THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:

The Seven Types of Unit Cells

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Simple Cubic
Categories of Solids
● Crystalline Solid
a=b=c
● Amorphous Solid
α = β = γ = 90°

Crystalline Solid
● Has rigid and long-range order
● Its particles occupy specific positions Tetragonal
● The net attractive intermolecular forces (IMF) are at
maximum a=b≠c
α = β = γ = 90°
Amorphous Solid
● There is NO well-defined arrangement
● There is NO long-range molecular order

Molecular Forces Responsible for the Crystal’s Stability Orthorhombic

● Ionic forces
● Covalent bonds a≠b≠c
● Van der Waals forces α = β = γ = 90°
● Hydrogen bonds

Atomic Hard-Sphere Model Rhombohedral

● Atoms/Ions are solid spheres with well-defined
diameters a=b=c
● Nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another α = β = γ ≠ 90°
● Lattice is a 3D array of points coinciding with atom
positions
Monoclinic
Unit Cells
● The basic structural (repeating) unit of a crystalline a≠b≠c
solid γ ≠ a = β = 90°
● For each sphere, it denotes a particle either an ion,
atom, or molecule (called a lattice point)
● There lattice point DOES NOT CONTAIN any Triclinic
particle; Each lattice point is occupied by an atom
(mostly metals) a≠b≠c
● A unit cell is one part of the whole structure α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90°

Hexagonal

a=b≠c
α ≠ β = 90°, γ = 120°

Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Crystal

● Is a crystal structure with atoms located at each of
the corners and the center of all cube faces
● Copper (Cu), Aluminum (Al), Silver (Ag), and Gold
(Au) have this crystal structure
● The spheres (or ion cores) touch one another across
a face diagonal
 Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
● In determining the number of atoms per unit cell Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
depends on the atom’s location shared with N=2
adjacent unit cells.
o EXAMPLE: For Cubic Unit Cells Unit Cell Length
4𝑅
𝑎=
▪ an atom completely within the interior 3

“belongs” to that unit cell,

▪ one at a cell face is shared with one Volume of a sphere (Vs)
4 3 8 3
other cell 𝑉𝑠 = (2) 3 π𝑅 = 3
π𝑅

▪ an atom residing at a corner is shared

Total Unit Cell Volume (Vc)
among eight. 3
3 64 3𝑅
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎 = 9
𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑐
𝑁 = 𝑁𝑖 + 2
+ 8 =4
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
𝑁. 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑁. 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝑁 = 𝑁. 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 + 2
+ 8 𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑠
= 0. 68
𝑉𝑐

Number of Atoms per Unit Cell Simple Cubic (Cubic) Crystal

N=4
● The possibility of a unit cell that consists of atoms
Cube Edge Length placed only at the corners of a cube
𝑎 = 2𝑅 2 ● Polonium is the only simple-cubic element that has
a relatively low APF
Volume of a sphere (Vs)
4 3 16 3
𝑉𝑠 = (4) 3 π𝑅 = 3
π𝑅
Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
Total Unit Cell Volume (Vc) N=1
3 3
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎 = 16𝑅 2
Unit Cell Length
Atomic Packing Factor
𝑉𝑠
a = 2R
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 𝑉𝑐
= 0. 74

Volume of a sphere (Vs)

4 3 4 3
𝑉𝑠 = (1) 3 π𝑅 = 3
π𝑅
Two Important Characteristics of Crystal Structure
1. The Coordination Number (for metals) Total Unit Cell Volume (Vc)
o Each atom has the same number of 𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎 = 16𝑅
3 3

nearest-neighbor or touching atoms

Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
2. Atomic Packing Factor (APF) 𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑠
= 0. 52
𝑉𝑐
o The sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms
within a unit cell divided by the unit cell
volume

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑠
=
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 NOTE AREA:
𝑉𝑐 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure (BCC) Crystal

● Has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight
corners and a single atom at the center of the
cube
● Corner atoms and center touch one another along
with the diagonal of the cube
 Hexagonal Close-Packed (HCP) Crystal
● The top and bottom faces of the unit cell is consist
of six atoms that form hexagons and surround a
single atom in the center
Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
N=6
Electron-Density Contour Map
● tells us the relative electron densities at various
locations in a molecule
1 Densities reaching a maximum near the center
of each atom
2 Determining the positions of the nuclei
3 Determining the molecular geometric
parameters

Unit Cell Length Types of Crystals

𝑎 = 24 2𝑅 ● In determining the structures and properties of
crystals, it is important to consider the kinds of
Volume of a sphere (Vs) forces that hold the particles together
4 3 24 3
𝑉𝑠 = (6) 3 π𝑅 = 3
π𝑅 ● Classification of any crystal has four types: ionic,
covalent, molecular, or metallic.
Total Unit Cell Volume (Vc)
3
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑎 = 27648 2𝑅
3
Ionic Crystals
● composed of charged species
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) ● anions and cations are generally different in size
𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑠
= 0. 74 ● the radii of ions are helpful in understanding their
𝑉𝑐
structure and stability
● most have high melting points (indication of the
strong cohesive forces holding the ions)
Density Computations
● a measure of the stability of ionic crystals is the
lattice energy
𝑛𝐴 𝑔
● they DO NOT conduct electricity
ρ= 𝑉𝑐𝑁𝐴
= 3 (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡)
𝑐𝑚

n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell CsCl

● Has the simple cubic
A = atomic weight
lattice because Cs+ is
Vc = volume of the unit cell
larger than Na+
NA = Avogrado’s number (6.022 x 1023 atoms/mol)

X-Ray Diffraction by Crystals ZnS

● The scattering of x-rays by the units of a crystalline ● Has the zincblende

solid structure, which is

based on the FCC
● X-rays are one form of electromagnetic radiation,
lattice
● The patterns produced is used to deduce the
● If the S2- ions occupy
particle arrangement in the solid lattice
the lattice points, the
● Gives the most accurate method for determining
Zn2+ ions are located
bond lengths and bond angles in molecules
one-fourth of the
distance along each
Max von Laue (German physicist, 1912)
body diagonal
● the wavelength of x-rays is comparable in
magnitude to the distances between lattice points
so, the lattice should be able to diffract x-rays CaF2
● Has the fluorite
structure
● The Ca2+ ions occupy
the lattic points, and
each F- ion is
tetrahedrally
surrounded by four
Ca2+ ions
 Molecular Crystals
Covalent Crystals
● The lattice points are occupied by molecules which
● Exists when atoms are held together in an extensive
has a van der Waals forces and/or hydrogen
3D network altogether by covalent bonds
bonding
● The molecules (except for ice) are packed
sp3 Hybidrization
together as closely as their size and shape allow
● The mixing character of one 2s-orbital and three
● Are more easily broken apart than ionic and
2p-orbitals to create four hybrid orbitals
covalent crystals
● Most melt at temperature below 100°C
sp2 Hybidrization
● The atoms are all sp2-hybidrized when each atom is
Metallic Crystals
covalently bonded to three other atoms
● Has the simplest structure because every lattice
● There is a remaining unhybidrized 2p orbital that is
points in the crystal are occupied by an atom of
used in pi bonding
the same metal
● Usually BCC, FCC, or HCP (metallic elements are
Diamond usually very dense)
● Each carbon is ● The bonding electrons in a metal are delocalized
tetrahedrally bonded to over the entire crystals
four other carbon atoms
● The metal atoms are immersed in a sea of
● The unusual hardness
and very high melting
delocalized valence electrons, which makes metals
point (3550°C) of a good conductor of heat and electricity
diamond are attributed
with the strong covalent
bonds that exist in 3D Type of Crystal Force(s) Holding General Properties
the Units Together
Hard, High-melting
Ionic Electrostatic point, brittle, poor
Graphite
attraction conductor of heat
● Carbon atoms are
and elec.
arranged in
six-membered rings Hard, High-melting
● The distance between Covalent Covalent bond point, poor
successive layer is 335 conductor of heat
pm and elec.
● A good conductor of
electricity because Soft, Low-melting
electrons are free to Molecular Dispersion forces point, poor
move around Dipole-dipole conductor of heat
● Its hardness is caused by forces and elec.
the covalent bonds Hydrogen bonds
which are held together
by weak can der Waals Soft to hard, Low to
forces Metallic Metallic bond high melting point,
good conductor of
heat and elec.

Quartz
Amorphous Solids
● The Si atoms in quartz has
a similar arrangement to ● Lack a regular 3D arrangement of atoms
that of C in diamond ● Glass is an example
● There is a presence of O ● Rapidly solidified solids do not have enough time
atoms between each
to align their atoms or molecules and may
pair of Si atoms
become locked in positions other than those of
● Very hard and has high
melting point of 1610°C regular crystals.
 Glass
Soda-lime Glass ● Easily attracted by
● Optically transparent fusion product of inorganic
chemicals and
materials that has cooled to a rigid state without SiO2, 75% sensitive to thermal
crystallizing Na2O, 15% shocks
● Silicon dioxide is the chief component of glass CaO, 10% ● Transmits visible light,
● Acts more like a liquid than a solid but absorb UV
● Lacks a long-range periodic order as results shown radiation
in x-ray diffraction studies ● Used mainly in
windows and bottles

There are about 800 different types of glass in common

use today
Crystalline Quartz

The color of the glass is because of the presence of

metal ion (as oxides)

Iron (III) oxide

Noncrystalline Quartz Green Fe2O3
Glass Copper (II) oxide

Yellow Uranium (IV) oxide

Type of Glass Properties and Uses Blue Cobalt(II) oxide

Copper (II) oxide

Pure Quartz Glass ● Low thermal

expansion
Red Gold
100% SiO2 ● Transparent to wide
Copper
range of wavelengths
● Used in optical
research
NOTE AREA:

Pyrex Glass ● Low thermal

expansion
SiO2, 60-80% ● Transparent to visible
B2O3, 10-25% and infrared, but not
Al2O3, small amount to UV radiation
● Used mainly in
laboratory and
household cooking
glassware
 o An example of nanoplates is Gold (Au)
THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS: nanoplates
ENGINEERED NANOMATERIALS
Formation of Rods and Plates
Nanomaterials 1. The influence of surface energy
● The sizes of the individual building blocks are less ● For nonspherical structures, it is important in
than 100 nm, at least in one dimension anisotropic (noncubic)
● Usually developed to show increased strength, ● for surface-active molecules, it is possible to
chemical reactivity, or conductivity grow rods/plates from isotropic materials
● Has attractive properties; Lies at the intersection of
materials science, physics, chemistry, biology, and 2. Layered Structures
medicine ● Crystal structure is built from layers held
together with van de Waals forces rather than
Four Basic Types of Nanomaterials by electrostatic attraction
● Metals ● At the circumference of each layer, the bonds
● Ceramics are NOT saturated (show a tendency to form
● Polymers nanotubes)
● Composites ● Typical examples are boron nitride (BN) and
Carbon (C)
Nanotechnology Conventional
Technology

