608] arriving by this time at Edinburgh, it was
then not thought necessary to bring them to that Place.

17
12 13 0
Jan Lord Justice Clarke having received certain

.
174 Intelligence,[609] that the Rebells were erecting
5-6 considerable Magazines at Alloa and that they
proposed bringing their Cannon to that Place, as
the most convenient for getting them across the
River Forth, in order to their laying siege to Sterling
Castle; His Lordship acquainted Generals Hawley and
Husk thereof and Scheme was thereupon formed for
getting Possession of their Cannon or at least retarding
their getting them across the River, till the General
should be ready to march with the Army to the Relief of
Sterling; In Order thereto two Sloops of War were sent
up the River, and Transports got ready by Mr. Grosett, to
take on Board Troops at Leith, [where a Regiment lay
ready to be embarked upon an hours warning]. Matters
having been thus prepared, and Lord Justice Clarke
having saved no expence in procuring Intelligence had
twice a day at least certain Accounts from Alloa and
other Places in that Neighbourhood giving the whole
Proceedings of the Rebells and having early in the
Morning upon the 8th of Janry. ‘received sure Information
that Lord John Drummond and Lord George Murray with
the whole of the Cannon, with which the Rebells
proposed to attack Sterling Castle were to be that Night
at Alloa escorted only by about 200[610] of the Rebells
they being under no apprehensions of meeting with any
Disturbance on that side of the River, the Bridge of
Sterling being Cut and the Rebell Army betwixt them and
the Kings Troops; His Lordship and General Husk came
thereupon to Leith and got 300 of the Troops that lay
there immediately embarked on this Expedition to be
commanded by Colonel Leighton,[611] and conducted by
Mr. Grosett. As the Rebells at Alloa could have no
Intelligence of their Designs, the Passage across the
Forth, being for some time before this stopt everywhere,
and as the Wind when they sailed proved favourable
they thought themselves sure of surprizing the Rebells
that Night at Alloa. But as by the time they had got one
third of the way thither, the Wind turned flat against them
it was one o’clock next Day before they got to Hegins
Nook three Miles below Alloa and where they were stopt
from proceeding farther by the Ebbing of the Tide. Upon
their Arrival there Mr. Grosett having received
Intelligence from Alloa that the Rebells were shipping
their cannon on Board of a Vessell, with a Design to
proceed in the Night, and to land them on the opposite
side of the River about two Miles above that Place so
soon as the Tide would admitt of the Vessell’s floating
and Sailing from that Harbour; and as Mr. Grosett was
perfectly well acquainted with the River and every Corner
of the Country, to prevent this, Fifty Soldiers and as
many armed Sailors were put on board one large and
two smaller Boats with orders to pass privately in the
Night to the Rebells Batteries at Elphinstone and Alloa
and lye at a Place appointed about a mile above Alloa,
where the Vessell with the Cannon was to pass, and
where they could not be observed, either from Alloa, or
even from the Vessells on Board of which they had
shipped their Cannon ’till they were just upon them, by
reason of the windings and Turnings of that River and as
Mr. Grosett had procured proper Pilots for that purpose,
they got to the Place appointed, without being observed
either from Elphingstone or from Alloa; and as the same
Flood Tide and Depth of Water, that would have carry’d
the Vessell with the Cannon from Alloa could have
carried the Sloops of War there, they could not in this
situation have failed, in securing the Vessell and
Cannon: But the Commander of the largest Boat, being
seized with an unreasonable Pannick, could not be
prevailed with to stay at the place appointed tho’ there
was much less Danger in remaining there than in
returning: For as in their Return they alarmed the Rebells
at Alloa by one of the Boats taking the Ground near that
Place, they had a continued Fire to get thro’ as they past
Alloa and Elphingstone Batteries; But Mr. Grosett having
