REPORT SUBMISSION FORM

(Attach to the front page of the report)

Name: LUAY CHEE YI

Partner's Name: MAHIRAH QISTINA BINTI MASHRIZAM

Group : M5B

Experiment Code : 1GP1

Experiment Title : DYNAMICS

Lecturer’s / Examiner’s
DR. NIK NOOR ASHIKIN NIK AB RAZAK
Name :
Starting Date (1st
13/6/2023
session) :
Ending Date (2nd
17/6/2023
session):
Submission Date : 30/6/2023
 DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY

I LUAY CHEE YI

161864

(student’s full name and ID number)

hereby declare that this laboratory report is my own work. I further declare

that:

1. The references / bibliography reflect the sources I have consulted,

and

2. I also certify that this report has not previously been submitted
for assessment in this or any other units, and that I have not copied
in part or whole or otherwise plagiarized the work of other
students and/or persons.

3. Sections with no source referrals are my own ideas, arguments

and/or conclusions.

29/6/2023
Signature: Date:
 DYNAMICS

By

LUAY CHEE YI

2023

First Year Laboratory Report

 DYNAMICS

ABSTRACT
This experiment investigated the motion of a steel ball in free fall, the relationship
between velocity and mass of a glider, and the conservation of momentum and energy during
collisions. In Part A, the motion of the steel ball was analysed, revealing a linear relationship
between the average time and the square root of the distance travelled. The experimental
value of gravitational acceleration, g, was found to be ( 9.58 ± 0.38 ) m s−2, with a small
discrepancy from the theoretical value. Part B focused on the relationship between velocity
squared and the inverse of mass for a glider, demonstrating a linear relationship with a non-
zero intercept due to energy losses during transfer. The coefficient of energy transfer, ε, was
determined as ( 1.195 ± 0.1 ) × 10−2 J . In Part C, the collision between two gliders was
examined, indicating that momentum was mostly conserved while kinetic energy was not
fully conserved, suggesting an inelastic collision.

OBJECTIVE

1. To determine the gravitational acceleration (𝑔) by studying the free fall of a body.
2. To study the relationship between the velocity and mass of a glider when its kinetic
and potential energies are fixed.
3. To study the concept of conservation of momentum and energy through the collision
between two bodies.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Dr. Nik Noor Ashikin
Nik Ab Razak, whose explanation and guidance are the key to success and completion of this
experiment.

I would also like to acknowledge with much appreciation the crucial role of the
laboratory assistants for preparing the required apparatus and materials for the experiment.

I also take this opportunity to thank my laboratory partner Mahirah Qistina Binti
Mashrizam for being cooperative and helpful throughout the experiment.
 CONTENTS

REPORT SUBMISSION FORM...............................................................................................1

DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY......................................................................................2
ABSTRACT...............................................................................................................................4
OBJECTIVE..............................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..........................................................................................................5
CONTENTS...............................................................................................................................6
LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................................7
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................................................................8
1.0 THEORY..............................................................................................................................9
1.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation..........................................................................9
1.2 Free Fall.........................................................................................................................10
1.3 Conservation of Momentum..........................................................................................11
1.4 Air Track Collision........................................................................................................12
1.5 Potential energy and kinetic energy...............................................................................13
2.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLGY................................................................................14
PART A: Free Fall of a Body..............................................................................................14
PART B: Air Track System with One Glider......................................................................15
PART C: Air Track System with Two Gliders....................................................................16
3.0 DATA ANALYSIS............................................................................................................17
PART A: Free Fall of a Body..............................................................................................17
PART B: Air Track System with One Glider......................................................................19
PART C: Air Track System with Two Gliders....................................................................21
4.0 DISCUSSION....................................................................................................................25
5.0 CONCLUSION..................................................................................................................27
6.0 REFERENCES...................................................................................................................27
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................28
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Data table for PART A.............................................................................................17
Table 2: LINEST function table..............................................................................................17
Table 3: Data table for PART B.............................................................................................19
Table 4: The LINEST function................................................................................................19
Table 5: Data table for PART C.............................................................................................21
Table 6: Actual time table.......................................................................................................21
Table 7: Velocity v of each glider...........................................................................................22
Table 8: Standard error of velocity v.......................................................................................22
Table 9: Momentum p of each glider......................................................................................22
Table 10: Standard error of momentum p...............................................................................23
Table 11: Kinetic energy Ek ,i of each glider.........................................................................24
Table 12: Standard error of kinetic energy Ek ........................................................................24
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Two objects with masses, m1 and m2 separated by a distance of r............................9
Figure 2: Elastic collision........................................................................................................11
Figure 3: Inelastic collision.....................................................................................................12
Figure 4: Explosion.................................................................................................................12
Figure 5: Air track...................................................................................................................13
Figure 6: Equipment set up for Part A....................................................................................14
Figure 7: Equipment set up for Part B.....................................................................................15
Figure 8: Equipment set up for Part C.....................................................................................16
Figure 9: Graph of t (s) against d 12 (cm−12 ¿.......................................................................17
Figure 10: Graph of v 2 (cm 2 s−2) against 1 m(g−1)...........................................................19
 1.0 THEORY

1.1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational attraction force between
two given object is proportional to the product of the masses and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between the objects.

