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Foundations
of the
Theory of
Probability
Second English Edition

A. N. Kolmogorov
Translation Edited by
Nathan Morrison
With an added Bibliography by
A. T. Bharucha-Reid

Dover Publications, Inc.

Mineola, New York
 Bibliographical Note
This Dover edition, first published in 2018, is an unabridged republication of
the 1956 second edition of the work originally published in 1950 by Chelsea
Publishing Company, New York.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kolmogorov, A. N. (Andreæi Nikolaevich), 1903-1987, author. |
Bharucha-Reid, A. T. (Albert T.)
Title: Foundations of the theory of probability / A.N. Kolmogorov ; translation
edited by Nathan Morrison ; with an added Bibliography by A.T. Bharucha-
Reid.
Other titles: Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitsrechnung. English
Description: Second English edition, Dover edition. | Mineola, New York : Dover
Publications, Inc., 2018. | Second English edition, originally published: New
York : Chelsea Publishing Company, 1956; based on a title originally
published: New York : Chelsea Publishing Company, 1950. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017046438| ISBN 9780486821597 | ISBN 0486821595
Subjects: LCSH: Probabilities.
Classification: LCC QA273 .K614 2018 | DDC 519.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017046438

Manufactured in the United States by LSC Communications

82159501 2018
www.doverpublications.com
 EDITOR’S NOTE
In the preparation of this English translation of Professor
Kolmogorov’s fundamental work, the original German monograph
Grundbegriffe der Wahrscheinlichkeitrechnung which appeared in the
Ergebnisse Der Mathematik in 1933, and also a Russian translation
by G. M. Bavli published in 1936 have been used.
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the invaluable assistance of two
friends and former colleagues, Mrs. Ida Rhodes and Mr. D. V. Varley,
and also of my niece, Gizella Gross.
Thanks are also due to Mr. Roy Kuebler who made available for
comparison purposes his independent English translation of the
original German monograph.

Nathan Morrison
 PREFACE
The purpose of this monograph is to give an axiomatic
foundation for the theory of probability. The author set himself the
task of putting in their natural place, among the general notions of
modern mathematics, the basic concepts of probability theory—
concepts which until recently were considered to be quite peculiar.
This task would have been a rather hopeless one before the
introduction of Lebesgue’s theories of measure and integration.
However, after Lebesgue’s publication of his investigations, the
analogies between measure of a set and probability of an event, and
between integral of a function and mathematical expectation of a
random variable, became apparent. These analogies allowed of
further extensions; thus, for example, various properties of
independent random variables were seen to be in complete analogy
with the corresponding properties of orthogonal functions. But if
probability theory was to be based on the above analogies, it still
was necessary to make the theories of measure and integration
independent of the geometric elements which were in the
foreground with Lebesgue. This has been done by Fréchet.
While a conception of probability theory based on the above
general viewpoints has been current for some time among certain
mathematicians, there was lacking a complete exposition of the
whole system, free of extraneous complications. (Cf., however, the
book by Fréchet, [2] in the bibliography.)
I wish to call attention to those points of the present exposition
which are outside the above-mentioned range of ideas familiar to the
specialist. They are the following: Probability distributions in infinite-
dimensional spaces (Chapter III, § 4) ; differentiation and
integration of mathematical expectations with respect to a
parameter (Chapter IV, § 5) ; and especially the theory of conditional
probabilities and conditional expectations (Chapter V). It should be
emphasized that these new problems arose, of necessity, from some
perfectly concrete physical problems.1
The sixth chapter contains a survey, without proofs, of some
results of A. Khinchine and the author of the limitations on the
applicability of the ordinary and of the strong law of large numbers.
The bibliography contains some recent works which should be of
interest from the point of view of the foundations of the subject.
I wish to express my warm thanks to Mr. Khinchine, who has
read carefully the whole manuscript and proposed several
improvements.

Kljasma near Moscow, Easter 1933.