“bottom-up” approach “top-down” approach

Atoms or molecules are From large pieces of

used as the building material producing the
blocks to produce expected structure by
layered structures mechanical or chemical
methods

Figure A – particle set-up

Figure B – one layer of the particle

The dangling bonds (short lines) need additional energy

(shows a strong tendency to saturate these dangling
bonds)
Nanotubes and Nanorods
● Usually referred to as one-dimensional
3. The use of compounds
nanoparticles
● This is the most promising way to obtain long
o An example of nanorods is ZnO
fibers however the number of compounds in
question is small
Nanoparticles and Fullerenes
● Generally denominated as zero-dimensional
Imoglite
structures
● The most important compound in the context of
o Fullerenes are molecules of C atoms with
nanomaterial formation
hollow shapes
● Has an ideal composition of Al2SiO3(OH)4
o Their structures are based on hexagonal
● Imoglite tubes are very narrow, with internal
rings of C atoms joined by covalent bonds
diameters of 1nm and external diameters of 2 nm
o Some examples of fullerenes are
● Its structure is characterized by Al, Si, O, and OH-
buckminsterfullerene and nanotubes
ions arranged in rings (allows the addition of
organic molecules at the surface)
Nanoplates
● In particular graphenes, could be considered
two-dimensional nanoparticles
 ● Graphene (Fig. A) is a two-dimensional aromatic
compound; Fullerenes (exist in BN) are
three-dimensional aromatics

Formation of Carbon Nanotubes
● Graphite and fullerenes are special modifications
of carbon (essential in understanding carbon
nanotubes)
● The modifications of a substance differ in how the
atoms are arranged and bond with each other
Graphite
● crystallizes in a layered hexagonal structure
● Only three of the four valences of the carbon atom
are saturated
● The fourth electron remains unbound and becomes
delocalized
Fullerenes
● Consists of a combination of hexagons and
pentagons
● It leaves gaps between the hexagons; the closure
of these leads to the formation of a 3D structure (its
basic structural element)
● Spherical shapes are formed by combining a larger
number of these structures
● Are most stable when each pentagon is
surrounded by hexagons only
● It is possible to attach metal atoms or other
molecules at its surface
● Appear quite often in many layers; these
aggregates are known as “nested fullerenes” or
“onion molecules”

Electrons in Graphite

Within the Layers Between the Layers C60

● Mobile which shows ● Graphite is an ● The most common fullerene
electrical insulator ● Consist of 60 C atoms
conductivity ● Weak van der Waals ● Has a molecular structure comprising 12 pentagons
and 20 hexagons
● Strong covalent bonds
bonds
C20
● The fullerene with the least number of C atoms

C36
Graphene
● The smallest stable fullerene
● Monocrystalline (single layer) graphite
● Often denominated as an infinitely extended,
Nanotubes
two-dimensional aromatic compound
● Formed by wrapping graphene layers of limited size
● Reduce the energy stored in the dangling bonds by
to form a tube
forming tubes
● After rolling the graphene sheet, a nanotube with a
diameter of 1.35 nm is formed

● Boron nitride (BN) has single bonds because it is in

the three-valency state (no free electrons)
● BN nanotubes are wide-band semiconductors
●
 Properties and Applications of Nanomaterials Carbon Nanotubes behave electrically as…
(depends on the orientation of the hexagonal units in the graphene plane)

Nanocarbons
● A class of recently discovered materials Metal Semiconductor Electric Field
● Used in some cutting-edge technologies Emitters
● Fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, and graphene May be used as May be used
wiring for for transistors Can be used
Fullerenes small-scale and diodes for flat-screen
● Buckminsterfullerene (C60); in honor of R. circuits displays
Buckminster Fuller
● Each C60 is a molecular replica of a geodesic
dome Other Applications of Carbon Nanotubes
● In the solid state, it becomes crystalline (FCC) and is 1. More efficient solar cells
called fullerite 2. Better capacitors to replace batteries
3. Heat removal applications
Endohedral Fullerenes 4. Cancer treatments
● Compounds in which the particles are enclosed 5. Biomaterial applications
within the cage of carbon atoms 6. Body armor
7. Municipal water-treatment plants
Exohedral Fullerenes
● Compounds in which the particles are attached to Properties of Nanotubes
the outside of the fullerene shell ● Each nanotube is composed of millions of atoms
and its length is much greater than its diameter
Uses and Potential Applications of Fullerenes ● Nanotubes are extremely strong, stiff, and relatively
1. Antioxidants ductile
2. Biopharmaceuticals ● They have relatively low densities
3. Catalysts
4. Organic solar cells Bulk Nanotubes
5. Long-life batteries ● Collections of unorganized tube segments
6. Hgih-temperature superconductors ● Most likely will never achieve strengths comparable
7. Molecular magnets to individual tubes
● Used as reinforcements in polymer-matrix
nanocomposites

Graphene
● Newest member of the nanocarbon
● Single-atomic-layer of graphite composed of
hexagonally sp2 bonded carbon atoms
● The bonds are extremely strong, yet flexible
● Pristine graphene is still produced using the
adhesive-tape method

Carbon Nanotubes
● Its structure consists of a graphene that is rolled in a
tube
● Have the potential to be used in structural
applications
● Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube (SWCNT)
● Multiple-Walled Carbon Nanotubes (MWCNTs)
consist of concentric cylinders
Micromechanical Exfoliation
● aka the adhesive-tape method
● The first graphene material was produced by
peeling apart pieces of graphite, layer by layer
using plastic adhesive tape until a single layer of
carbon remained
Two Distinct Characteristics of Graphene
1. No atomic defects such as vacancies exist;
these sheets are extremely pure (only C atoms
are present)
 2. At room temperature, they move much faster
than conducting electrons in ordinary metals
and semiconducting materials

Properties of Graphene
● Labeled as the ultimate material
● Transparent
● Chemically inert
● Has a modulus of elasticity comparable to other
nanocarbons

Applications for Graphene

1. Touch-screens
2. Conductive ink for electronic printing
3. Transparent conductors
4. Transistors
5. Heat sinks
6. Polymer solar cells
7. Catalysts in fuel cells
8. Battery electrodes
9. Supercapacitors
10. Artificial muscle
11. Enzyme and DNA biosensors
12. Photimaging
13. Chemical sensors
14. nanocomposites

THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:
POLYMERS
Polymers crystallinity
● Is a molecular compound that can be distinguished
by a high molar mass.
● Ranging into thousands and even millions of mass
and they are made up of many repeating units.
Properties and Characterization of Polymers
Polymer Molecules
● Macromolecules are often referred to as molecules
in polymers because of their size.
1. The backbone of each of a carbon-chain polymer
● is a string of carbon atoms and within each
molecule, the atoms are bound together by
covalent interatomic bonds.
● Each of the two remaining valence electrons
for every carbon atom may be involved in side
bonding with atoms or radicals that are
positioned adjacent to the chain.

Synthetic (man-made) Natural polymers

polymers

2. Hydrocarbon ethylene (C2H4)

“early 20th century” “since life itself began”
● is a gas at ambient temperature and pressure
which has the following molecular structure:
These polymers Cellulose, starch, and
remarkably transformed other complex
our world as different carbohydrates are
materials can be examples of natural
created with properties polymers. Natural rubber
that are ideal for is a polymer obtained
different applications. from rubber trees and
even the code for life
itself, DNA, is a natural
3. Polyethylene (PE)
polymer.
● Is a solid polymeric material
● This process begins when an active center is
formed by the reaction between an initiator or
Monomers catalyst species (R·) and the ethylene
● (mono meaning “one”; meros meaning “unit”) monomer
● Are the small molecules that are used for
synthesizing polymers and each monomer is
analogous to a link in a chain.

Polymers
● (poly means “many”)
● Next, the polymer chain forms by the
● can be created from one monomer, or from a
sequential addition of monomer units to this
combination of two or more different monomers.
actively growing chain molecule which is
o Homopolymer a polymer is made up of
represented schematically as follows
only type of monomer (e.g. polyethylene)

Crude Oil
● Synthetic polymers can be made from many
different starting materials which usually come from
crude oil (raw material). ● After the addition of many ethylene monomer
o Presently, crude oil is the starting material units, the final result is the polyethylene
for many plastics, pharmaceuticals, fabrics, molecule (Figure 1). Representation of
and other carbon-based products. polyethylene chain structure is shown.
4. Polyethylene Common Polymeric Material

schematic a perspective of the

representation of repeat molecule, indicating the
unit and chain zigzag backbone
structures, structure

5. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
● Other chemistry of polymer structure such as
tetrafluoroethylene monomer
● (having the trade name Teflon) belongs to a
family of polymers called the fluorocarbons.

6. Vinyl chloride monomer (CH2=CHCl)

● is a slight variant of that for ethylene, in which
one of the four H atoms is replaced with a Cl
atom

Molecular Structures of Polymers

● The difference in the structure of the molecular
chains.
 Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization
● Polymers with very long chains has extremely
large molecular weights.
● During the polymerization process, not all
polymer chains will grow to the same length
and this results in a distribution of chain lengths
or molecular weights.
● measurements : viscosity and osmotic pressure
● The number-average molecular weight Mn is
obtained by dividing the chains into a series of
size ranges and then determining the number
fraction of chains within each size range.
Equation 1
• where Mi represents the mean (middle) molecular
weight of sine range i, and Ni is the fraction of the total
number of chains within the corresponding size range.
Equation 2
A weight-average molecular weight Mw is based on
the weight fraction of molecules within the various size
ranges. It is calculated according to:
where, again, Mi is the mean molecular weight within a
size range, whereas Wi denotes the weight fraction of
molecules within the same size interval.
Degree of Polymerization / Equation 3
● Degree of Polymerization (DP) is an alternative
way of expressing average chain size of a
polymer. DP represents the average number of
repeat units in a chain and it is related to the
number-average molecular weight Mn by the
equation:
where m is the repeat unit molecular weight.
Polymer Molecular Size Distribution
Figure 3. Hypothetical polymer molecule size
distributions on the basis of (a) number and (b) weight
fractions of molecules
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization
● The length of polymer chains has affected
many polymer properties. For example, as
molecular weight (about 100,000 g/mol) of a
polymer increases, its melting or softening
temperature also increases.
● But for polymers with very short chains or
having a molecular weights on the order of 100
g/mol, will usually exist as liquids at room
temperature.
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization
● Those with molecular weights of approximately
1000 g/mol exists as waxy solids (e.g. paraffin
wax) and soft resins.
● For polymers with molecular weights ranging
between 10,000 and several million g/mol exist
as solid, they are sometimes termed as high
polymers.
● Therefore, the same polymer material can
acquire various properties if it is produced with
different molecular weight.
Example 1
1. Assume that the molecular weight distributions
shown in Figure 3 are for poly(vinyl chloride). For
this material, compute (a) the number-average
molecular weight, (b) the degree of
polymerization, and (c) the weight-average
molecular weight.
● Data to be used for Number/Weight-Average
Molecular Weight Computations in Example 1.
 Copolymer Structures
Random
- Two different units are randomly dispersed
along the chain.
Alternating
- Two repeat units alternate chain positions.
Block
- Identical repeat units are clustered in blocks
along the chain.
Graft
- Homopolymer side branches of one type may
be grafted to homopolymer main chains that
are composed of a different repeat unit.

Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization

Polymer Crystallinity Overview

● Atomic arrangement in polymer materials is

more complex than metals and ceramics.
● In polymers, the arrangement involves
molecules rather than just atoms or ions.

Crystalline State in Polymers

● In the crystalline state, polymer chains pack to

form an ordered atomic array.
● Crystal structures are specified in terms of unit
cells, often with complex geometry.

Unit Cell Example for Polyethylene

Copolymers
● Composed of two repeat units. ● Figure 4 illustrates a unit cell for polyethylene
● Possible that it includes different sequencing with orthorhombic geometry.
arrangements along the polymer chains.
● The unit cell demonstrates the arrangement of
● Synthetic Rubbers are usually copolymers.
molecular chains.
 Partially Crystalline Nature of Polymers ● Crosslink bonds resist vibrational and rotational
chain motions at high temperatures.
● Polymer molecules are often partially crystalline
● Excessive heating causes severance of crosslink
or semicrystalline.
bonds and polymer degradation.
● Crystalline regions are dispersed within the
amorphous material. Properties of Thermosetting Polymers

Amorphous Regions in Polymers ● Generally harder and stronger than

thermoplastics.
● Amorphous regions result from chain disorder,
● Better dimensional stability.
misalignment, twisting, kinking, and coiling.
● Examples of thermosets: vulcanized rubbers,
● Chain hindrances prevent strict ordering in
epoxies, phenolics, some polyester resins
every segment of each chain.

Extent of Crystallinity

● The extent of crystallinity varies from completely

amorphous to nearly entirely (up to 95%)
crystalline.

Comparison with Metals and Ceramics

● Polymeric materials exhibit different behavior

compared to metals (almost always entirely
crystalline) and many ceramics (either totally
crystalline or totally noncrystalline).

Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers

Thermoplastic Polymers

● Soften upon heating and liquefy.

● Harden when cooled, and this process is
reversible and repeatable.
● Exposure to very high temperatures can lead to
irreversible degradation.
● Examples: polyethylene, polystyrene, poly
(ethylene terephthalate), poly (vinyl chloride).

Thermosetting Polymers

● Network polymers with covalent crosslinks

between molecular chains.
● Do not soften upon heating; they become
permanently hard during formation.
●
Unit 3. The Chemistry of Engineering
Materials
Metallic Bonding
METALS Metallic bond is a force that holds atoms together in a
metallic substance; a type of chemical bond formed
I. OCCURRENCE OF METALS between positively charged atoms in which the free
A mineral where most metals come from, is a naturally electrons are shared among a lattice of cations.
occurring substance with a range of chemical composition.
Metallic bonds result from the electrostatic attraction
A mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow between metal cations and delocalized electrons.
economical recovery of a desired metal is known as ore.
Thus, an ore is a deposit in Earth’s crust of one or more A delocalized electron is an electron in an atom, ion, or
valuable minerals. molecule not associated with any single atom or a single
covalent bond.
Most abundant metals which exists as minerals in the
Earth’s crust: Al Fe Ca Mg Na K Ti Mn
II. METALLURGY
1. Aluminum
The science & technology of separating metals from their
2. Iron
ores and of compounding alloys is called metallurgical
3. Calcium
process.
4. Magnesium
5. Sodium
An alloy is a solid solution either of two or more metals, or
6. Potassium
of a metal or metals with one or more nonmetals.
7. Titanium
8. Manganese
The three principal steps in the recovery of a metal from
its ore are:
Seawater is a rich source of some metal ions, such as Na+,
1. Preparation of the Ore
Mg2+ and Ca2+.
2. Production of the Metal
3. Purification of the Metal
Manganese nodules are combinations of rock on the sea
bottom which is composed of concentric layers of iron and
METALLURGICAL PROCESS
manganese hydroxides around a core.

Principal Types of Minerals

The Metallurgy of Iron

Sodium and potassium are isolated primarily from brines
Iron Ore - Iron ores contain from 50% to around 70% iron,
(solutions of NaCl and KCl). Potassium was the first alkali
depending on grade (hematite is almost 70% iron).
metal to be prepared by electrolysis.
Coke - Supplies heat for chemical reactions and produces
Lithium is obtained mostly from the mineral spodumene,
carbon monoxide (CO) to reduce iron ore.
LiAl(SiO3)2.
Limestone - Used as a flux to react with and remove
Tungsten (commercial production) : WO3 (s) + 3 H2 (g) à W
impurities in molten iron.
(s) + 3 H2O (g)
Hot Gases (CO, H2, CO2, H2O, N2, O2, and fuels) - Used to
burn coke.
Slag - A mixture of calcium silicate & calcium aluminate
that remains molten at the furnace temperature.
Blast Furnace Process - a refractory-lined chamber with a
diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30 to 35 ft) at its widest and a
height of 40 m (125 ft).
Pig Iron - product of blast furnace. It contains over 4% C,
plus other impurities: 0.3-1.3% Si, 0.5-2.0% Mn, 0.1-1.0% P,
and 0.02-0.08% S.
STEEL
Steel - It is an alloy of iron containing from 0.02% and
2.11% carbon by weight. It often includes other alloying
elements: manganese, chromium, nickel, and molybdenum.
Casting of Ingots – a discrete production process.
Molds made of high carbon iron, tapered at top or bottom
for removal of solid casting. The mold is placed on a
platform called a stool. After solidification the mold is lifted,
leaving the casting on the stool. 10-12 hrs may be required
for casting to solidify.
Continuous Casting – a semi-continuous process.
Continuous casting is widely applied in aluminum and
copper production, but its most noteworthy application is in
steel-making. Dramatic productivity increases over ingot
casting. Continuous casting reduces solidification time by an
order of magnitude. Steel is poured into tundish and flows
into a water-cooled continuous mold; it solidifies as it
travels down in mold.
STEEL MAKING
A furnace called a cupola is commonly used for converting
pig iron into gray cast iron.
Pig Iron is the iron obtained from the blast furnace and it
contains about 4% of carbon as impurity.
Cast Iron is the iron obtained by melting of the mixture of
pig iron and scrap iron and coke by hot air blast. It has
around 3% of carbon content. So, it is more pure than pig
iron. Cast iron is extremely hard and brittle.
Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) Sequence:
1. Charging of scrap
2. Pig iron
3. Blowing
4. Tapping the molten steel
5. Pouring of the slag
FOUR CATEGORIES OF STEEL:
1. Plain Carbon Steels - Carbon is the principal alloying
element, only small amounts of other elements (.5%
manganese is normal)
● Low carbon steel
● Medium carbon steels
● High carbon steels
●
2. Low Alloy Steels - Iron-carbon alloys that contain
additional alloying elements in amounts totaling less than
5% wt.
3. Stainless Steels - Highly alloyed steels (typically with Cr
and/or Ni) designed for corrosion resistance.
4. Tool Steels - is a class of (usually) highly alloyed steels
designed for use as industrial cutting tools, dies, and
molds.
III. Band Theory of Electrical Conductivity
It states that delocalized electrons move freely through
bands formed by overlapping molecular orbitals.
IV. THE ALKALI AND ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Electronegativity - a measure of the ability of an atom to
attract the electrons when the atom is part of a
compound. Electronegativity values generally increase from
left to right across the periodic table and decrease from top
to bottom of a group. The highest electronegativity value is
for fluorine (4.0) and Cesium the lowest (EN = 0.79).
Metallic Property
Metallic character of an element - defined as how readily
an atom can lose an electron.
Metallic character decreases as you move across a period in
the periodic table from left to right. Metallic character
increases as you move down an element group in the
periodic table.
Atomic Radius - the distance between the nuclei of two
identical atoms bonded together. The atomic radius of
atoms generally decreases from left to right across a period.
The atomic radius of atoms generally increases from top to
bottom within a group. From top to bottom down a group,
electronegativity decreases.
Electron Affinity - the degree to which an atom or
molecule attracts additional electrons; the minimum
energy required to remove an electron from a negative ion
to produce a neutral atom or molecule. It increases upward
across periods of a periodic table for the groups and from
left to right.
Physical Properties of Metals - first digit indicates general type
1. Shiny appearance. - last two digits give specific grade within type
2. Hardness.
3. Malleability.
4. Ductility.
5. Electrical conductivity.
Alkali Metals - most electropositive elements
No two metals are absolutely identical.
- least electronegative elements
- bodycentered crystal structure with low packing efficiency
Corrosion
- low melting point
Corrosion - deterioration of metals by an electrochemical
- soft enough to be sliced with a knife
process like rusting of iron and tarnishing of silver.

Copper forms a layer of copper carbonate (CuCO3), a

greenish substance called platina.

Corrosion Protection
Passivation – the surface of the iron metal is made inactive
by treating it with a strong oxidizing agent such as nitric
acid to form a thin oxide layer at the surface. Sodium
chromate is used for radiators and cooling systems.

Alloys – combining the metal with other metals to reduce

its tendency to oxidize. Lithium - lightest known metal and has great chemical
reactivity.
Plating – applying a thin layer of other metals like tin or zinc - Never occur naturally in elemental form
on the surface of the iron. - found with halide, sulfate, carbonate, and silicate ions.

Cathodic protection - a process in which metal that is to be

protected from corrosion is made the cathode in what
amounts to a galvanic cell.