Figure 1: Two objects with masses, m1 and m2 separated by a distance of r.

Suppose two objects of mass, m1 and m2 at a distance r apart, the gravitational force between
these objects according to Newton’s law of gravitation is given by

m1 m2
F ∝− 2
r
−Gm1 m2 (1)
F= 2
r

where G is the gravitational constant with the value of 6.67 × 10 -11 N m2 kg-2. The negative
sign denotes that gravitational force is attractive.

Consider now an object of mass, m on the surface of the Earth of mass M and radius R E. The
gravitational attraction on the object is:

GMm
F= 2
RE

Acceleration due to gravity is so important that its magnitude is given its own symbol, g.

GMm
mg= 2
RE
GM
g= 2 (2)
RE

It is constant at any given location on Earth and has the average value

−2
g=9.81 ms
Although g varies from 9.78 m/s2 to 9.83 m/s2, depending on latitude, altitude,
underlying geological formations, and local topography, an average value of 9.81
m/s2 rounded to three significant figures in this text is always used. Neglecting these effects
on the value of g as a result of position on Earth’s surface, as well as effects resulting from
Earth’s rotation, we take the direction of acceleration due to gravity to be downward (toward
the center of Earth).

1.2 Free Fall

The most remarkable and unexpected fact about falling objects is that if air resistance and
friction are negligible, then in a given location all objects fall toward the center of Earth with
the same constant acceleration, independent of their mass. This experimentally determined
fact is unexpected because we are so accustomed to the effects of air resistance and friction
that we expect light objects to fall slower than heavy ones. Until Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
proved otherwise, people believed that a heavier object has a greater acceleration in a free
fall. In the absence of air resistance, heavy objects arrive at the ground at the same time as
lighter objects when dropped from the same height.

In the real world, air resistance can cause a lighter object to fall slower than a heavier
object of the same size. A tennis ball reaches the ground after a baseball dropped at the same
time. (It might be difficult to observe the difference if the height is not large.) Air resistance
opposes the motion of an object through the air, and friction between objects—such as
between clothes and a laundry chute or between a stone and a pool into which it is dropped—
also opposes motion between them.
For the ideal situations of these first few chapters, an object falling without air
resistance or friction is defined to be in free fall. The force of gravity causes objects to fall
toward the center of Earth. The acceleration of free-falling objects is therefore
called acceleration due to gravity. Acceleration due to gravity is constant, which means we
can apply the kinematic equations to any falling object where air resistance and friction are
negligible.
If the initial velocity of a body is zero, the time 𝑡 taken for the sphere to pass a distance 𝑑 can
be expressed using the equation:
1 2
d= g t
2 (3)
The value of 𝑔 can be determined by making a suitable measurement for 𝑑 and t
We make many assumptions when using Equation (3) to determine 𝑔, one of them is
that we assume there are no systematic errors in the time measurements. Besides, in many
mechanics and electrical systems, there will be a time delay in measurement, since the system
does not react immediately. So, the recorded time 𝑡̅by the timer may be different from the
actual time taken by the sphere to fall along the distance 𝑑. If the time delay Δ𝑡 is constant,
we have
t=t +∆ t (4)
where 𝑡 is the actual time for the sphere to fall down along the distance 𝑑. So, Equation (3)
now becomes
1 2
d= g (t−∆ t)
2
(5)
Or

√
1
2 2
t= d +∆ t
g
(6)
1.3 Conservation of Momentum
Linear momentum of an object p is given by the product of its mass m, and velocity v;
 p=mv
−1
Units for momentum is kgm s .
Principle of conservation of momentum states that the total linear momentum of a system is
constant when there is no external force acting on it. Consider the situation where two objects
of mass mA and mB initially moving in a straight line with velocity of uA and uB respectively.
Applying Newton’s second and third law to this situation, when the objects collide in the
absence of external force, the force / exerted by object A to B will result in a reaction force
by object B to A.
F A → B=−F B → A

mA (v A−u A
t )=−mB (
v B−u B
t )
m A v A −m A u A =−( m B v B −mB uB )
m A u A + mB uB =m A v A + mB v B
The above result is the mathematical form of the conservation of momentum. Simply, the
sum of momentum before collision equals to the sum of momentum after collision.
Principle of conservation of momentum is applied in the situation as follows;
• Elastic collision (7)

Figure 2: Elastic collision.

m A u A + mB uB =m A v A + mB v B

1. Kinetic energy conserved

2. Total energy conserved

• Inelastic collision

Figure 3: Inelastic collision.

m A u A + mB uB =(m ¿ ¿ A+ mB) v ¿ (8)

1. Kinetic energy not conserved

2. Total energy conserved
 • Explosion

Figure 4: Explosion.