A. Kolmogorov

1
Cf., e.g., the paper by M. Leontovich quoted in footnote 6 on p. 46; also the
joint paper by the author and M. Leontovich, Zur Statistik der kontinuierlichen
Systeme und des zeitlichen Verlaufes der physikalischen Vorgange. Phys. Jour, of
the USSR, Vol. 3, 1933, pp. 35-63.
 CONTENTS
EDITOR’S NOTE
PREFACE

I. ELEMENTARY THEORY OF PROBABILITY

§ 1.
Axioms
§ 2.
The relation to experimental data
§ 3.
Notes on terminology
§ 4.
Immediate corollaries of the axioms ; conditional probabilities ;
Theorem of Bayes
§ 5. Independence
§ 6. Conditional probabilities as random variables ; Markov chains

II. INFINITE PROBABILITY FIELDS

§ 1. Axiom of Continuity
§ 2. Borel fields of probability
§ 3. Examples of infinite fields of probability

III. RANDOM VARIABLES

§ 1. Probability functions
§ 2. Definition of random variables and of distribution functions
§ 3. Multi-dimensional distribution functions
§ 4. Probabilities in infinite-dimensional spaces
§ 5. Equivalent random variables ; various kinds of convergence

IV. MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATIONS

§ 1. Abstract Lebesgue integrals
§ 2. Absolute and conditional mathematical expectations
§ 3. The Tchebycheff inequality
§ 4. Some criteria for convergence
§ 5. Differentiation and integration of mathematical expectations
with respect to a parameter

V. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITIES AND MATHEMATICAL

EXPECTATIONS
§ 1. Conditional probabilities
§ 2. Explanation of a Borel paradox
§ 3. Conditional probabilities with respect to a random variable
§ 4. Conditional mathematical expectations

VI. INDEPENDENCE; THE LAW OF LARGE NUMBERS

§ 1. Independence
§ 2. Independent random variables
§ 3. The Law of Large Numbers
§ 4. Notes on the concept of mathematical expectation
§ 5. The Strong Law of Large Numbers; convergence of a series
APPENDIX—Zero-or-one law in the theory of probability
BIBLIOGRAPHY
NOTES TO SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
SUPPLEMENTARY BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Chapter I

ELEMENTARY THEORY OF PROBABILITY

We define as elementary theory of probability that part of the
theory in which we have to deal with probabilities of only a finite
number of events. The theorems which we derive here can be
applied also to the problems connected with an infinite number of
random events. However, when the latter are studied, essentially
new principles are used. Therefore the only axiom of the
mathematical theory of probability which deals particularly with the
case of an infinite number of random events is not introduced until
the beginning of Chapter II (Axiom VI).
The theory of probability, as a mathematical discipline, can and
should be developed from axioms in exactly the same way as
Geometry and Algebra. This means that after we have defined the
elements to be studied and their basic relations, and have stated the
axioms by which these relations are to be governed, all further
exposition must be based exclusively on these axioms, independent
of the usual concrete meaning of these elements and their relations.
In accordance with the above, in § 1 the concept of a field of
probabilities is defined as a system of sets which satisfies certain
conditions. What the elements of this set represent is of no
importance in the purely mathematical development of the theory of
probability (cf. the introduction of basic geometric concepts in the
Foundations of Geometry by Hilbert, or the definitions of groups,
rings and fields in abstract algebra).
Every axiomatic (abstract) theory admits, as is well known, of an
unlimited number of concrete interpretations besides those from
which it was derived. Thus we find applications in fields of science
which have no relation to the concepts of random event and of
probability in the precise meaning of these words.
The postulational basis of the theory of probability can be
established by different methods in respect to the selection of
axioms as well as in the selection of basic concepts and relations.
However, if our aim is to achieve the utmost simplicity both in the
system of axioms and in the further development of the theory, then
the postulational concepts of a random event and its probability
seem the most suitable. There are other postulational systems of the
theory of probability, particularly those in which the concept of
probability is not treated as one of the basic concepts, but is itself
expressed by means of other concepts.1 However, in that case, the
aim is different, namely, to tie up as closely as possible the
mathematical theory with the empirical development of the theory of
probability.