Electronegativity - the ability of the atoms to attract the

electrons from the other elements.

Electron Affinity - the amount of energy that is liberated

whenever a molecule or a neutral atom tends to acquire
an electron from the other elements.
Alkaline Earth Metals (beryllium, magnesium, calcium,
Designation Schemes for Steels - developed by American strontium, barium, and radium) - second most reactive
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and Society of Automotive metals. Group 1 metals have increasing reactivity in the
Engineers (SAE) higher periods.
- Specified by a 4-digit number system YYXX
- YY is the alloying elements Alkaline Earth Metals
- XX is the carbon % (in hundredths) ●shiny
●silvery-white
●somewhat reactive metals at standard temperature
and pressure
●readily lose their two outermost electrons to form
cations with a 2+ charge
●low densities
●low melting points
●low boiling points

Stainless Steels - three-digit AISI numbering scheme

Aluminum
● High electrical and thermal conductivity
● Corrosion resistance is excellent due to formation of a
hard thin oxide surface film
● Very ductile metal, noted for its formability
● Pure aluminum is relatively low in strength, but it can be
alloyed and heat treated to compete with some steels,
especially when weight is taken into consideration.
● Properties of Al alloys are influenced by work hardening
and heat treatment, so temper must be designated in
addition to composition. This designation is attached to the
4-digit code, separated by a hyphen, to indicate treatment
or no treatment.
VI. TRANSITION METALS
Copper
Low electrical resistivity - commercially pure copper is
widely used as an electrical conductor and excellent
thermal conductor.
Nickel and Its Alloys - similar to iron in some respects.
2. Nickel-based alloys - better high temperature strength
than alloy steels
3. Cobalt-based alloys - ≈40% Co and ≈20% chromium
Shaping, Assembly and Finishing Processes for Metals
Metals are shaped by all of the basic processes: casting,
powder metallurgy, deformation, and material removal
Methods to Enhance Mechanical Properties in Metals
1. Alloying - important technique to strengthen metals
2. Cold working - strain hardening during deformation to
increase strength (also reduces ductility). Strengthening of
the metal occurs as a byproduct of the forming operation.
3. Heat treatment - heating and cooling cycles performed
on a metal to beneficially change its mechanical properties.
They operate by altering the microstructure of the metal,
which in turn determines properties.

Titanium and Its Alloys - density of Ti is between aluminum
and iron; lightweight and good strength-to-weight ratio.
(thus used in aerospace applications)
Zinc and Its Alloys - low melting point makes it attractive as
a casting metal, especially die casting; also provides
corrosion protection when coated onto steel or iron; the
term galvanized steel refers to steel coated with zinc.
Lead and Tin - often considered together because of their
low melting temperatures and use as soldering alloys.
Lead - dense, low melting point; low strength, low
hardness, high ductility, good corrosion resistance.
Types of Heat Treatments to improve quality:
1. Normalizing - The material is heated to between 750-980
°C then cooled at room temperature; product: high strength
and high ductility, tougher than annealed steel.
2. Annealing - heating above the critical temperature then
controlled cooling inside a furnace.
3. Quenching - heating then rapid cooling in water or oil, for
hardening steel.
4. Tempering - reheating below critical temperature,
holding the temperature for a specific period, then then
slowly cooling in still air.

Tin - even lower melting point than lead; low strength, low
hardness, good ductility.

Refractory Metals
1. Molybdenum
2. Tungsten
3. Columbium
4. Tantalum

Superalloys
Superalloys - high-performance alloys designed to meet
demanding requirements for strength and resistance to
surface degradation at high service temperatures

Three Groups of Superalloys

1. Iron-based alloys - in some cases iron is less than 50% of
total composition
 ‭THE CHEMISTRY OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS:‬
‭Bent Structure of Water Molecule‬
‭The Chemistry of the Environment‬
‭●‬ T‭ he‬‭three‬‭atoms‬‭in‬‭water‬‭molecules‬‭(H-O-H)‬‭are‬‭not‬
‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭straight‬ ‭line‬‭;‬ ‭instead,‬ ‭they‬ ‭form‬ ‭an‬ ‭angle‬ ‭of‬
‭Properties and Characteristics of Water‬
‭104.5°.‬
‭●‬ ‭ as‬ ‭various‬ ‭distinctive‬ ‭properties‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬
H
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭bent‬‭structure‬‭of‬‭water‬‭molecule‬‭is‬‭due‬‭to‬‭fact‬
‭fundamental‬ ‭to‬ ‭life‬ ‭acquired‬ ‭from‬ ‭its‬ ‭molecular‬
‭that:‬ ‭there‬ ‭is‬ ‭(1)‬ ‭a‬ ‭stronger‬ ‭attraction‬ ‭between‬
‭structure‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭interaction‬ ‭among‬ ‭individual‬
‭oxygen‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭negative‬ ‭electron‬ ‭than‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
‭molecules.‬
‭hydrogen‬‭atoms,‬‭(2)‬‭the‬‭water‬‭molecule‬‭acts‬‭like‬‭a‬
‭●‬ ‭Its‬‭bond‬‭is‬‭covalent‬‭in‬‭nature‬‭with‬‭a‬‭bent‬‭molecular‬
‭dipole‬‭having‬‭opposite‬‭electrical‬‭charges‬‭at‬‭either‬
‭geometry.‬
‭●‬ ‭It has the tendency to‬‭form hydrogen bonds.‬ ‭end,‬ ‭and‬ ‭(3)‬ ‭water‬ ‭dipole‬ ‭may‬ ‭be‬ ‭attracted‬ ‭to‬
‭●‬ ‭Has a‬‭polar character‬ ‭either‬ ‭positively‬ ‭or‬ ‭negatively‬ ‭charged‬ ‭ions‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Has the capability to‬‭hydrate metal ions‬ ‭Example‬‭:‬ ‭when‬ ‭sodium‬‭chloride‬‭(NaCl)‬‭dissolves‬‭in‬
‭water.‬
‭Important Properties of Water‬
‭Additional Properties of Water‬
‭●‬ ‭At‬‭standard‬‭temperature‬‭and‬‭pressure‬‭(STP)‬‭,‬‭water‬
‭is‬‭a‬‭liquid‬‭with‬‭a‬‭temperature‬‭of‬‭25‬‭°C‬‭and‬‭pressure‬
‭of 1 atm.‬
‭●‬ ‭Has‬ ‭a‬ ‭high‬ ‭boiling‬ ‭point‬ ‭of‬ ‭100‬ ‭°C‬‭(212‬‭°F)‬‭but‬‭this‬
‭property‬ ‭vary‬ ‭with‬‭liquids‬‭that‬‭has‬‭same‬‭molecular‬
‭structures‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭sulfide‬ ‭(H2S)‬ ‭that‬ ‭has‬
‭much lower boiling points.‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬ ‭it‬ ‭freezes,‬ ‭it‬ ‭expands‬ ‭while‬ ‭most‬ ‭liquids‬
‭contract‬ ‭when‬ ‭they‬ ‭solidify.‬ ‭This‬ ‭explains‬ ‭why‬ ‭ice‬
‭floats‬‭on‬‭water.‬‭It‬‭becomes‬‭less‬‭dense‬‭.‬‭(less‬‭density‬
‭= float ; high density = sink)‬

‭Classification of Water by Source‬

‭●‬ ‭Potable Water‬
‭Hydrogen Bond‬ ‭-‬ ‭safe‬‭for‬‭drinking,‬‭cooking,‬‭bathing‬‭and‬‭washing‬
‭●‬ S‭ pecial‬ ‭type‬ ‭of‬ ‭bond‬ ‭that‬ ‭can‬ ‭form‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬
‭dishes.‬
‭hydrogen‬‭in‬‭one‬‭water‬‭molecule‬‭and‬‭the‬‭oxygen‬‭in‬
‭●‬ ‭Surface Water‬
‭anothe‬‭r‬‭water molecule.‬
‭-‬ ‭most convenient source‬‭for human activities.‬
‭●‬ ‭Takes‬ ‭place‬ ‭because‬ ‭the‬ ‭oxygen‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭partial‬
‭-‬ ‭can be found in‬‭lakes, rivers, and streams.‬
‭negative‬ ‭charge‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭a‬ ‭partial‬
‭●‬ ‭Groundwater‬
‭positive charge.‬
‭●‬ ‭An‬ ‭example‬ ‭of‬ ‭an‬ ‭intermolecular‬ ‭force‬‭;‬ ‭that‬ ‭is,‬ ‭a‬ ‭-‬ ‭less convenient‬‭to access.‬
‭force‬ ‭that‬ ‭occurs‬ ‭between‬ ‭molecules‬‭.‬ ‭-‬ ‭fresh‬ ‭water‬ ‭found‬ ‭in‬ ‭underground‬ ‭reservoirs‬
‭(intramolecular - between atoms).‬ ‭also‬‭known as aquifers‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Electrostatic attraction‬‭between a hydrogen atom,‬
‭which is‬‭bonded to a highly electronegative atom‬
‭(oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine).‬