by order of Lord Justice Clarke taken 200 Matts of Flax
from on Board a Dutch ship in the Road of Leith,[612] and
placed these along the sides of the Boats there was only
one man killed and another wounded on this Expedition,
and which answered the end so far as to keep the
Vessell from Sailing, and the Rebells from getting their
Cannon at this time across the River, as they had
projected; Mr. Grosett receiving at this Juncture
Information from Alloa that the Rebells there were not
even at this time above 200 strong: they upon the Return
of the Boats landed the Troops at Kincairdin about three
miles below Alloa, with a Design to attack them by Land.
But Mr. Grosett being soon after acquainted by different
Expresses from Alloa that the Rebells had just received a
Reinforcement of 300 men they returned and reimbarked
the Troops without any Loss. That Day the Vessell with
the Cannon sailed from Alloa; But Mr. Grosett having
fallen upon a method to get one of the Sailors who knew
the River, and whom they had forced out to assist in the
conducting of this Vessell persuaded to run her on
Ground on some of the Banks in her Passage up the
River; Upon receiving Information that the Vessell was
accordingly grounded, and that the Rebells had
thereupon dismounted their Battery at Alloa, and were
transporting all the Cannon they had there by Land two
miles above Alloa in order to cross them there. It was
thereupon resolved to attack their Battery at
Elphingstone, and after silencing the Cannon there to
proceed with small Vessells and Boats, and set Fire to
the Vessell that lay a Ground, with the Cannon and other
Military Stores: The Battery at Elphingstone was
accordingly attacked with great Resolution and Bravery
by the Captains of the Vulture and Pearl Sloops of War,
assisted by the Pretty Janet armed Vessell and Jean
armed sloop: And after about three hours close
cannonading within less than Musquet Shot of the
Battery, all their Cannon but one were silenced: But the
Pearl having her cable cut asunder by a Cannon ball,
she was forced from her Station by the strength of the
Ebb-Tide, and the Two Pilots of the Vulture (one of them
a Shipmaster at Elphinstone who at Mr Grosett’s
Request came to his assistance in this Expedition)
having each of them at this Time Lost a leg by another
Cannon ball, and by which Accident they both Dyed;
They were obliged to quit the Battery; This attack
however so far answered the End as to prevent the
Rebells from crossing with their Cannon; For upon
making this Attack they brought back their Cannon to
Alloa, and placed them upon the Battery, there to prevent
the Kings Ships and Troops from procedeing farther up
the River, and getting Possession of the Vessell that lay
aground above that Place with the Cannon and
Ammunition. In this whole affair Two men were killed,
Two lost a leg each by which they died and one an Arm
by the Cannon from the Batteries, Ten others were
wounded, but not disabled; the Chief Engineer and
several others of the Rebells were killed and many
wounded. Mr. Grosett having on the 11th January
received a letter from Lord Justice Clarke with an Order
inclosed from General Hawley to Colonel Layton to
return with the Troops to join the Army who were then
ready to march to the Relief of Sterling Castle, they
thereupon returned accordingly; But Mr. Grosett having
before he left that country concerted Measures for
getting the Vessell burnt that was grounded as above in
which the Cannon had been transported from Alloa it
was done accordingly without the Rebells knowing how it
came about.
Lord Justice Clarke in his letter, dated the 10th Janry.
1745/6,[613] having sent Mr. Grosett a Letter from
General Hawley to General Blackeney[614] who at that
time commanded in the Castle of Sterling with Directions
to use all methods possible to get it delivered and
answered, as on it depended Matters of the greatest
Consequence; Mr. Grosett not only got the Letter safely
delivered, but an answer thereto, tho’ the Rebells were at
that time in Possession of Sterling and suffered none
they could observe to go near the Castle and upon which
they kept the strictest Guard.
No. Expended in all these Services, for Provisions,