§ 1. Axioms2
Let E be a collection of elements ξ, η, ζ, . . . , which we shall call
elementary events, and a set of subsets of E; the elements of the
set will be called random events.

I. is a field3 of sets.
II. contains the set E.
III. To each set A in is assigned a non-negative real number
. This number is called the probability of the event A.
IV. equals 1.
V. If A and B have no element in common, then

A system of sets, , together with a definite assignment of

numbers , satisfying Axioms I-V, is called a field of probability.
Our system of Axioms I-V is consistent. This is proved by the
following example. Let E consist of the single element ξ and let
consist of E and the null set 0. is then set equal to 1 and
equals 0.
Our system of axioms is not, however, complete, for in various
problems in the theory of probability different fields of probability
have to be examined.
The Construction of Fields of Probability. The simplest fields of
probability are constructed as follows. We take an arbitrary finite set
E = {ξ1, ξ2, . . ., ξk} and an arbitrary set of non-
negative numbers with the sum p1 + p2 + . . . + pk = 1. is taken
as the set of all subsets in E, and we put

In such cases, p1, p2, . . . , pk are called the probabilities of the

elementary events ξ1, ξ2, . . . , ξk or simply elementary probabilities.
In this way are derived all possible finite fields of probability in which
consists of the set of all subsets of E. (The field of probability is
called finite if the set E is finite.) For further examples see Chap. II,
§ 3.

§ 2. The Relation to Experimental Data4

We apply the theory of probability to the actual world of
experiments in the following manner:
1) There is assumed a complex of conditions, , which allows of
any number of repetitions.
2) We study a definite set of events which could take place as a
result of the establishment of the conditions . In individual cases
where the conditions are realized, the events occur, generally, in
different ways. Let E be the set of all possible variants ξ1, ξ2, . . . of
the outcome of the given events. Some of these variants might in
general not occur. We include in set E all the variants which we
regard a priori as possible.
 3) If the variant of the events which has actually occurred upon
realization of conditions belongs to the set A (defined in any way),
then we say that the event A has taken place.
Example: Let the complex of conditions be the tossing of a coin
two times. The set of events mentioned in Paragraph 2) consists of
the fact that at each toss either a head or tail may come up. From
this it follows that only four different variants (elementary events)
are possible, namely: HH, HT, TH, TT. If the “event A” connotes the
occurrence of a repetition, then it will consist of a happening of
either of the first or fourth of the four elementary events. In this
manner, every event may be regarded as a set of elementary events.
4) Under certain conditions, which we shall not discuss here, we
may assume that to an event A which may or may not occur under
conditions , is assigned a real number which has the following
characteristics:
(a) One can be practically certain that if the complex of
conditions is repeated a large number of times, n, then if m be the
number of occurrences of event A, the ratio m/n will differ very
slightly from .
(b) If is very small, one can be practically certain that when
conditions are realized only once, the event A would not occur at
all.
The Empirical Deduction of the Axioms. In general, one may
assume that the system of the observed events A, B, C, . . . to
which are assigned definite probabilities, form a field containing as
an element the set E (Axioms I, II, and the first part of III,
postulating the existence of probabilities). It is clear that
so that the second part of Axiom III is quite natural. For the event E,
m is always equal to n, so that it is natural to postulate
(Axiom IV). If, finally, A and B are non-intersecting (incompatible),
then m = m1 + m2 where m, m1, m2 are respectively the number of
experiments in which the events A + B, A, and B occur. From this it
follows that
It therefore seems appropriate to postulate that
(Axiom V).
Remark 1. If two separate statements are each practically
reliable, then we may say that simultaneously they are both reliable,
although the degree of reliability is somewhat lowered in the
process. If, however, the number of such statements is very large,
then from the practical reliability of each, one cannot deduce
anything about the simultaneous correctness of all of them.
Therefore from the principle stated in (a) it does not follow that in a
very large number of series of n tests each, in each the ratio m/n
will differ only slightly from .
Remark 2. To an impossible event (an empty set) corresponds, in
5
accordance with our axioms, the probability , but the
converse is not true: does not imply the impossibility of A.
When , from principle (b) all we can assert is that when the
conditions are realized but once, event A is practically impossible.
It does not at all assert, however, that in a sufficiently long series of
tests the event A will not occur. On the other hand, one can deduce
from the principle (a) merely that when and n is very large,
the ratio m/n will be very small (it might, for example, be equal to
1/n).

