Unit 3 – Problem Solving

Part of being a student is making decisions—every day is full of them, from

the simple, like what to eat for breakfast, to the critical, like a choice of major. If
you make every decision based on a coin flip, chances are you won’t get very far
in life. Instead, it is important to be able to analyze a situation and make a
decision based on logical thinking. We will call the process of logical thinking
reasoning. It does not take a lot of imagination to understand how important
reasoning is in everyone’s life.
You may not realize it, but every day in your life, you use two types of
reasoning to make decisions and solve problems: inductive reasoning or
induction, and deductive reasoning or deduction.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 Use different types of reasoning to justify statements and arguments made about
mathematics and mathematical concepts.
 Write clear and logical proofs.
 Solve problems involving patterns and recreational problems following Polya’s
four steps.
 Organize one’s methods and approaches for proving and solving problems.

Pre-test

FILL IN THE BLANKS:

Directions: Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of
inductive or deductive reasoning. Write your answer on the space provided before
the number.

______________1. During the past 5 years, a tree has produced lumber every other year. Last
year the tree did not produce lumber, so this year the tree will produce lumber.

______________2. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvement will cost 20,000 pesos. Thus my home improvement will
cost more than 20,000 pesos.

______________3. All Gillian Flynn novels are worth reading. The novel Gone Girl is a Gillian
Flynn novel. Thus Gone Girls is worth reading.

______________4. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because
it has not paid out any money during the last 45 tries.
 Content

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining

specific examples. The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a conjecture, since it
may or may not be correct.
For example, suppose that your instructor gives a surprise quiz every Friday for the first
four weeks of your math class. At this point, you might make a conjecture, or educated guess,
that you will have a surprise quiz the next Friday as well. As a result, you’d probably study
before that class.
This is an example of inductive reasoning. By observing certain events for four specific
Fridays, you arrive at a general conclusion. Inductive reasoning is useful in everyday life, and it
is also useful as a problem-solving tool in math.

Example 1. Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number(Find a Pattern)

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict that
the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It
appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1 more than the
preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next number in the
list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

Example 2. Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to
make a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size
of the original number.
Solution
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the
following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46
Divide by 2: 46 / 2 = 23
Subtract 3: 23 – 3 = 20

We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20. Starting with 6 as our
original number produces a final result of 24. Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40.
Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400. In each of these cases the resulting number is
four times the original number. We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a
number that is four time the original number.
When two odd number are added, will the result always be an even number? Use inductive
reasoning to determine your answer.
Solution
We will try several specific examples:
3 + 7 = 10 19 + 9 = 28 1 + 27 = 28
5 + 9 = 14 25 + 5 = 30 21 + 33 = 54
Since all the answers are even, it seems reasonable to conclude that the sum of two odd
number will be an even number.

Example 3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Test a Conjecture

Use inductive reasoning to decide if the following conjecture is true: Any four-digit
number is divisible by 11 if the difference between the sum of the first and the third digits, and
the sum of the second and fourth digits is divisible by 11.
Solution
Let’s make up a few examples. For 1,738, the sum of the first and third digit is 1 + 3 = 4,
and the sum of the second and fourth digit is 7 + 8 = 15. The difference is 15 – 4 = 11, so if the
conjecture is true, 1738 should be divisible by 11. To check: 1,738 / 11 = 158 (with not
remainder).
For 9,273, 9 + 7 = 16, 2 + 3 = 5, and 16 – 5 = 11. So if the conjecture is true, 9273
should be divisible y 11. To check: 9273 / 11 = 843 (with no remainder).
Let’s look at one more example. For 7,161, 7 + 6 = 13, 1 + 1 = 2, and 13 – 2 = 11. Also
7,161 / 11 = 651 (with no remainder), so the conjecture is true for this example as well. While
we can’t be positive based on three examples, inductive reasoning indicates that the conjecture
is true.

Inductive reasoning can definitely be a useful tool in decision making, and we use it very
often in our lives. But it has one very obvious drawback: because you can very seldom verify
conclusions for every possible case, you can’t be positive that the conclusions you’re drawing
are correct. In the example of the class in which a quiz is given on four consecutive Fridays,
even if that continues for 10 more weeks, there’s still a chance that there won’t be a quiz the
following Friday. And if there’s even one Friday on which a quiz is not given, then the conjecture
that there will be a quiz every Friday proves to be false.
This is a useful observation: while it’s not often easy to prove that a conjecture is true,
it’s much simpler to prove that one is false. All you need is to find one specific example that
contradicts the conjecture. This is known as a counterexample. In the quiz example, one
Friday without a quiz serves as a counterexample: it proves that your conjecture that there
would be a quiz every Friday is false. In Example 4, we will use this idea to prove that a
conjecture is false.
Example 4. Finding a Counterexample
Find a counterexample that proves the conjecture below is false.
Conjecture: A number is divisible by 3 if the last two digits are divisible by 3.
Solution
We will pick a few numbers at random whose last two digit are divisible by 3, then divide
them by 3, and see if there’s a remainder.
1,527: Last two digits, 27, divisible by 3; 1,527 ÷ 3 = 509
11,745: Last two digits, 45, divisible by 3; 11,427 ÷ 3 = 3,809
 At this point, you might start to suspect that the conjecture is true, but you should not!
We have only checked two cases.
1,136: Last two digits, 36, divisible by 3; 1,136 ÷ 3 = 378.66
This counterexample shows that the conjecture is false.