‭Difference Between Covalent and Hydrogen Bond‬

‭●‬ ‭Covalent‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭much‬ ‭stronger‬ ‭bond‬ ‭which‬
‭connects atoms within molecules.‬
‭●‬ ‭Atoms‬ ‭involved‬ ‭in‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭bonding‬ ‭are‬ ‭farther‬
‭apart‬‭than they are in covalent bond.‬
 ‭behave‬ ‭independently‬ ‭and‬ ‭have‬ ‭very‬ ‭different‬
T‭ he Hydrological Cycle‬ ‭chemical and biological properties.‬
‭●‬ ‭Includes‬ ‭all‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭present‬ ‭on‬ a
‭ nd‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭●‬ ‭Metalimnion or Thermocline‬
‭earth‬ ‭-‬ ‭shear-plane,‬ ‭or‬ ‭layer‬ ‭between‬ ‭epilimnion‬ ‭and‬
‭●‬ ‭mainly‬ ‭describes‬ ‭the‬ ‭movement‬‭and‬‭conservation‬ ‭hypolimnion‬
‭of water‬‭on Earth.‬
‭Concentration Units in Aqueous‬
‭Two distinct processes for the transfer of water to the‬ ‭●‬ ‭Solvent‬
‭Earth’s atmosphere‬ ‭-‬ ‭often‬ ‭a‬‭liquid‬‭that‬‭is‬‭capable‬‭of‬‭dissolving‬‭one‬
‭●‬ ‭a. Evaporation‬ ‭or more pure substances‬‭.‬
‭-‬ ‭conversion‬ ‭of‬ ‭liquid‬ ‭water‬ ‭from‬ ‭lakes,‬‭streams,‬ ‭●‬ ‭Solute‬
‭and other bodies of water‬‭to water vapor.‬ ‭-‬ ‭solid, liquid or gas that‬‭dissolves in a solvent‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭b. Transpiration‬ ‭●‬ ‭Solution‬
‭-‬ ‭water‬ ‭is‬ ‭emitted‬ ‭from‬ ‭plants‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬ ‭-‬ ‭a‬ ‭homogeneous‬ ‭(of‬ ‭uniform‬ ‭composition)‬
‭stomata‬ ‭mixture of a solvent and one or more solutes.‬
‭●‬ ‭Evapotranspiration‬ ‭●‬ ‭Aqueous solution‬
‭-‬ ‭combined‬ ‭losses‬ ‭of‬ ‭water‬ ‭due‬ ‭to‬‭transpiration‬ ‭-‬ ‭solution in which‬‭water is the solvent‬‭.‬
‭and evaporation.‬ ‭●‬ ‭Concentration‬
‭●‬ ‭Precipitation‬ ‭-‬ ‭ratio‬‭of‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭solute‬‭to‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭of‬
‭-‬ ‭primary‬‭mechanism‬‭by‬‭which‬‭water‬‭is‬‭released‬ ‭solution.‬
‭from the atmosphere.‬ ‭-‬ ‭are‬‭expressed‬‭with‬‭different‬‭units‬‭—percent‬‭(%),‬
‭-‬ ‭takes‬ ‭several‬ ‭forms,‬ ‭most‬‭common‬‭of‬‭which‬‭in‬ ‭parts‬ ‭per‬ ‭million‬ ‭(ppm),‬ ‭parts‬‭per‬‭billion‬‭(ppb),‬
‭temperate climates is rain‬‭.‬ ‭and molarity (M).‬
‭●‬ ‭As‬ ‭water‬ ‭falls‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭earth’s‬ ‭surface,‬ ‭the‬ ‭droplets‬ ‭●‬ ‭Weight percent, P‬
‭either:‬ ‭-‬ ‭express‬ ‭approximate‬ ‭concentrations‬ ‭of‬
‭-‬ ‭Run‬ ‭over‬ ‭the‬ ‭ground‬ ‭into‬ ‭streams‬ ‭and‬ ‭rivers‬ ‭commercial‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭or‬ ‭of‬ ‭solid‬
‭referred‬ ‭to‬ ‭as‬ ‭surface‬ ‭runoff,‬‭overland‬‭flow,‬‭or‬ ‭concentrations of sludges.‬
‭direct runoff.‬ ‭-‬ ‭grams‬ ‭of‬ ‭substance‬ ‭per‬ ‭100‬ ‭g‬ ‭of‬ ‭solution‬ ‭or‬
‭-‬ ‭Move‬ ‭laterally‬ ‭just‬ ‭below‬ ‭the‬ ‭ground‬ ‭surface‬ ‭suspension and is mathematically expressed as‬
‭called interflow‬
‭-‬ ‭Move‬ ‭vertically‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬ ‭soils‬ ‭to‬ ‭form‬
‭groundwater‬‭called infiltration or percolation.‬

‭The Characteristics of Bodies of Water‬

‭●‬ ‭Surface water‬
‭-‬ ‭occurs primarily in streams, lakes, and reservoirs.‬ ‭Where :‬
‭●‬ ‭Wetlands‬ ‭P = percent of substance by weight‬
‭-‬ ‭are‬ ‭flooded‬ ‭areas‬‭(permanently‬‭or‬‭seasonally)‬ ‭W = mass of substance (grams)‬
‭in‬‭which‬‭the‬‭water‬‭is‬‭shallow‬‭enough‬‭to‬‭enable‬ ‭W0 = mass of solute (grams)‬
‭growth of bottom-rooted plants‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭Estuaries‬ ‭●‬ ‭In‬ ‭the‬ ‭case‬ ‭of‬‭many‬‭substances‬‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭drinking‬
‭-‬ ‭arms of the ocean‬‭into which streams flow‬‭.‬ ‭water‬ ‭that‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭very‬ ‭low‬ ‭concentration,‬ ‭parts‬ ‭per‬
‭-‬ ‭has‬‭unique‬‭chemical‬‭and‬‭biological‬‭properties‬ ‭million (ppm) is more commonly used.‬
‭because of the mixing of fresh and salt water.‬ ‭●‬ ‭For‬ ‭example,‬ ‭the‬ ‭acceptable‬ ‭limit‬ ‭for‬ ‭nitrate‬ ‭ions‬
‭-‬ ‭the‬‭breeding ground of much marine life.‬ ‭found‬‭in‬‭well‬‭water‬‭in‬‭some‬‭agricultural‬‭areas‬‭is‬‭10‬‭ppm‬‭;‬
‭the‬‭limit for fluoride ions is 4 ppm.‬
‭Thermal Stratification‬ ‭●‬ ‭1ppm = 1mg/L‬
‭●‬ ‭During‬ ‭the‬ ‭summer‬ ‭a‬ ‭surface‬ ‭layer‬ ‭(epilimnion)‬ ‭is‬ ‭●‬ ‭In aqueous solutions, 1 ppb = 1 μg/L.‬
‭heated‬‭by‬‭solar‬‭radiation‬‭and,‬‭because‬‭of‬‭its‬‭lower‬ ‭●‬ ‭One‬ ‭contaminant‬ ‭found‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭range‬ ‭of‬ ‭parts‬ ‭per‬
‭density,‬ ‭floats‬ ‭upon‬ ‭the‬ ‭bottom‬ ‭layer,‬ ‭or‬ ‭billion‬ ‭is‬ ‭mercury.‬‭1ppb‬‭Hg‬‭=‬‭1g‬‭Hg‬‭dissolved‬‭in‬‭1billion‬
‭hypolimnion‬‭.‬ ‭This‬ ‭phenomenon‬ ‭is‬ ‭called‬ ‭thermal‬ ‭grams‬ ‭H2O‬ ‭=‬ ‭1‬ ‭microgram‬ ‭(1‬ ‭μg‬ ‭or‬ ‭1‬ ‭×‬ ‭10–6‬ ‭g)‬‭of‬‭Hg‬
‭stratification.‬ ‭dissolved in 1 liter of H2O.‬
‭●‬ ‭When‬ ‭an‬ ‭appreciable‬ ‭temperature‬ ‭difference‬
‭exists‬ ‭between‬ ‭the‬‭two‬‭layers,‬‭they‬‭do‬‭not‬‭mix‬‭but‬