0=m A v A + mB (−v B )
m A v A =mB v B (9)

1.4 Air Track Collision

An air track is a track without any friction, it is used to study the movement of any object in a
straight line. An air source from a vacuum blower is directed into the tube of the triangular
track to support the glider that moves across it. The air source must be placed as close as
possible as it is needed to support the gliders. A 100 g load (given in the box) is placed on the
glider before the spindle at the vacuum equipment, so that a load of at least 100 g can be
supported by the air without friction.

An air track must first be adjusted to level horizontally by using a water bubble level.
Then, the air source is turned on, and an unloaded glider is placed on the track to for further
calibration: the glider should be floating statically and should not move to the left or right.
Some rubber bands should be placed at both ends of the air track to prevent the gliders from
colliding the end of the track.

In this experiment, the glider velocity is determined using a photogate. A card can be
placed on the glider to block the light beam from shinning in the photogate, which triggers
the timer. When this light beam is blocked, the timer will start counting until the glider passes
it and the light beam resumes. In this way, the glider’s velocity can be calculated from the
time measured and the card length.

Figure 5: Air track.

1.5 Potential energy and kinetic energy

Rubber bands can be used to supply a potential energy to the gliders. The potential energy of
the rubber bands is given by

E p =nε (10)

where 𝑛 is the number of the rubber bands and 𝜀 is the energy in each rubber band. The
kinetic energy for the glider is given by

1 2
E k= m v (11)
2

where 𝑚 is the glider mass and 𝑣 is the glider velocity. By equating equations (10) and (11),
we get:

2 1
v =2 nε (12)
m

In this experiment, the number of rubber band is fixed. The potential energy of the rubber
band 𝜀, is also fixed by stretching the rubber band at the same suitable distance every time.
The glider mass is changed and the value of 𝑣 corresponding to the mass changed can be
determined.

2.0 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLGY

PART A: Free Fall of a Body

 Figure 6: Equipment set up for Part A.

A small steel sphere is used as a body which will undergo free fall. A sphere holder is set up
in a retort holder and a receiver plate is connected to the timer as shown in Figure 6. Before
the experiment started, the mass and diameter of the steel sphere given is measured and
recorded. The experiment is started with a distance of 𝑑 = 10 cm. The steel sphere is put on
the holder by pressing the dowel pin. The receiver plate is pushed upward. The timer is reset
to zero. When the dowel pin is let free, this action will cause the sphere to fall. The time 𝑡
taken for the sphere to fall on the receiver plate is recorded. The process is repeated and 10
readings are taken without discarding any readings which may not precise. Then, the
experiment is repeated by changing the distance 𝑑 to any 10 different locations within the
meter rule. The data is recorded in the table. Using a suitable equation, the graph of 𝑡̅ versus
1
d is sketched. The value of 𝑔 and Δ𝑡 are determined from the graph. The slope of the graph
2

is found. The error for the value of 𝑔 is calculated and compared this result value of 𝑔 with
the standard value.

PART B: Air Track System with One Glider

 Figure 7: Equipment set up for Part B.

The instruments are set up as shown in Figure 7 by connecting only one phototransistor
together with the timer. The phototransistor is placed at the place where is suitable. The air
track is adjusted such that it is levelled with the water bubble level, and it is tested with a
glider. The card length is measured and recorded, then the mass of one glider without any
load is measured. After that, the glider is placed at the end of the air track. The rubber band is
stretched by pushing the glider between 1 to 2 cm. The stretched distance of the rubber band
should be fixed in this experiment to get consistent results. The photogate timer is set to
GATE mode, and press the RESET buttons. The glider is let free and the time after the glider
passed the photogate timer once is recorded. Prevent the glider from return back. The
photogate timer is reset to zero again, and the previous step is repeated up to 6 times. The
experiment is repeated by changing the mass of the glider with more weights. The experiment
is repeated for at least 8 different masses. It is not necessary to increase the mass in fixed
values each time. All the data is recorded in the table. The graph of 𝑣2 versus 1/𝑚 is plotted
and it is compared with Eq. (12) The slope is found from the graph. The potential energy 𝜀
for each rubber band is calculated.
PART C: Air Track System with Two Gliders

Figure 8: Equipment set up for Part C.