Remember: One counterexample is enough to show that a conjecture is false. But one positive
example is never enough to show that a conjecture is true.

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general

assumptions, procedures, or principles. It does not rely on specific examples.
Here’s an example of deductive reasoning. At many universities, a student has to be
registered for at least 12 hours to be considered full-time. So we accept the statement “A
student is full-time if he or she is registered for at least 12 hours” as true. If we’re then told that a
particular student has full-time status, we can conclude that she or he is registered for at least
12 hours. The key is that we can be positive that this is true. This is what separates deductive
reasoning form inductive reasoning. Example 5 illustrates the difference between using
inductive and deductive reasoning in math.

Example 5. Use deductive Reasoning to Prove a Conjecture

Consider the following problem: Think of any number. Multiply that number by 2, then
add 6, and divide the result by 2. Next, subtract the original number. What is the result?

(a) Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture for the answer.

(b) Use deductive reasoning to prove your conjecture.

Solution

(a) Inductive reasoning will be helpful in forming a conjecture. We will choose a few
specific numbers at random and perform the given operations to see what the result
is.
Number: 12 5 43
Multiply by 2: 2 x 12 = 24 2 x 5 = 10 2 x 43 = 86
Add 6: 24 + 6 = 30 10 + 6 = 16 86 + 6 = 92
Divide by 2: 30 ÷ 2 = 15 16 ÷ 2 = 8 92 ÷ 2 = 46
Subtract the 15 – 12 = 3 8–5=3 46 – 43 = 3
original number:
Result: 3 3 3
At this point, you may be tempted to conclude that the result is always 3. But this is
just a conjecture: we have tried only three of infinitely many possible numbers! As
usual when using inductive reasoning, we cannot be completely sure that our
conjecture is true.

(b) The problem with the inductive approach is that it requires using specific numbers,
and we know that we can’t check every possible number. Instead, we’ll choose an
 arbitrary number and call it x. If we can show that the result is 3 in this, that will tell us
that this is the result of every number. Remember, we’ll be doing the exact same
operations, just on an arbitrary number x.

Number: x
Multiply by 2: 2x
Add 6: 2x + 6
Divide by 2: (2x + 6) ÷ 2 = x + 3
Subtract the original number: x+3–x=3

Now we know for sure that the result will always be 3, and our conjecture is proved.

Example 6. Comparing Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

Determine whether the type of reasoning used is inductive or deductive.

(a) The last six times we played in basketball, we won, so I know we’re going to win on
Saturday.
(b) The syllabus states that any final average between 80 and 90% will result in a
passing score. If I get 78% on my final, my overall average will be 80.1%, so I’ll get a
passing score.
Solution
(a) This conclusion is based on six specific occurrences, not a general rule that we know
to be true. Therefore, inductive reasoning is used.
(b) Although we’re talking about a specific person’s grade, the conclusion that I’ll get a
passing score is based on a general rule: all scores in the 80’s earn a passing score.
So, this is deductive reasoning.

Remember that both inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning are useful tools for
problem solving. But the biggest difference between them is that conclusions drawn from
inductive reasoning, no matter how reasonable, are still at least somewhat uncertain. But
conclusions drawn by using deductive reasoning can be considered definitely true, as long as
the general rules used to draw the conclusion are known to be true. In addition, it’s worth
reviewing the fact that to disprove a conjecture, you only need to find one specific example for
which it’s not true. But to prove a conjecture, you have to show that it’s true in every possible
case.
There is a good reason that questions in math classes are usually called problems: the
study of mathematics is all about learning and applying problem-solving skills and strategies.
For most of recorded history, math and problem solving have been intimately connected, and a
tremendous amount of effort has gone into using math as a problem-solving tool. In this unit,
we’ll learn about a simple framework for problem solving and practice a number of useful
strategies.
Polya’s strategy is not necessarily earth-shattering: its brilliance lies in its simplicity. It
provides four basic steps that can be used as a framework for problem solving in any area, from
mathematics to home improvements.