‭●‬ ‭The‬‭acceptable‬‭limit‬‭for‬‭mercury‬‭in‬‭drinking‬‭water‬‭is‬‭2‬
‭ppb.‬
‭●‬ ‭Molarity (M)‬
‭-‬ ‭concentration‬‭unit‬‭expressed‬‭by‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬
‭moles of solute present in 1 liter of solution.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬‭great‬‭advantage‬‭of‬‭molarity‬‭is‬‭that‬‭solutions‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭same‬ ‭molarity‬ ‭contain‬ ‭exactly‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭number‬ ‭of‬
‭moles‬ ‭of‬ ‭solute,‬ ‭and‬ ‭hence‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬ ‭number‬ ‭of‬
‭molecules‬‭(ions or atoms) of solute.‬
‭●‬‭The mass of a solute varies depending on its identity.‬
‭The Reactions of Acids and Bases with Water‬
‭●‬‭Acids‬
‭-‬ ‭(at‬ ‭a‬ ‭molecular‬ ‭level)‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭compound‬ ‭that‬
‭releases‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭ions‬ ‭(H+),‬ ‭in‬ ‭aqueous‬
‭solution.‬
‭●‬‭A‬‭hydrogen‬‭atom‬‭is‬‭electrically‬‭neutral‬‭and‬‭consists‬‭of‬
‭one‬‭electron‬‭and‬‭one‬‭proton.‬‭If‬‭the‬‭electron‬‭is‬‭lost‬‭,‬‭the‬
‭atom‬ ‭becomes‬ ‭a‬ ‭positively‬ ‭charged‬ ‭ion,‬‭H+.‬‭Because‬
‭only‬‭a‬‭proton‬‭remains,‬‭sometimes‬‭H+‬‭is‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬‭a‬
‭proton.‬
‭●‬ ‭A‬ ‭chemical‬ ‭reaction‬ ‭with‬‭the‬‭presence‬‭of‬‭H3O+‬‭has‬
‭the‬ ‭characteristic‬ ‭property‬ ‭of‬ ‭an‬ ‭acid‬ ‭but‬ ‭chemists‬
‭often‬ ‭simply‬ ‭write‬ ‭H+‬ ‭when‬ ‭referring‬ ‭to‬ ‭acids‬ ‭and‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬
‭understood that this means H3O+ in aqueous solutions.‬
‭Gases that dissolves in water to produce an acidic‬
‭solution‬
‭●‬‭Hydrogen chloride‬
‭●‬‭Sulfur dioxide‬
‭●‬‭Nitrogen dioxide‬
‭These‬‭two‬‭gases‬‭are‬‭emitted‬‭during‬‭the‬‭combustion‬‭of‬
‭certain‬ ‭fuels‬ ‭(particularly‬ ‭coal)‬ ‭to‬ ‭produce‬ ‭heat‬ ‭and‬
‭electricity.‬ ‭SO2‬ ‭and‬ ‭NO2‬ ‭both‬‭dissolve‬‭in‬‭rain‬‭and‬‭mist‬
‭which‬ ‭produce‬ ‭acids‬ ‭that‬ ‭in‬ ‭turn‬ ‭fall‬ ‭back‬ ‭to‬ ‭Earth’s‬
‭surface in rain or snow.‬
‭●‬‭Carbon Dioxide‬
‭-‬ ‭as‬ ‭compared‬ ‭to‬ ‭more‬ ‭polar‬ ‭compounds‬‭such‬
‭as‬ ‭SO2‬ ‭and‬ ‭NO2,‬ ‭carbon‬‭dioxide‬‭is‬‭far‬‭soluble‬
‭in‬ ‭water.‬ ‭Even‬ ‭so,‬ ‭it‬ ‭dissolves‬ ‭to‬ ‭produce‬ ‭a‬
‭weakly acidic solution‬‭.‬
‭-‬ ‭carbonic‬ ‭acid‬ ‭(H2CO3)‬ ‭dissolves‬ ‭to‬ ‭produce‬
‭H+‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭hydrogen‬ ‭carbonate‬ ‭ion,‬ ‭also‬
‭known as the‬‭bicarbonate ion HCO3‬
‭-‬ ‭ ouble-arrow‬ ‭symbol‬ ‭indicates‬ ‭that‬ ‭this‬
d ‭pH= −log [H+]‬
‭reaction‬ ‭occurs‬ ‭only‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭limited‬ ‭extent‬‭,‬
‭producing‬ ‭small‬ ‭amounts‬ ‭of‬ ‭H+‬ ‭and‬ ‭HCO3-‬
T‭ hus,‬ ‭a‬ ‭carbonic‬ ‭acid‬ ‭is‬ ‭considered‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭a‬
‭weak acid.‬
‭-‬ ‭also‬‭indicates‬‭equilibrium‬‭reaction‬‭(has‬‭forward‬
‭& reverse orientation)‬
‭●‬‭Bases‬
‭-‬ ‭compound‬ ‭that‬ ‭releases‬ ‭hydroxide‬ ‭ions‬ ‭(OH–)‬
‭in aqueous solution.‬
‭-‬ ‭aqueous‬ ‭solutions‬ ‭of‬ ‭bases‬ ‭have‬ ‭their‬ ‭own‬
‭characteristic‬ ‭properties‬ ‭attributable‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭presence of OH–‬‭(aq).‬
‭-‬ ‭include‬ ‭household‬ ‭ammonia‬ ‭(an‬ ‭aqueous‬
‭solution‬ ‭of‬ ‭NH3‬‭)‬ ‭and‬ ‭NaOH‬ ‭(sometimes‬‭called‬
‭lye‬‭).‬
‭-‬ ‭compounds‬ ‭containing‬ ‭the‬ ‭hydroxide‬ ‭ion.‬ ‭For‬
‭example,‬ ‭sodium‬ ‭hydroxide‬ ‭(NaOH)‬‭,‬ ‭although‬
‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭very‬ ‭soluble‬ ‭in‬ ‭water,‬ ‭most‬ ‭compounds‬
‭containing‬ ‭the‬ ‭hydroxide‬ ‭ion‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬‭,‬
‭according‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭solubility‬ ‭rules‬ ‭of‬ ‭ionic‬
‭compounds.‬
‭-‬ ‭those‬‭that‬‭dissociate‬‭completely‬‭in‬‭water,‬‭such‬
‭as NaOH, are called‬‭strong bases‬‭.‬
‭ In‬ ‭the‬ ‭reaction‬ ‭above,‬ ‭an‬ ‭acid‬‭will‬‭donate‬‭a‬‭proton,‬
●
‭H+,‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭base.‬ ‭In‬ ‭this‬ ‭case,‬ ‭water‬ ‭acts‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭acid‬‭,‬
‭which donates a proton to NH3.‬
‭ In‬ ‭the‬ ‭reverse‬ ‭(right–left)‬ ‭direction,‬ ‭the‬ ‭NH4+‬ ‭ion‬
●
‭donates‬‭a‬‭proton‬‭to‬‭OH-‬‭.‬‭Hence,‬‭NH4+‬‭is‬‭referred‬‭to‬‭as‬
‭a‬ ‭conjugate‬ ‭acid‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭base‬ ‭NH3,‬ ‭and‬ ‭OH–‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬
‭conjugate base of the acid H2O.‬
‭The Uses of pH Scale in Quantifying Acidity/Basicity‬
‭ )‬‭The‬‭notation‬‭pH‬‭is‬‭always‬‭written‬‭with‬‭a‬‭small‬‭p‬‭and‬
a
‭a‬‭capital H‬‭that stands for‬‭“‬‭power of hydrogen‬‭”.‬
‭ )‬ ‭pH‬ ‭is‬ ‭usually‬‭between‬‭0‬‭and‬‭14‬‭which‬‭indicates‬‭the‬
b
‭acidity (or basicity) of a solution.‬
‭ )‬ ‭pH‬ ‭7‬ ‭separates‬ ‭acidic‬ ‭from‬‭basic‬‭solutions,‬‭this‬‭is‬‭at‬
c
‭the midpoint on the scale.‬
‭ )‬‭Solutions‬‭with‬‭a‬‭pH‬‭less‬‭than‬‭7‬‭are‬‭acidic‬‭,‬‭those‬‭with‬
d
‭a‬‭pH greater than 7 are basic‬‭(alkaline).‬
‭ )‬ ‭Solutions‬ ‭of‬ ‭pH‬ ‭7‬ ‭(e.g.‬ ‭pure‬ ‭water)‬ ‭have‬ ‭equal‬
e
‭concentrations‬ ‭of‬ ‭H+‬ ‭and‬ ‭OH-‬ ‭and‬ ‭are‬ ‭said‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬
‭neutral.‬
f‭ )pH‬ ‭is‬ ‭related to‬ ‭the‬ ‭concentration‬
‭of hydrogen ion concentration thru this equation:‬
‭Antilog of pH = H+=10^-pH‬
‭Unit : M‬
‭ ‬ ‭The‬ ‭balance‬ ‭in‬ ‭our‬ ‭oceans‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭sources‬ ‭of‬
●
‭water can be affected by a change in pH.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Because‬ ‭acid‬ ‭is‬ ‭consumed‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬ ‭carbonate‬ ‭and‬
●
‭ ‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭known‬ ‭that‬ ‭ocean‬ ‭water‬ ‭has‬ ‭small‬ ‭amounts‬ ‭of‬
●
‭bicarbonate‬ ‭ions,‬ ‭the‬ ‭pH‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭lake‬ ‭remains‬ ‭more‬‭or‬
‭carbonate‬ ‭ions,‬ ‭bicarbonate‬ ‭ions,‬ ‭and‬ ‭carbonic‬ ‭acid‬
‭that‬ ‭arise‬ ‭from‬ ‭dissolved‬ ‭carbon‬ ‭dioxide‬ ‭which‬‭play‬‭a‬
‭role‬ ‭in‬ ‭maintaining‬ ‭the‬ ‭pH‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭ocean‬ ‭at‬
‭approximately 8.2.‬
‭ ‬ ‭These‬ ‭three‬ ‭species‬‭(Figure‬‭6)‬‭also‬‭help‬‭maintain‬‭the‬
● ‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭living‬‭organisms‬‭(biota)‬‭in‬‭an‬‭aquatic‬‭ecosystem‬
‭pH of our blood at about 7.4.‬
‭bicarbonate buffer system‬
‭ ollusks, sea urchins, and corals‬
M ‭organisms‬‭because‬‭they‬‭are‬‭producers‬‭that‬‭utilize‬‭solar‬
‭●‬‭relate to the chemistry of the oceans since they‬‭build‬
‭their shells out of‬‭calcium carbonate, CaCO3.‬
‭Remember‬
‭Changing‬ ‭the‬ ‭amount‬ ‭of‬ ‭one‬ ‭chemical‬‭species‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭ocean‬ ‭(such‬ ‭as‬ ‭carbonic‬ ‭acid)‬ ‭can‬ ‭affect‬ ‭the‬
‭concentration of the others, in turn affecting marine life.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭amount‬ ‭of‬ ‭carbon‬ ‭dioxide‬ ‭released‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬
‭atmosphere‬ ‭increased‬‭.‬ ‭As‬ ‭a‬ ‭consequence,‬ ‭the‬ ‭pH‬ ‭of‬
‭seawater‬ ‭has‬ ‭dropped,‬ ‭which‬ ‭corresponds‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭26%‬
‭increase in the amount of H+ in seawater.‬
‭Ocean acidification‬
‭is‬‭the‬‭lowering‬‭of‬‭pH‬‭in‬‭our‬‭ocean‬‭due‬‭to‬‭the‬‭increased‬
‭atmospheric carbon dioxide.‬
‭**‬ ‭High‬ ‭concentration‬ ‭of‬ ‭H‬ ‭ion,‬ ‭low‬‭pH‬‭>>‬‭high‬‭acidity‬