The instruments are set up as shown in Figure 8. 2 photogates (both with timer) are set up,
and a glider without any load (known as the ‘small glider’ from here onwards) is placed
between the two photogates, which are placed a suitable distance apart. 100 g is added to
another glider (known as the ‘big glider’ from here onwards) and it is placed at the end of the
air track. The big glider is displaced with a suitable stretch distance from the rubber band so
that timer can measure the time required for the big glider to pass photogate 1 before
collision, the time required for the small glider to pass photogate 2 after collision, and the
time required for the big glider to pass any photogate after collision. The collision must occur
after the big glider has passed completely through photogate 1, and after collision both
gliders must be fully separated before either glider passes a photogate 2. The photogate timer
is set to GATE mode, and the RESET button is pressed. 6 sets of data are taken for each run.
All the data is recorded in the table. Based on the table, the velocity 𝑣1 of the big glider
before collision, the velocity 𝑣2 of small glider after collision, and the velocity 𝑣3 of big glider
after collision are calculated. From the results, the momentum and kinetic energy before and
after the collision are determined to be whether conserved or not.
 3.0 DATA ANALYSIS

PART A: Free Fall of a Body

Mass of steel ball = 28 g

Diameter of steel ball = 1.903 cm

Table 1: Data table for PART A.

d 1 Time, t (s)
(cm) d2 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9 t 10 t
10 3.2 0.138 0.139 0.132 0.138 0.132 0.138 0.134 0.138 0.134 0.133 0.136
12 3.5 0.159 0.155 0.154 0.157 0.160 0.154 0.156 0.157 0.153 0.159 0.156
14 3.7 0.166 0.169 0.165 0.165 0.164 0.164 0.164 0.164 0.165 0.165 0.165
16 4.0 0.182 0.177 0.178 0.178 0.177 0.177 0.182 0.181 0.181 0.183 0.180
18 4.2 0.186 0.186 0.187 0.186 0.186 0.187 0.186 0.187 0.186 0.188 0.187
20 4.5 0.196 0.196 0.195 0.196 0.197 0.197 0.196 0.199 0.198 0.196 0.197
22 4.7 0.208 0.210 0.212 0.208 0.208 0.214 0.214 0.208 0.208 0.210 0.210
24 4.9 0.218 0.216 0.216 0.218 0.214 0.218 0.221 0.216 0.216 0.217 0.217
26 5.1 0.227 0.227 0.228 0.228 0.227 0.231 0.227 0.231 0.228 0.227 0.228
28 5.3 0.235 0.236 0.235 0.235 0.232 0.236 0.236 0.237 0.236 0.239 0.236
30 5.5 0.245 0.245 0.243 0.246 0.244 0.245 0.243 0.245 0.245 0.246 0.245

Graph of 𝑡 ̅ (s) against 𝑑^(1/2) ( 〖𝑐𝑚〗 ^(−1/2)).

0.300

0.250 f(x) = 0.0456560047811457 x − 0.00553095228179129

0.200

0.150
𝑡 ̅ (s)

0.100

0.050

0.000
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0

𝑑^(1/2) ( 〖𝑐𝑚〗 ^(−1/2)).

1 −1
Figure 9: Graph of t (s) against d 2 (cm 2
¿.

Table 2: LINEST function table.

LINEST()
m 0.0457 -0.0055 c
σm 0.0009 0.0040 σc
2
r 0.9965 0.0022 σy
By using equation (6), the value of g and ∆ t can be determined from the graph and Table 2

√
1
2 2
t= d +∆ t
g

Calculate g and its standard error

√ 2
−1
The gradient of the graph, m is 0.0457 s cm 2 and is equal to ,
g
m=
√
2
2
g
g= 2
m
2
g= −1
−2( )
2 2
(0.0457 ×10 )
−1
g=9.58 m s

Based on Table 2 the value of σm, the standard error of g can be obtained,

2
g= 2
m
2 2
Sm g Sm m
( ) =(2 )
g m
2 2
Sm g 0.0009
( ) =4 ( )
9.58 0.0457
−2
Sm g=0.377 m s

Hence, g= ( 9.58 ±0.38 ) ms−2

Calculate ∆ t and its standard error

Let y-intercept of the graph, c = ∆ t ,

∆ t=−5.5 ms

From Table 2,
−3
σ c =S m ∆ t=4.0 × 10 s

Hence, ∆ t=(−0.55± 0.4 ) × 10−2 s

Percentage of discrepancy of g from standard value

Percentage of discrepancy= | ExperimentalTheoretical

value−Theoretical value
value |×100 %
¿|
9.81 |
9.58−9.81
× 100 %
 ¿ 2.34 %

PART B: Air Track System with One Glider

Mass of unloaded glider : 189.0 g

Length of card : 10.0 cm

Table 3: Data table for PART B.

m 1 Time, t (s) v v
2

(g) m t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t (cm s−1) (cm2 s−2 )