18 Intelligence, Boats, Pilots, etc.
39 4 0
Upon the 12th January 1745/6 Mr. Grosett returned to

Edinburgh from this Expedition, and upon the 13th was
sent early next morning by Lord Justice Clarke to
procure Intelligence of the motions of the Rebells for
General Husk, who was that Day to march with the First
Division of the Army from Edinburgh for Linlithgow;[615]
Upon Mr. Grosett’s coming near that place, being
informed by some Country People he had sent into the
Town, for Intelligence that about Twelve hundred of the
Rebells had that Morning taken Possession thereof and
given out that they were resolved to dispute their
Quarters with the Kings Troops. Mr. Grosett returned and
acquainted the General thereof who thereupon made the
proper Dispositions. The Town of Linlithgow lying in a
Hollow upon the South side of a large Lake which cuts
off all Communication with or access to the Town from
the North and Mr. Grosett having acquainted the General
of this and of the situation of the country The General in
order to surprize and cut off the retreat of the Rebells to
Falkirk where the Main body of their Army lay sent a
strong advance Party forward with orders to halt, and
remain upon a rising Ground upon the Road about a mile
from the East Gate of the Town, and within Sight thereof,
and marched the Main Body round another way; which
Mr. Grosett conducted them by the South side of the
Town where they could not be observed by the Rebells,
till they came near the West Gate thereof; and the
Rebells having no suspicion of the Main Body’s
advancing upon them, while the Advance Guard stood
still in sight, their communication with the Main Body of
their Army, would by these means have been cut off, if
one of their Friends upon accidentally seeing the King’s
Troops marching under cover of a Rising Ground by the
South side of the Town, had not rode into the Place and
given the Alarm to the Rebells who thereupon fled with
such Precipitation that the Troops could not come up
with them.[616] Lord [George Murray, Lord Elcho, and
others of their Chiefs left their Dinner just as it was going
to be set upon the Table. The Dragoons pursued, but not
being able to come up with them they took Possession of
the Bridge of Linlithgow, over the water Avon, about a
mile to the West of that Place, left a sufficient Guard
there, and then went into the Town, and eat the Dinner
the Rebells had provided, and got ready for themselves.]
The Person who gave the alarm was apprehended
together with one of the Rebells, and sent Prisoners to
Edinburgh, and Mr. Grosett after General Husk
appointed proper Places for Out Guards returned to Lord
Justice Clarke and General Hawley with an Account of
these proceedings.

19
450
The Army being in great want of Gunners and other

proper persons for the Artillery which was to march the
15th; but could not get forward ’till these were provided
Mr. Grosett by order of Lord Justice Clarke and General
Hawley went to Borristownness, and brought from
thence nine or Ten Sailors for that purpose who had
been Gunners on Board of Men of War.
No. Expended in this Service being obliged to

20 advance money to each of them to subsist their
Families in their Absence before they would
agree to go upon this service 16 8 0
Lord Justice Clarke having on Thursday the 17th

January in the morning received Intelligence of
Importance relating to the Motions and Designs of the
Rebells; Mr. Grosett was immediately dispatched by his
Lordship, to acquaint General Hawley thereof. After the
Battle which happened that day, Mr. Grosett was sent
back to acquaint Lord Justice Clarke what had happened
but more especially to let his Lordship know that the
Kings Troops had at last beat the Rebells from and kept
the Field of Battle ’till obliged to leave it for want of
Provision, and leave Seven of their Cannon on the Field
for want of Horses to carry them off. This Account gave
the greater Joy to Lord Justice Clarke, and the other
good Friends of the Government at Edinburgh, as before
that time they had, by the Flight of the Troops to that
Place, been much alarmed with the Accounts they gave
of the Defeat of the Kings Army:[617] As the Troops in
their Flight to Edinburgh occasioned those that had been
sent from theme with Provisions for the Army to return
towards that place. Mr. Grosett therefore by Order of
Lord Justice Clarke returned immediately on fresh
Horses to force them all back to Linlithgow there not
being a Morsel of Provision to be had on any
Consideration there for the Troops, who had all of them
been obliged to retire to that Place for want thereof, and
who by that means were well supply’d. But as the
General did not think it advisable to remain there with the
Troops, he sent Mr. Grosett back to Lord Justice Clarke
to get Quarters provided for the whole Army against their
Arrival at Edinburgh and which was done accordingly by
the time they got there which was about Four in the
afternoon.
No. Expended in this Service and for Assistance to

21 get forward the Provisions to Linlithgow
5 14 0
Jan Lord Justice Clarke having formed a Scheme

. to release the Officers of the Kings Troops, who
174
5/6
had been made Prisoners at the Battle of
Preston, and bring them by force from the
respective places to which they were upon their
Parole confined in that Part of the Country of which the
Rebells had at that time Possession. In order thereto
(after those at Glames were brought to Edinburgh) a
Company of the Argyleshire Highlanders were (by Order
of Lord Justice Clarke and General Hawley [to Colonel
Campbell][618] of the 20th January) put under Mr.
Grosett’s Directions who crossed the Forth with them in
the Night at Queens Ferry, and with their assistance
secured and brought safely to Edinburgh from different
Parts of the Shires of Fyfe and Perth, Colonel Halket,
Captains Stewart, Cochrane, and Dundas who at that
time were prisoners with the Rebells in these Countries.
[619]
No. Expended in this Service for Boats, Freight Horse

22 hire
6 11 0
Jan Lord Justice Clarke having on the 25th

. January about Eight at Night received Information
174
5/6
that the Rebells had formed a Design of
surprizing the Kings Troops that night at
Edinburgh, and in particular the Argyleshire
Highlanders, who were the Advance Guard to the Kings
Army, Mr. Grosett accompanied by Lieutenant Campbell
of the Edinburgh Regiment, went by His Lordships
Orders, and acquainted Colonel Campbell, and the other
officers thereof who commanded the advance parties
some miles from the Town, to put them upon their Guard,
and at the same time employed proper Persons to
patrole the Country the whole of that Night, to give timely
Notice of the Motions and Approach of the Rebells, and
who finding out had got Information of their Design came
no farther than Linlithgow.