‭level = ocean acidification **‬
‭●‬‭In‬‭surface‬‭waters,‬‭organisms‬‭experience‬‭a‬‭difference‬
‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭environment‬ ‭when‬ ‭acid‬ ‭rain‬‭(also‬‭called‬‭acidic‬
‭precipitation)‬‭fills lakes and streams.‬
‭●‬‭Healthy lakes‬‭have a‬‭pH of 6.5 or slightly above.‬
‭●‬ ‭Only‬ ‭a‬ ‭few‬ ‭hardy‬ ‭species‬ ‭can‬ ‭survive‬‭below‬‭pH‬‭5.0‬‭.‬
‭(aquatic‬ ‭life‬ ‭disappears)‬ ‭At‬ ‭pH‬ ‭4.0,‬ ‭lakes‬ ‭become‬
‭essentially‬‭dead‬‭ecosystems.‬‭**‬‭High‬‭concentration‬‭of‬‭H‬
‭ion‬
‭●‬‭When‬‭acid‬‭rain‬‭falls‬‭on‬‭or‬‭runs‬‭off‬‭into‬‭a‬‭lake,‬‭the‬‭pH‬
‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭lake‬ ‭drops‬ ‭(becomes‬ ‭more‬ ‭acidic)‬ ‭unless‬ ‭the‬
‭acid‬ ‭is‬ ‭neutralized,‬ ‭or‬ ‭somehow‬ ‭used‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬
‭surrounding vegetation.‬
‭Acid- neutralizing capacity.‬
‭●‬ ‭capacity‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬‭lake‬‭or‬‭other‬‭body‬‭of‬‭water‬‭to‬‭resist‬‭a‬
‭decrease in pH‬
‭For‬ ‭example,‬ ‭If‬ ‭a‬ ‭lake‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭geology‬ ‭of‬ ‭much‬
‭limestone,‬ ‭CaCO3,‬ ‭then‬ ‭it‬ ‭has‬‭a‬‭high‬‭acid-neutralizing‬
‭capacity‬ ‭because‬ ‭limestone‬ ‭slowly‬ ‭reacts‬ ‭with‬ ‭acid‬
‭rain.‬ ‭Perhaps‬ ‭most‬ ‭importantly,‬ ‭the‬ ‭lakes‬ ‭and‬ ‭streams‬
‭also‬ ‭have‬ ‭a‬ ‭relatively‬ ‭high‬ ‭concentration‬ ‭of‬ ‭calcium‬
‭and‬ ‭bicarbonate‬ ‭ions.‬ ‭This‬ ‭occurs‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬ ‭result‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭reaction of limestone with carbon dioxide and water:‬
‭less constant.‬
‭Aquatic Life‬
‭ quatic Life‬
A
‭may‬ ‭be‬ ‭classified‬ ‭as‬ ‭either‬ ‭autotrophic‬ ‭or‬
‭heterotrophic.‬
‭Autotrophic.‬
‭●‬ ‭organisms‬ ‭that‬ ‭use‬ ‭solar‬ ‭or‬ ‭chemical‬ ‭energy‬ ‭to‬ ‭fix‬
‭elements‬ ‭from‬ ‭simple,‬ ‭nonliving‬‭inorganic‬‭material‬‭into‬
‭complex‬ ‭life‬ ‭molecules‬‭that‬‭compose‬‭living‬‭organisms.‬
‭(simple to complex)‬
‭Algae‬
‭are‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭important‬ ‭autotrophic‬ ‭aquatic‬
‭energy‬ ‭to‬ ‭generate‬ ‭biomass‬ ‭from‬ ‭CO2‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬
‭simple inorganic species.‬
‭Heterotrophic.‬
‭●‬‭organisms‬‭that‬‭use‬‭the‬‭organic‬‭substances‬‭produced‬
‭by‬‭autotrophic‬‭organisms‬‭as‬‭energy‬‭sources‬‭and‬‭as‬‭the‬
‭raw materials for‬‭the synthesis of their own biomass.‬
‭Decomposers (or reducers).‬
‭●‬ ‭subclass‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭heterotrophic‬
‭organisms‬
‭●‬ ‭consist‬ ‭of‬‭chiefly‬‭bacteria‬‭and‬‭fungi,‬
‭which‬ ‭ultimately‬ ‭break‬ ‭down‬ ‭the‬
‭material‬ ‭of‬ ‭biological‬ ‭origin‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
‭simple‬ ‭compounds‬ ‭originally‬ ‭fixed‬ ‭by‬
‭the autotrophic organisms.‬
‭Productivity‬
‭●‬‭ability‬‭of‬‭a‬‭body‬‭of‬‭water‬‭to‬‭produce‬
‭living material‬‭.‬
‭●‬ ‭results‬ ‭from‬ ‭a‬ ‭combination‬ ‭of‬
‭physical and chemical factors.‬
‭●‬ ‭High‬ ‭productivity‬ ‭requires‬ ‭an‬ ‭a‭d ‬ equate‬
‭supply‬ ‭of‬ ‭carbon‬ ‭(CO2),‬ ‭nitrogen‬ ‭(nitrate),‬
‭phosphorus‬ ‭(orthophosphate),‬ ‭and‬ ‭trace‬
‭elements‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭iron.‬ ‭Excessive‬ ‭productivity‬
‭results‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬ ‭decay‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭biomass‬ ‭produced,‬
‭consumption‬ ‭of‬ ‭dissolved‬ ‭oxygen,‬ ‭and‬ ‭odor‬
‭production‬‭, a condition called‬‭eutrophication.‬
‭Dissolved oxygen (DO).‬
‭●‬ ‭considered‬ ‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭key‬ ‭substance‬ ‭in‬
‭determining‬ ‭the‬ ‭extent‬ ‭and‬ ‭kind‬ ‭of‬ ‭life‬ ‭in‬ ‭a‬
‭body‬ ‭of‬ ‭water.‬‭Deficiency‬‭in‬‭oxygen‬‭is‬‭fata‬‭l‬‭to‬
‭many‬ ‭aquatic‬ ‭animals‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭fish‬ ‭but‬ ‭in‬
‭contrast,‬ ‭the‬ ‭presence‬ ‭of‬ ‭oxygen‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬
‭equally‬ ‭fatal‬ ‭to‬ ‭many‬ ‭kinds‬ ‭of‬ ‭anaerobic‬
‭bacteria.‬
‭Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)‬
‭●‬‭refers‬‭to‬‭the‬‭amount‬‭of‬‭oxygen‬‭utilized‬‭when‬
‭the‬‭organic‬‭matter‬‭in‬‭a‬‭given‬‭volume‬‭of‬‭water‬
‭is‬‭degraded biologically‬‭.‬
 ‭Carbon dioxide (CO2)‬
‭ ‬ ‭produced‬ ‭by‬ ‭respiratory‬ ‭processes‬ ‭in‬ ‭water‬
● ‭multiply‬ ‭or‬ ‭propagate‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭expense‬
‭and‬ ‭sediments‬ ‭and‬ ‭can‬‭also‬‭enter‬‭water‬‭from‬
‭the‬‭atmosphere.‬‭Carbon‬‭dioxide‬‭is‬‭required‬‭for‬
‭the‬ ‭photosynthetic‬ ‭production‬ ‭of‬ ‭biomass‬ ‭by‬
‭algae and in some cases is a limiting factor.‬
‭Water Pollutants and Treatment‬
‭ ources of Pollutants in Water‬
S ‭the‬
‭●‬‭Point Sources.‬
‭●‬ ‭domestic‬ ‭and‬ ‭industrial‬ ‭wastes‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬
‭usually‬‭collected‬‭by‬‭a‬‭network‬‭of‬‭pipes‬‭or‬‭channels‬‭and‬
‭transmitted‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭single‬ ‭point‬ ‭of‬ ‭discharge‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬
‭receiving water.‬
‭●‬ ‭Domestic‬ ‭sewage‬ ‭along‬ ‭with‬ ‭any‬ ‭industrial‬
‭wastes‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬ ‭permitted‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭discharged‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬
‭sanitary sewers are termed as‬‭municipal sewage.‬
‭●‬‭Nonpoint Sources‬
‭●‬‭These‬‭are‬‭urban‬‭and‬‭agricultural‬‭runoff‬‭which‬
‭are‬ ‭characterized‬ ‭by‬ ‭multiple‬ ‭discharge‬ ‭points.‬ ‭The‬
‭polluted‬‭water‬‭usually‬‭flows‬‭over‬‭the‬‭surface‬‭of‬‭the‬‭land‬
‭or‬ ‭along‬ ‭a‬ ‭common‬ ‭drainage‬ ‭channel‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬‭nearest‬
‭body‬‭of‬‭water‬‭.‬‭Stormwater‬‭runoff‬‭from‬‭different‬‭sources‬
‭can‬‭transport‬‭pollutants‬‭such‬‭as‬‭nitrogen‬‭from‬‭fertilizers,‬
‭herbicides‬ ‭applied‬ ‭to‬ ‭lawns‬ ‭and‬ ‭golf‬ ‭courses,‬ ‭oil,‬
‭greases, ethylene glycol, and other organic debris.‬
‭●‬‭Water Pollutants‬
‭●Oxygen-Demanding Material‬
‭●‬‭anything‬‭that‬‭can‬‭be‬‭oxidized‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭receiving‬ ‭water‬ ‭resulting‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭consumption‬ ‭of‬ ‭dissolved‬ ‭molecular‬
‭oxygen.‬
‭●‬ ‭usually‬ ‭biodegradable‬ ‭organic‬
‭matter‬ ‭but‬ ‭also‬ ‭includes‬ ‭certain‬
‭inorganic‬ ‭compounds.‬ ‭The‬
‭consumption‬‭of‬‭dissolved‬‭oxygen‬‭(DO)‬
‭poses‬‭a‬‭threat‬‭to‬‭fish‬‭and‬‭other‬‭higher‬
‭forms‬ ‭of‬ ‭aquatic‬ ‭life‬ ‭that‬ ‭must‬ ‭have‬
‭oxygen to live.‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬‭critical‬‭level‬‭of‬‭DO‬‭varies‬‭greatly‬
‭among‬ ‭species.‬ ‭For‬ ‭example,‬ ‭brook‬
‭trout‬‭may‬‭require‬‭about‬‭7.5‬‭mg‬‭·‬‭L-1‬‭of‬
‭DO,‬‭whereas‬‭carp‬‭can‬‭survive‬‭at‬‭3‬‭mg‬
‭·‬ ‭L-1.‬ ‭As‬ ‭a‬ ‭rule,‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭desirable‬
‭commercial‬ ‭and‬ ‭game‬ ‭fish‬ ‭require‬
‭high levels of dissolved oxygen.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nutrients.‬
T‭ wo‬ ‭nutrients‬ ‭(i.e.‬ ‭nitrogen‬ ‭and‬
‭phosphorus)‬ ‭of‬ ‭primary‬ ‭concern,‬ ‭are‬
‭considered‬ ‭pollutants‬ ‭when‬ ‭they‬
‭become‬ ‭too‬ ‭much‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭good‬ ‭thing.‬
‭These‬ ‭nutrients‬ ‭are‬ ‭required‬ ‭for‬ ‭the‬
‭growth‬ ‭of‬ ‭all‬ ‭living‬ ‭things.‬ ‭However‬
‭excessive‬ ‭nutrient‬ ‭levels‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬ ‭a‬