189 0.005291 0.200 0.222 0.178 0.254 0.0.214 0.185 0.208 48.12 2315.84
199 0.005025 0.264 0.289 0.220 0.195 0.227 0.259 0.242 41.27 1702.84
209 0.004785 0.202 0.219 0.285 0.280 0.231 0.244 0.244 41.07 1686.56
219 0.004566 0.278 0.323 0.294 0.249 0.315 0.316 0.296 33.80 1142.63
229 0.004367 0.263 0.297 0.284 0.293 0.318 0.316 0.295 33.88 1147.80
239 0.004184 0.310 0.354 0.360 0.283 0.452 0.431 0.365 27.40 750.61
249 0.004016 0.325 0.470 0.305 0.453 0.369 0.365 0.381 26.24 688.29
259 0.003861 0.357 0.455 0.471 0.357 0.395 0.516 0.425 23.52 553.20

Graph of 𝒗^𝟐 ( 〖𝐜𝐦〗 ^𝟐 𝐬^(−𝟐))

against 1/m (g)^(-1)
2500.00
f(x) = 1195251.60299798 x − 4144.35646987547
𝒗^𝟐 ( 〖𝐜𝐦〗 ^𝟐 𝐬^(−𝟐))

2000.00

1500.00

1000.00

500.00

0.00
0.0036 0.0038 0.004 0.0042 0.0044 0.0046 0.0048 0.005 0.0052 0.0054
1/m (g)^(-1)

1 −1
Figure 10: Graph of v 2 (cm2 s−2 ) against ( g ).
m
Table 4: The LINEST function.

LINEST()
m 1195251.60 -4144.36 c
σ
σm 102468.26 464.80
c
σ
r2 0.9578 135.39
y
By using equation (12), gradient, m and potential energy ε of the rubber band can be
determined

2 1
v =2 nε
m

From equation (12), it is expected that the graph does not intercept at y. However, Figure 10
shows otherwise because the experiment is not ideal as there is energy loss causing the graph
to shift right/downward. Thus, the equation (12) is not accurate for this experiment.

Calculate potential energy stored in each band ε and its standard error
The gradient of the graph, m is 1.195 ×106 g cm2 s−2 or 1.195 ×10−1 kg m2 s−2. Let
−1
2 nε=1.195 × 10 when n = 5.

m=2 nε
m
ε=
2n
−1
1.195 × 10
ε=
2(5)
−2
ε =1.195 ×10 J

Based on Table 4 the value of σm, 1.025 ×10−2 kg m2 s−2 the standard error of ε can be
obtained,

m
ε=
2n
m
ε=
10
2 2
Sm ε Sm m
( ) =( )
ε m
2 −2 2
Sm ε 1.025× 10
( −2
) =( −1
)
1.195× 10 1.195× 10
−3
Sm ε =1.025 ×10 J

Hence, ε =( 1.195 ± 0.1 ) × 10−2 J

PART C: Air Track System with Two Gliders

Table 5: Data table for PART C.

Photogate Time (s) Average

Passes t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 Time, t (s)
Big Glider
(before 0.247 0.250 0.221 0.245 0.224 0.278 0.244
collision)
Small Glider
0.279 0.277 0.297 0.320 0.268 0.321 0.294
(after collision)
Big Glider
0.669 0.714 0.555 0.626 0.567 0.743 0.646
(after collision)

Calculate actual time, t of the collision

There is a delay in time ∆ t in measuring the average time t thus,

t=t +∆ t

Where ∆ t can be obtained by following formula:

∆ t=
√ ∑ (t i−t )2
(n−1)

With the help of Microsoft Excel (refer APPENDIX), ∆ t are calculated as in Table 6.

Table 6: Actual time table.

Average Delay Actual

Photogate Passes Time, t time, ∆ t time, t
(s) (s) (s)
Big Glider (before collision) 0.2442 0.0206 0.2235
Small Glider (after collision) 0.2937 0.0228 0.2708
Big Glider (after collision) 0.6457 0.0768 0.5689

Calculate velocity, v of the glider and its standard error based on the actual time of
collision, t
The velocity of the glider with 10.0 cm card are:
 l
v=
t
0.1
v=
t

Let,
a. v 1=¿The velocity of the big glider before collision;
b. v 2=¿The velocity of small glider after collision;
c. v 3=¿The velocity of big glider after collision.

With the help of Microsoft Excel (refer APPENDIX), Table 7 and Table 8 are tabulated as
follows.
Table 7: Velocity v of each glider.

Velocity of each Actual time, t Velocity, v (

−1
glider (s) ms ¿
v1 0.2235 0.447
v2 0.2708 0.369
v3 0.5689 0.176

And standard error:

2 2 2
Sm v Sml Smt
( ) =( ) +( )
v l t

Table 8: Standard error of velocity v.