§ 3 Notes on Terminology
We have defined the objects of our future study, random events,
as sets. However, in the theory of probability many set-theoretic
concepts are designated by other terms. We shall give here a brief
list of such concepts.

Theory of Sets Random Events

1. A and B do not intersect, 1. Events A and B are
i.e., AB = 0. incompatible.
 2. AB. . . N = 0.
3. AB . . . N = X.
4. . 4. Event X is defined as the
5. The complementary set
Ā.
6. A = 0.
7. A = E.
8. The system of the sets
A1, A2, . . . , An forms a
decomposition of the set E if
A1 + A2 + . . . + An = E .
(This assumes that the
sets Ai do not intersect, in
pairs.)
9. B is a subset of A: B⊂A.
2. Events A, B, . . . , N are
incompatible.
3. Event X is defined as the
simultaneous occurrence of
events A, B, . . . , N.
occurrence of at least one of the
events A, B, . . . , N.
5. The opposite event Ā
consisting of the non-occurence of
event A.
6. Event A is impossible.
7. Event A must occur.
8. Experiment consists of
determining which of the events
Al, A2, . . . , An occurs. We
therefore call A1, A2, . . . , An the
possible results of experiment .
9. From the occurrence of event
B follows the inevitable
occurrence of A.

§ 4. Immediate Corollaries of the Axioms;

Conditional Probabilities; Theorem of Bayes
From A + Ā = E and the Axioms IV and V it follows that
Since Ē = 0, then, in particular,

If A, B, . . . , N are incompatible, then from Axiom V follows the

formula (the Addition Theorem)

If , then the quotient

is defined to be the conditional probability of the event B under the

condition A.
From (5) it follows immediately that

And by induction we obtain the general formula (the

Multiplication Theorem)

The following theorems follow easily:

Comparing formulae (8)—(10) with axioms III—V, we find that the

system of sets together with the set function (provided A is a
fixed set), form a field of probability and therefore, all the above
general theorems concerning hold true for the conditional
probability (provided the event A is fixed).
It is also easy to see that

From (6) and the analogous formula

we obtain the important formula:

which contains, in essence, the Theorem of Bayes.

THE THEOREM ON TOTAL PROBABILITY: Let A1 + A2 + . . . + An = E
(this assumes that the events A1, A2, . . . , An are mutually exclusive)
and let X be arbitrary. Then

Proof:

using (4) we have

and according to (6) we have at the same time

THE THEOREM OF BAYES: Let A1 + A2 + . . . + An = E and X be

arbitrary, then,
 A1, A2, . . . , An are often called “hypotheses” and formula (14) is
considered as the probability of the hypothesis Ai after the
occurrence of event X. [ then denotes the a priori probability of
Ai.]
Proof: From (12) we have

To obtain the formula (14) it only remains to substitute for the

probability its value derived from (13) by applying the theorem
on total probability.

§ 5. Independence
The concept of mutual independence of two or more experiments
holds, in a certain sense, a central position in the theory of
probability. Indeed, as we have already seen, the theory of
probability can be regarded from the mathematical point of view as
a special application of the general theory of additive set functions.
One naturally asks, how did it happen that the theory of probability
developed into a large individual science possessing its own
methods?
In order to answer this question, we must point out the
specialization undergone by general problems in the theory of
additive set functions when they are proposed in the theory of
probability.
The fact that our additive set function is non-negative and
satisfies the condition , does not in itself cause new
difficulties. Random variables (see Chap. III) from a mathematical
point of view represent merely functions measurable with respect to
 § 2. Borel Fields of Probability
The field is called a Borel field, if all countable of the
sets An from belong to . Borel fields are also called completely
additive systems of sets. From the formula

we can deduce that a Borel field contains also all the sums
composed of a countable number of sets An belonging to it. From
the formula

the same can be said for the product of sets.