Polya’s Four Step Problem-Solving Procedure

1. Understand the problem.

2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
 Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem solver, it helps to
examine each of these steps and determine what is involved.

Understand the Problem This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often overlooked. You must
have a clear understanding of the problem. To help you focus on understanding the problem,
consider the following questions.
 Can you restate the problem in your own words?
 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?
 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem?
 What is the goal?
Devise a Plan Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when they attempt to
solve a problem. Here are some frequently used procedures.
 Make a list of the known information.
 Make a list of information that is needed.
 Draw a diagram.
 Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
 Make a table or a chart.
 Work backwards.
 Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
 Look for a pattern.
 Write an equation. If necessary, dene what each variable represents.
 Perform an experiment.
 Guess at a solution and then check your result.
Carry Out the Plan Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan.
Review the Solution Once you have found a solution, check the solution.
 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to other
problems.

Example 1 Apply Polya’s Strategy (Solve a Problem by Using a Diagram)

A gardener is asked to plant eight tomato plants that are 18 inches tall in a straight line
with 2 feet between each part. How much space is needed between the firtst plant and the last
one?

Solution
Be careful – what seems like an obvious solution is not always correct! You might be tempted to
just multiply 8 by 2, but instead we will use Polya’s method.
Understand the Problem. In this case, the key information given is that there will be eight
plants in a line, with 2 feet between each. We are asked to find the total distance from the first to
the last.
Devise a Plan. When a situation is described that you can draw a picture of, it’s often helpful to
do so.
Carry out the Plan. The figure would look like this:

Review the Solution. There are eight plants, but only seven spaces of 2 feet between them. So
7 x 2 = 14 feet is right.

Example 2. Apply Polya’s Strategy (Make an Organized list)

A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could
they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution
Understand the ProblemThere are many different orders. The team may have won ttwo
straight games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won
the last two (LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan We will make an organized list of all possible orders. An organized list is a list
that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once
and only once.
Carry Out the Plan Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to
always write a W unless doing so will produce too many Ws or a duplicate of on e of the
previous orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This
strategy produced the six different orders show below.
1. WWLL (Start with two wins)
2. WLWL (Start with one win)
3. WLLW
4. LWWL (Start with one loss)
5. LWLW
6. LLWW (Start with two losses)
Review the Solution We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a
baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.
 Learning Activities

Activity 1: Computational Exercises

Direction: Use inductive reasoning to find a pattern, and then make a reasonable conjecture for
the next number or item in the sequence.

1. 3 5 9 15 23 33 ____?

2. 1 4 9 16 25 36 ____?

3. 1 8 27 64 125 ____?

4. 5 7 3 5 1 3 ____?

5. 5 16 49 104 ____?

6. 235 336 447 ____ 669 7710

7. 563 647 479 815 ____?

8. Which figure is the odd one out?

A B C D E

9. . ?

10. .

Activity 2: Problem Solving

Direction: Solve the following problems. Make sure to follow Polya’s Four Step Problem Solving
Procedure. Show your Solution.

1. A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than the hat. What is
the cost of the hat and the cost of the jacket?
2. The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the
same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?
Assessment

Multiple Choices:
Directions: Read and analyze each statement carefully. Encircle the letter of the best answer.
1. Which two numbers should come next in the sequence? 21, 23, 27, 33, …
a. 41, 45 c. 42, 50
b. 41, 51 d. 42, 56
2. Find the sixth term in the patter. 5,11, 14, 14, …
a. 28 c. 8
b. 19 d. 5

3. Use inductive reasoning to predict the most probable next number in the given list. 1, 8,
27, 64, ?
a. 256 c. 125
b. 101 d. 625
4. A parking lot contains a total of 48 cars and motorcycles. There are a total of 172 tires
(not counting spare tires) in the lot. Assuming each car has 4 tires and each motorcycle
has 2 tires, determine how many cars and how many motorcycles are in the parking lot.
a. 38 motorcycles and 10 cars c. 24 motorcycles and 24 cars
b. 4 motorcycles and 44 cars d. 10 motorcycles and 38 cars
5. Alisa reads in a geometry book that two intersecting lines will lie in the same plane.
Which statement is correct about the conclusion Alisa can make?
a. She can use deductive reasoning to conclude that if she draws two intersecting
lines, the lines will not lie in the same plane.
b. She can use deductive reasoning to conclude that if she draws three intersecting
lines, the lines will not lie in the same plane.
c. She can use deductive to conclude the if she draws the intersecting lines, the
lines will lie in the same plane.
d. She can use deductive reasoning to conclude that if she draws two intersecting
lines, the lines will lie in the same plane.

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