Velocity of Velocity, Sm l , l, Sm t , ∆ t t, Sm v , ( vi ± Sm v )
−1
each glider v (m s ¿ (m) (m) (s) (s) −1
(m s ) (m s−1 ¿
v1 0.447 ± 1.0 ×10
−3
0.1 0.0206 0.2235 0.0412 (0.447 ± 0.04)
v2 0.369 ± 1.0 ×10
−3
0.1 0.0228 0.2708 0.0311 (0.369 ± 0.03)
v3 0.176 ± 1.0 ×10
−3
0.1 0.0768 0.5689 0.0238 (0.176 ± 0.02)

Calculate momentum of the glider before and after collision and its standard error
Mass small glider, m : 189.0 g
Mass big glider, M : 289.0 g

Momentum of the glider is:

p=mv

Let,
a. p1=¿ The momentum of the big glider before collision;
b. p2=¿ The momentum of small glider after collision;
c. p3=¿ The momentum of big glider after collision.

Table 9: Momentum p of each glider.

 Momentum p of Mass of Velocity, v Momentum p
each glider glider (kg) (m s−1 ¿ (kgm s−1 ¿
p1 0.289 0.447 0.129
p2 0.189 0.369 0.070
p3 0.289 0.176 0.051
And standard error:
2 2 2
Sm p Sm m Sm v
( ) =( ) +( )
p m v

Table 10: Standard error of momentum p.

Momentu Momentum Sm m , m, Sm v , v, Sm pi , ( pi ± S m pi )
m p of each p (kgm s−1 ¿ (kg ) (kg) −1
(m s )
−1
(m s ) (kgm s−1 ¿ (kgm s−1 ¿
glider
p1 0.129 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.289 0.0412 0.447 0.0119 (1.29 ± 0.1) ×10
−1

p2 0.070 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.189 0.0311 0.369 0.0059 (0.70 ± 0.06)× 10
−1

p3 0.051 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.289 0.0238 0.176 0.0069 (0.51 ± 0.07)× 10
−1

Verify the conservation of momentum

Principle of conservation of momentum states that the total momentum before collision is
equal to the total momentum after the collision. Hence,

pi = p f
p1= p2 + p3

From Table 10 above,

p1= p2 + p3
−1 −1
0.129 kg ms ≠ ( 0.070+0.051 ) kg m s
−1 −1
0.129 kg ms >0.121 kg ms

Percentage momentum loss=

| |
p f −p i
pi
×100 %

|¿
0.121−0.129
0.129 |
×100 %
¿ 6.20 %

Therefore, pi ≠ p f the total momentum is not really conserved but close to the theoretical
approximation as there is a small loss of 0.008 kg m s−1 or 6.20 % of total momentum after the
collision.

Calculate kinetic energy of the glider before and after collision and its standard error
From equation (11), kinetic energy of the glider can be expressed as:

1 2
E k= m v
2
 Let,
a. E k, 1=¿The kinetic energy of the big glider before collision;
b. E k, 2=¿The kinetic energy of small glider after collision;
c. E k, 3=¿The kinetic energy of big glider after collision.
Table 11: Kinetic energy E k, i of each glider.

Kinetic energy Mass of Velocity, v Kinetic energy

E k, i of each glider (kg) (m s−1 ¿ E k, i (kgm2 s−2 /J ¿
glider
E k, 1 0.289 0.447 0.0289
E k, 2 0.189 0.369 0.0129
E k, 3 0.289 0.176 0.0045

And standard error:

2 2 2
S m Ek Sm m Sm v
( ) =( ) +(2 )
Ek m v

Table 12: Standard error of kinetic energy E k.

Kinetic Kinetic Sm m , m, Sm v , v, Sm E k , i , ( E k ,i ± Sm E k ,i )
energy E k, i of energy E k, i (kg ) (kg) −1
(m s )
−1
(m s ) (kg (kgm2 s−2 /J ¿
2 −2
each glider (kg m s /J ¿
2 −2
m s /J ¿
E k, 1 0.0289 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.289 0.0412 0.447 0.00533 (2.89 ± 0.5)× 10
−2

E k, 2 0.0129 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.189 0.0311 0.369 0.00217 (1.29 ± 0.2) ×10
−2

E k, 3 0.0045 −3
± 1.0 ×10 0.289 0.0238 0.176 0.00122 (0.45 ± 0.1)×10
−2

Verify the conservation of kinetic energy

Principle of conservation of kinetic energy states that the total kinetic energy before collision
is equal to the total kinetic energy after the collision. Hence,

E k, initial=E k ,final
E k, 1=Ek , 2+ Ek ,3

From Table 12 above,

E k, 1=Ek , 2+ Ek ,3
−2 −2
2.89 ×10 J ≠ ( 1.29+ 0.45 ) ×10 J
−2 −2
2.89 ×10 J >1.74 × 10 J