A field of probability is a Borel field of probability if the
corresponding field is a Borel field. Only in the case of Borel fields
of probability do we obtain full freedom of action, without danger of
the occurrence of events having no probability. We shall now prove
that we may limit ourselves to the investigation of Borel fields of
probability. This will follow from the so-called extension theorem, to
which we shall now turn.
Given a field of probability . As is known1, there exists a
smallest Borel field containing . And we have the
EXTENSION THEOREM: It is always possible to extend a nonnegative
completely additive set function , defined in , to all sets of
without losing either of its properties (non-negativeness and
complete additivity) and this can be done in only one way.
The extended field forms with the extended set function
a field of probability . This field of probability we shall
call the Borel extension of the field
Another random document with
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 THE REAPERS.
HE village seems deserted. No children on the green
running races with each other, or playing hunt-the-
slipper on the smooth turf. No old men resting beneath
the manorial tree, sunning themselves, and talking with
feeble voices, like the aged men of Troy, compared by
Homer to grasshoppers; neither is there the sound of the spinning-
wheel by the open cottage door, with its rustic porch and clustering
hops. All are away to the harvest-field. Let us go there too. We are
all bidden guests at Farmer Drayton’s, and our holiday will pass
merrily among the reapers.
 AUTUMN
THE REAPERS.
“Good morning, Goody! Where are you going with your troop of
rosy children, all glee and gossip?” “To the harvest-field, young
masters. ’Tis a pleasant time, that comes but once a year, and we
make the most of it. My master was out before the sun, reaping in
the field beside the river; but I had to dress the children and get his
dinner, and that makes me late.” “Good day, then; we will not hinder
you.” Away she goes, half running, the children out of breath with
delight. They have turned into Johnson’s field. Let us follow them.
There they are with twenty or thirty others, gathering the scattered
ears, as Ruth gathered them on the plains of Bethlehem. Look at
Goody! How diligently she is picking up the ears! The children, too,
are all helping. Before the season is over, they will collect at least
three clear bushels of wheat; and if the weather prove showery, and
the wagon is hurried to the barn, they will obtain a larger quantity.
Farmer Johnson is at the farthest end, watching his reapers. He
looks pleased, and with reason, for the rustling corn stands thick,
and the men work cheerfully. The Lord of the Field, (for such the
chief reaper is called,) heads the long line of farming servants. When
he clasps the opposite ears in his strong arms, they clasp theirs also;
when he thrusts his sickle, they do the same; and there is presently
laid low a wide extent of grain, with its garniture of flowers,—the
corn-cockle, and scarlet-poppy, sweet basil, and marjoram, herbs
Robert and Christopher, Cicily and William—names by which old
simplers commemorated worth or friendship, or the villagers of other
days associated with the memory of benefactors, whose skill and
kindness might be shadowed forth in the qualities of their favorite
plants. It seems as if those who bind up the sheaves have some
pleasant or grateful thoughts connected with the prostrate flower, for
a few are carefully taken from among the rest and put aside.
Before the young wheat springs up, we shall hear, I fancy, the
church-bells ringing merrily, for there are John Gray and Susan Bell
hard at work. He has just pulled the prickly stems of the woolly thistle
from the corn she is about to bind. Farmer Johnson often tells the
men and women to mind their work; but he takes no notice of John
and Susan, though many a kindly word passes between them, for he
knows that more industrious and well-conducted young persons are
no where to be found.
 THE PARROT.

The deep affections of the breast,

That Heaven to living things imparts
Are not exclusively possess’d
By human hearts.

A parrot, from the Spanish Main,

Full young, and early-caged came o’er,
With bright wings, to the bleak domain.
Of Mulla’s shore.

To spicy groves where he had won

His plumage of resplendent hue—
His native fruits, and skies, and sun—
He bade adieu.

For these he changed the smoke of turf,

A heathery land and misty sky;
And turn’d on rocks and raging surf
His golden eye.