23
1 10 0
Upon the 29th January 1745/6 Mr. Grosett was sent

by Lord Justice Clarke and General Hawley to meet the
Duke and acquaint His Royal Highness that the Troops
were ready to march and that the Guards, Coaches, and
Relays of Horses were at the proper stages for
forwarding His Royal Highness in the most expeditious
manner to Edinburgh.
No. ... and in getting Coach

24
140
Jan
The Duke upon his arrival into Scotland[620]
.
174 found it necessary for the Service to send two
5/6 armed Vessells and 100 of the Troops along the
Coast of Fife with Sundry Warrants which were
only to be shewn and put in execution as things
Cast up; These Troops were accordingly embarked by
Mr. Grosett, and as His Royal Highness was upon the
Recommendation of Lord Justice Clarke pleased to
direct that he should have the conducting of this
Expedition, and executing of these warrants as occasion
should require: The following Order to Captain Coren[621]
the Commanding Officer of that Party was with the
Warrants therein referred to delivered to Mr. Grosett, viz:
—
‘You are to be assisting to Walter Grosett Esq. one of
His Majesty’s Justices of the Peace in executing divers
Warrants which he will shew you when proper.’[622]
In consequence thereof Mr. Grosett upon the 30th
January sailed in the evening from Leith, with the said
Vessell and Party, and proceeded to different places on
the North Coast betwixt St. Andrews and Alloa, secured
all the Magazines of Provisions, which the Rebells had
on that Coast, returned the Provisions (being Oatmeal)
to the Persons from whom it had been taken by the
Rebells, as they were all of them well affected to the
Government, and secured nine of the Rebells and sent
them by Order of the Duke prisoners to Sterling, His
Royal Highness being at this time there with the Army.

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Foundations of High Energy Density Physics Physical Processes of Matter at Extreme Conditions 1st Edition Jon Larsen

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1.1 High-Energy-Density on Earth

Figure 1.1. A copper tube suffering the effects of a lightning strike

of magnetic fusion energy (MFE) as a possible source of energy production. In

1.2 Some Connections to Prior Work

1.4 Notation, Variables, and Units

The ﬁrst theories about high-energy-density physics originated with investi-

2.1 Landscape of High-Energy-Density Matter

Ion density (cm–3)

10–1 G=0 106

Figure 2.1. Density-temperature space of interest to high-energy-density physics.

linearly proportional to density and temperature as described by a perfect gas

2.2 Compressing Atoms

Figure 2.2. Schematic representation of atomic structure for increasing compression.

where k B is Boltzmann’s constant, T i is the temperature of the ions, and Z is the

The importance of the Debye length is demonstrated in a simple calculation that

where C is a constant. Thus,

2.3 Electron Degeneracy

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3.1 Kinetic Theory

The Rebells having upon the 13th of Septemr.

No. Expended in this service

Upon the 16th of September Mr. Grosett was sent out

Sep Mr. Grosett having retired with Lord Justice

No. Expended and lost in this Service

No. Expended in this Service

Nov Upon the 13th Novemr. Mr. Grosett met Lord

No. Expended in this Service

About this time the Rebells at Perth who were about

No. Expended in this Service

[Mr. Grosett at this time recovered seized Goods to

No. Expended in this Service

Dec That after the Removal of the Boats and

Dec Mr. Grosett by Warrant of Lord Justice Clarke

No. Expended in this Service

Dec Lord Justice Clarke having received

No. Expended in this Service

Dec To prevent the Rebells, upon their crossing

Expended in this Service 860

Expended in forwarding from Borristouness Powder,

To forward this Service Mr. Grosett got from General

To Charges sending from Borrostownness and

Dec The Castle of Edinburgh being at this time

No. Expended in this Service

Jan Lord Justice Clarke having received

No. Expended in this Service

Jan Lord Justice Clarke having received certain

No. Expended in all these Services, for Provisions,

Upon the 12th January 1745/6 Mr. Grosett returned to