Percentage kinetic energy loss=

| E k , final−Ek , initial
Ek ,initial |
× 100 %

| |
−2
(1.74−2.89)×10
¿ ×100 %
2.89 ×10−2
¿ 39.79 %
Therefore, E k, initial ≠ E k ,final the total kinetic energy is not conserved as there is a loss of
−2
1. 15× 10 J or 39.79 % of total kinetic energy after the collision.
4.0 DISCUSSION

In part A to study the free fall of a body, a steel ball with constant mass of 28 g and
diameter of 1.903 cm is used throughout the experiment. From the data in Table 1, a graph of
1 −1
t (s) against d 2 (cm 2
¿ is plotted in Figure 9. Based on the graph, t (s) is directly
1 −1
proportional to the d 2 (cm 2 ¿ as it increases linearly from y-intercept of -0.0055 s. The delay
in time ∆ t of (−0.55 ± 0.4 ) × 10−2 s by the device during measuring contributed to the value of
y-intercept. The value of r 2 of the graph is 0.9965 which shows there is a strong positive
1 −1
correlation between t (s) and d 2 (cm 2 ¿. Thus, equation (6) predicts very well the motion of
free fall of an object. By using data in the LINEST function table, it is obtained that the value
of g is ( 9.58 ± 0.38 ) m s−2 which has a 2.34 % of discrepancy from the theoretical value of
9.81 m s−2. This result yielded is quite accurate and the theoretical value is still within the
standard error. The error of this experiment is small but its existence is significant is
determining the precise theoretical value. The sources of error include parallax error done by
the observer when adjusting the distance from the centre of the steel ball to that of the surface
of receiving plate. Besides, the existence of air resistance might cause the steel ball to slow
down and fall in a slightly curve path which increases distance it passes through (more
significant when d is large). Ways to improve the experiment includes by aligning eyes level
to the scale reading and by installing transparent vacuum tube to the steel ball trajectory.

Equation (6):

√
1
2 2
t= d +∆ t
g

In part B of the experiment to study the relationship between the velocity and mass of
a glider when its kinetic and potential energies are fixed, an unloaded glider of mass 189 g
and card of length 10.0 cm is used throughout the experiment. From the data in Table 3, a
1 −1
graph of v 2 (cm2 s−2 ) against ( g ) is plotted as shown in Figure 10. Based on the graph, v 2
m
1 −1
(cm s ) is directly proportional to ( g ) as it increases linearly and has a y-intercept of
2 −2
m
2 −2 2
−4144.36(cm s ) . The value of r of the graph is 0.9578 which shows there is a strong
1 −1
positive correlation between v 2 (cm2 s−2 ) and ( g ). However, the graph does not agree
m
with the equation (12) which predicts that the graph should started with origin. This
observation can be explained by the loss of energy when energy is transferred from the
rubber bands to the glider as shown in equation (13) in which μ = coefficient of energy
transfer. The value of μ is determined by several factors such as how the rubber bands are
released and the condition of the rubber bands used too. Hence, the energy loss during energy
transfer caused the graph to shift right/downward as more energy is needed for glider of mass
m to move at certain speed v as compared to the theoretical result. By using data in the
LINEST function table, it is obtained that the value of ε is ( 1.195 ± 0.1 ) × 10−2 J when five
rubber bands are used. There are some weaknesses to the experiment like the air track system
is not placed perfectly horizontal as even a small tilt can cause the glider moves to a side by
itself. Furthermore, the effect of air resistance caused kinetic energy to loss and eventually
slow the glider down. To overcome the errors, the air track system must be installed at a
platform with gradienter where its height on each side can be adjusted freely. Moreover, the
rubber band used has to be replaced by new one to prevent wear and tear.

Equation (12):

2 1
v =2 nε
m

Equation (13):