But, petted, in our climate cold,

He lived and chatter’d many a day;
Until, with age, from green and gold
His wings grew gray.

At last, when blind and seeming dumb,

He scolded, laugh’d, and spoke no more,
A Spanish stranger chanced to come
To Mulla’s shore.

He hail’d the bird in Spanish speech,

 The bird in Spanish speech replied;
Flapt round his cage with joyous screech,
Dropt down and died.
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HURRAH FOR THE HOLIDAYS! With six colored illustrations
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HYMNS, SONGS, AND FABLES. By Mrs. Follen
I WILL BE A SOLDIER. By Mrs. Tuthill. Illustrated. 16mo, cloth
I WILL BE A GENTLEMAN. By Mrs. Tuthill. 18mo, cloth.
I WILL BE A LADY. A Book for Girls. By Mrs. Tuthill
JOHN CHINAMAN; or, Adventures in Flowery Land. By William
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LEILA AT HOME. A continuation of “Leila in England.” Illustrated
LITTLE FRANKIE STORIES. By Mrs. Madeline Leslie. Illustrated by
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LIFE OF LAFAYETTE. For Children. By E. Cecil. With colored
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LAND OF THE SUN; or, What Kate and Willie saw in Cuba. By
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LIFE OF WASHINGTON. For Children. By E. Cecil. With colored
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MARY AND FLORENCE; or, Grave and Gay. By Ann Fraser Tytler,
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MARY AND FLORENCE AT SIXTEEN. By Ann Fraser Tytler.
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MOLLY AND KITTY; with other Tales. With six beautiful engravings
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MANY A LITTLE MAKES A MICKLE. Tales translated from the
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MISS EDGEWORTH’S EARLY LESSONS. By Miss Maria
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MARK SEAWORTH; a Tale of the Indian Ocean. By Wm. H. G.
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NORVA; A TALE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. With other Stories. By
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NANNIE’S JEWEL CASE; or, True Stones and False. With six colored
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ONWARD! RIGHT ONWARD! By Mrs. Tuthill
PEARLS, AND OTHER TALES. With six colored illustrations
POPULAR LEGENDS OF BRITTANY. From a German Translation by
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THE FIRESIDE; OR, HINTS ON HOME EDUCATION. By A. B.
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MABEL VAUGHAN. By the author of the “Lamplighter.” 1 vol. 12mo
TUNE-BOOK FOR THE CONGREGATION. A Collection of Tunes for
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WARE’S FORMATION OF CHRISTIAN CHARACTER, AND
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CHANNING’S SELF-CULTURE, AND LECTURES TO THE
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DEXTER’S SERMONS. Twelve Discourses. By Henry Martin
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STREET THOUGHTS. By Rev. H. M. Dexter, Pastor of the Pine-
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HOME COOKERY. A Collection of Tried Receipts, both Foreign and
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DUELS AND DUELLING. Alphabetically arranged. With an Historical
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I’VE BEEN THINKING. By A. S. Roe
HOW COULD HE HELP IT? By A. S. Roe
STAR AND CLOUD. By A. S. Roe
TO LOVE AND TO BE LOVED. By A. S. Roe
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THE NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW. Issued in numbers quarterly Per
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HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By Murray. Illustrated. 1 vol.
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HOME AND COLLEGE. By Rev. F. D. Huntington, D.D. 16mo
JACK IN THE FORECASTLE. By Capt. John S. Sleeper. Eight
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LIFE AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. With a Sketch of my Life
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WILD SPORTS IN THE FAR WEST. By Frederick Gerstaecker.
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NOBLE DEEDS OF WOMEN. By Miss Starling. 12mo, muslin
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BANCROFT’S LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON. With illustrations.
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FROST’S LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES.
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YOUNG LADY’S OFFERING. By Mrs. Sigourney. 12mo, muslin
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YOUNG MAN’S OFFERING. By Professor Andrews. 12mo, muslin
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FLORA’S LEXICON. An Interpretation of Languages of Flowers.
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THE YOUNG MAIDEN. By A. B. Muzzey. With two engravings on
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