E k, glider =μn ε

Where μ=coefficient of energy transfer , 0< μ< 1.0

In part C of the experiment to study the concept of conservation of momentum and

energy through the collision between two bodies, a small glider of mass m = 189 g and a big
glider of mass M = 289 g are used. Based on the data in Table 6, the actual time t is
calculated and used for the calculation of velocity of big glider before collision
v 1, velocity of small glider after collision v 2, and velocity of big glider after collision v 3
instead of using t . The velocities obtained are v 1=( 0.447 ± 0.04 ) m s−1, v 2=( 0.369 ± 0.03 ) ms−1
and v 3=( 0.176 ± 0.02 ) m s−1. Thus, it is obtained that the momentum p1, p2 and p3 are each
( 1.29 ± 0.1 ) × 10−1 kg m s−1, (0.70 ± 0.06)× 10−1 kg m s−1 and(0.51 ± 0.07)× 10−1 kg m s−1. It is
found that the total momentum after collision is 0.121 kg m s−1 which is less than the
total momentum before the collision of 0.129 kg ms−1 and the percentage of momentum
loss is 6.20 %. The momentum is not really conserved but the loss of momentum however is
small. On the other hand, the kinetic energy of the glider calculated are
−2 −2 −2
E k, 1=( 2.89 ± 0.5 ) × 10 J , E k, 2=( 1.29 ± 0.2 ) × 10 J and E k, 3=( 0.45 ± 0.1 ) ×10 J . There is a
kinetic energy loss of 1. 15× 10−2 J or 39.79 % of total kinetic energy upon the collision as
E k, initial > E k, final . With the momentum largely conserved and kinetic energy not conserved, it
can be deduced that the collision of the gliders behaves more like an inelastic collision than
elastic collision. There are some sources of error that can contributed to this non idealistic
result which includes energy will loss in the form of heat and sound upon collision. Besides,
the force of the rubber band applied on the glider is not constant thus affecting the result. To
improve the weaknesses, the experiment should be carried out in vacuum condition to
minimize energy loss and by using spring mechanic system to launch the glider instead of
rubber band.
 5.0 CONCLUSION

1 −1
In a nut shell, t (s) is directly proportional to the d 2 (cm 2 ¿ and increases linearly for
a body in free fall motion. The motion can be described by equation (6) and it is obtained that
the experimental g has a value of ( 9.58 ± 0.38 ) m s−2 which has a 2.34 % of discrepancy from
the theoretical value of 9.81 m s−2 while the delay in time ∆ t found is (−0.55 ± 0.4 ) × 10−2 s.
1 −1
Furthermore, v 2 (cm2 s−2 ) is directly proportional to ( g ) as it increases linearly for an
m
object in motion when its kinetic and potential energies are fixed. In another word, velocity
of an object is inversely proportional to its mass when energy supplied is constant. It is
obtained that the value of ε for the rubber band used in the experiment is ( 1.195 ± 0.1 ) × 10−2 J
. In the last part of this experiment, it is found that the collision of the gliders behave
somewhere between elastic collision and inelastic collision as the momentum is mostly
conserved while kinetic energy partially conserved.

6.0 REFERENCES

1. Halliday, D., Resnick, R. & Walker, J. (2020) Principles of Physics (11th ed.). Wiley.
2. Korneff, T. (1966). Introduction to Physics (1st ed.). Academic Press.
3. Brophy, J. J. (1990). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. McGraw-Hill.
4. Mitchell, F. H. (1969). Concept of Physics. Addison-Wesley.
5. R.Shankar. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics: Mechanics, Relativity, and Thermodynamics.
Yale University Press.
 APPENDIX

MICROSOFT EXCEL GUIDELINES

Excel Formulae
Here are some examples of formulae may use:
• Reference: type =B12 to always show what is shown in cell B12.
• Add/Subtract:type =B1+B2 or B1-B2 to add/subtract the cells B1 and B2.
• Multiply: type =J53*I53 to multiply the cells J53 × I53.
• Divide: type =1/B11 to get 1 B11.
• Exponents: type =1.0E-34 to get 1.0 × 10−34.
• Power: type =2.5^2 to get 2.5 2.
• Average: type =AVERAGE(D25:D26)to get an average value for cells D25 to D26.
• Square Root: type =SQRT(D31^2+D23^2) to get √D312 + D232.
• Absolute: type =ABS(-4.5) to get |−4.5|.
• Std. Dev.: type =STDEV.S(D1,D4) to get the standard deviation of cells D1 and D4.

The LINEST Function

The LINEST() function is used to produce some parameters for a best-fit linear regression
line, these include the
• The gradient (𝑚);
• The 𝒚-intecept (𝑐);
• The standard error of the gradient (𝜎𝑚);
• The standard error of the 𝒚-intercept (𝜎𝑐);
• The coefficient of determination (𝑟2); and
• The standard error of the 𝒚-estimate (𝜎𝑦).

The following is a step-by-step tutorial on how to use the LINEST() function:

1. Highlight the 6 empty cells in the box where the LINEST() header is found, then type
=LINEST([known_ys],[known_xs],TRUE,TRUE).
2. Replace [known_xs] and [known_ys] with your 𝑥 and 𝑦 values, e.g. E12:E23 are the
values of 1/𝑜 for Table 1. You can highlight and drag across the cells to input them too.
3. After you're done typing, press Ctrl+Shift+Enter.
4. In the future, if you want to force the line to pass through the origin (0,0), you can replace
the first TRUE with FALSE.
5. Use the Increase Decimal and Decrease Decimal buttons to select the appropriate decimal
places you want your data to show.
Calculate standard error

Standard error can be calculated with the help of Excel by following method.

Example:

Use the following command to find the standard error in G94