‭ roblem‬ ‭when‬ ‭some‬ ‭organisms‬
p
‭of others.‬
‭ ‬‭For‬‭example,‬‭too‬‭much‬‭nutrients‬‭can‬
○
‭cause‬‭large‬‭growths‬‭of‬‭algae,‬‭which‬‭in‬
‭turn‬ ‭become‬ ‭oxygen-demanding‬
‭material‬ ‭when‬ ‭they‬ ‭die‬ ‭and‬ ‭settle‬ ‭to‬
‭bottom.‬ ‭Phosphorus-based‬
‭detergents,‬ ‭fertilizers,‬ ‭food-processing‬
‭wastes,‬ ‭as‬ ‭well‬ ‭as‬ ‭animal‬ ‭and‬ ‭human‬
‭excrement‬ ‭are‬ ‭some‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭major‬
‭sources of nutrients.‬
‭●‬‭Pathogenic Organisms.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pathogenic‬ ‭microorganisms‬‭found‬‭in‬
‭wastewater‬ ‭include‬ ‭bacteria,‬ ‭viruses,‬
‭and‬ ‭protozoa‬ ‭excreted‬ ‭by‬ ‭diseased‬
‭persons‬ ‭or‬ ‭animals.‬ ‭When‬ ‭discharged‬
‭into‬ ‭surface‬ ‭waters,‬ ‭they‬ ‭make‬ ‭the‬
‭water‬ ‭unfit‬ ‭for‬ ‭drinking‬ ‭(i.e.,‬
‭nonpotable).‬
‭●‬ ‭If‬ ‭the‬ ‭concentration‬ ‭of‬
‭pathogens‬ ‭is‬ ‭sufficiently‬ ‭high,‬ ‭the‬
‭water‬ ‭may‬ ‭also‬ ‭be‬ ‭unsafe‬ ‭for‬
‭swimming and fishing.‬
‭●‬ ‭Suspended Solids (SS).‬
‭ ‬ ‭organic‬ ‭and‬ ‭inorganic‬ ‭particles‬‭that‬
●
‭are‬ ‭carried‬ ‭by‬ ‭wastewater‬ ‭into‬ ‭a‬
‭receiving‬ ‭water.‬ ‭When‬ ‭the‬ ‭speed‬ ‭of‬
‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭is‬ ‭reduced‬ ‭by‬ ‭flow‬ ‭into‬ ‭a‬
‭pool‬‭or‬‭a‬‭lake,‬‭many‬‭of‬‭these‬‭particles‬
‭settle‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭bottom‬ ‭as‬‭sediment‬‭-‬‭also‬
‭includes‬ ‭eroded‬ ‭soil‬ ‭particles‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬
‭being‬ ‭carried‬ ‭by‬ ‭water‬ ‭even‬ ‭if‬ ‭they‬
‭have not yet settled.‬
‭ ‬‭Colloidal‬‭particles‬‭,‬‭which‬‭do‬‭not‬‭settle‬
●
‭readily,‬ ‭cause‬ ‭the‬ ‭turbidity‬ ‭found‬ ‭in‬
‭many‬ ‭surface‬ ‭waters.‬ ‭As‬ ‭excessive‬
‭sediment‬‭loads‬‭are‬‭deposited‬‭into‬‭lakes‬
‭and‬ ‭reservoirs,‬ ‭the‬ ‭turbidity‬ ‭increases,‬
‭light‬ ‭penetration‬ ‭decreases,‬ ‭the‬
‭bacterial‬ ‭population‬ ‭often‬ ‭increases,‬
‭and‬‭the‬‭solids‬‭deposit‬‭on‬‭the‬‭bottom‬‭of‬
‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭body,‬ ‭destroying‬‭the‬‭habitat‬
‭for many benthic organisms.‬
‭●‬ ‭Pesticides.‬
‭●‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭used‬ ‭by‬ ‭farmers,‬
‭households,‬‭or‬‭industry‬‭to‬‭regulate‬‭and‬
‭control various types of pests or weeds.‬
‭c‬
 ‭Major Types of Pesticides‬ ‭ ydrocarbons.‬ ‭The‬ ‭polycyclic‬ ‭aromatic‬
h
‭hydrocarbons‬ ‭(PAHs)‬ ‭contain‬ ‭two‬‭or‬‭more‬
‭ .‬ H
1 ‭ erbicides -‬‭used to kill unwanted plants‬ ‭fused‬ ‭benzene‬ ‭rings.‬ ‭Several‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭PAHs‬
‭2.‬ ‭Insecticides -‬‭used to kill insects that could‬ ‭are known human carcinogens.‬
‭otherwise destroy cops, gardens, or structures.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Fungicides -‬‭control the growth of fungi, many‬ ‭●‬ ‭Toxic Metals.‬
‭of which cause plant diseases.‬ ‭●‬ ‭These‬ ‭are‬ ‭heavy‬ ‭metals‬ ‭that‬ ‭enter‬
‭aquatic‬ ‭environments‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬
‭Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs)‬ ‭discharge‬ ‭of‬ ‭industrial‬ ‭waste‬ ‭and‬
‭●‬ ‭a‬ ‭class‬ ‭of‬ ‭compounds‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬ ‭applied‬ ‭waste-water‬ ‭treatment‬ ‭plants,‬
‭externally‬ ‭or‬ ‭ingested‬ ‭by‬ ‭humans,‬ ‭pets,‬ ‭and‬ ‭storm-water‬ ‭runoff,‬ ‭mining‬ ‭operations,‬
‭other domesticated animals.‬ ‭smokestack‬ ‭emissions,‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬
‭●‬ ‭released‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭environment‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬ ‭diffuse sources (such as from vehicles)‬
‭disposal‬ ‭of‬ ‭expired,‬ ‭unwanted,‬ ‭or‬ ‭excess‬
‭medications‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭sewage‬ ‭system‬ ‭by‬ ‭ ‬ ‭The‬ ‭most‬ ‭commonly‬ ‭occurring‬
●
‭individuals, pharmacies, or physicians.‬ ‭heavy‬ ‭metals‬ ‭are‬ ‭arsenic,‬
‭●‬‭Another‬‭source‬‭of‬‭PPCPs‬‭in‬‭the‬‭environment‬‭is‬ ‭cadmium,‬ ‭chromium,‬ ‭copper,‬
‭through‬ ‭metabolic‬ ‭excretion‬‭—the‬‭excretion‬‭of‬ ‭nickel,‬ ‭lead,‬ ‭and‬ ‭mercury.‬ ‭As‬
‭the‬ ‭chemically‬ ‭unaltered‬ ‭parent‬ ‭compound‬ ‭heavy‬ ‭metals‬ ‭persist‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭and‬ ‭metabolized‬ ‭by-products‬ ‭in‬ ‭urine‬ ‭and‬ ‭environment,‬ ‭they‬ ‭tend‬ ‭to‬
‭feces.‬ ‭PPCPs,‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭deodorants‬ ‭and‬ ‭accumulate‬‭in‬‭soils,‬‭sediments,‬‭and‬
‭sunscreens,‬‭can‬‭be‬‭washed‬‭into‬‭our‬‭waterways‬ ‭biota.‬ ‭Heavy‬ ‭metals‬ ‭can‬ ‭also‬
‭during‬ ‭bathing,‬‭washing,‬‭and‬‭swimming.‬‭Some‬ ‭bioaccumulate and biomagnify.‬
‭PPCPs are also used as pest-control agents.‬
‭●‬ ‭Nanoparticles.‬
‭ ‬ ‭Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals (EDCs).‬
● ‭●‬ ‭Defined‬ ‭as‬‭those‬‭particles‬‭that‬‭have‬
‭●‬ ‭These‬ ‭are‬ ‭classes‬ ‭of‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭known‬ ‭as‬ ‭a dimension less than 100 nm.‬
‭endocrine‬ ‭disruptors.‬ ‭EDCs‬ ‭include‬ ‭the‬ ‭●‬ ‭Included‬ ‭in‬ ‭this‬ ‭group‬ ‭of‬‭chemicals‬
‭polychlorinated‬ ‭biphenyls,‬ ‭commonly‬ ‭used‬ ‭are‬‭naturally‬‭occurring‬‭humic‬‭material‬
‭pesticides‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭atrazine‬ ‭and‬ ‭other‬ ‭triazine‬ ‭(derived‬ ‭from‬ ‭plant‬ ‭and‬ ‭animal‬
‭chemicals, and the phthalates.‬ ‭matter);‬ ‭titania‬ ‭particles‬ ‭used‬ ‭in‬
‭●‬ ‭EDCs‬ ‭can‬ ‭mimic‬ ‭estrogens,‬ ‭androgens,‬ ‭or‬ ‭painkilling‬‭creams;‬‭fullerene‬‭nanotube‬
‭thyroid‬‭hormones,‬‭or‬‭their‬‭antagonists,‬‭although‬ ‭composites‬ ‭used‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭manufacture‬
‭the‬ ‭structures‬ ‭of‬ ‭many‬ ‭EDCs‬ ‭bear‬ ‭little‬ ‭of‬ ‭tires,‬ ‭tennis‬ ‭rackets,‬ ‭and‬ ‭video‬
‭resemblance‬ ‭to‬ ‭that‬ ‭of‬ ‭natural‬‭hormones‬‭with‬ ‭screens;‬ ‭fullerene‬ ‭cages‬ ‭used‬ ‭in‬
‭which they interfere.‬ ‭cosmetics;‬ ‭and‬ ‭protein-based‬
‭●‬ ‭The‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭can‬ ‭also‬ ‭alter‬ ‭the‬ ‭normal‬ ‭nanomaterials‬ ‭used‬ ‭in‬‭the‬‭production‬
‭physiological‬ ‭function‬‭of‬‭the‬‭endocrine‬‭system‬ ‭of soaps, shampoos, and detergents.‬
‭and‬‭can‬‭affect‬‭the‬‭synthesis‬‭of‬‭hormones‬‭in‬‭the‬
‭body.‬ ‭EDCs‬ ‭can‬ ‭also‬ ‭target‬ ‭tissues‬ ‭where‬ ‭the‬ ‭ ‬‭As‬‭a‬‭result‬‭of‬‭their‬‭small‬‭size‬‭and‬‭large‬
●
‭hormones exert their effects.‬ ‭specific‬ ‭surface‬ ‭area,‬ ‭nanoparticles‬
‭●‬ ‭Other Organic Chemicals.‬ ‭can‬ ‭absorb‬ ‭and‬ ‭transport‬ ‭toxic‬
‭pollutants‬‭,‬ ‭which‬ ‭when‬ ‭inhaled‬ ‭can‬
‭●‬‭There‬‭are‬‭numerous‬‭other‬‭organic‬‭chemicals‬ ‭cause‬‭a‬‭number‬‭of‬‭pulmonary‬‭diseases‬
‭ hose‬ ‭release‬ ‭into‬ ‭the‬ ‭environment‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬
w ‭in mammals.‬
‭problematic.‬
‭Water Treatment‬
‭ ‬ ‭These‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭include‬ ‭hydrocarbons‬
● ‭‬
● ‭In‬ ‭the‬ ‭development‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭water‬ ‭supply‬
‭from‬ ‭combustion‬ ‭processes‬ ‭and‬ ‭oil‬ ‭and‬ ‭system,‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭necessary‬ ‭to‬ ‭examine‬ ‭carefully‬ ‭all‬
‭gasoline‬ ‭spills,‬ ‭and‬ ‭solvents‬ ‭used‬ ‭in‬ ‭dry‬ ‭the‬ ‭factors‬ ‭that‬ ‭might‬ ‭adversely‬ ‭affect‬ ‭the‬
‭cleaning and metal washing.‬ ‭intended use of a water supply source.‬

‭ ‬ ‭The‬ ‭hydrocarbons‬ ‭formed‬ ‭during‬

● T‭ he‬ ‭following‬ ‭four‬ ‭categories‬ ‭are‬‭used‬‭to‬‭describe‬‭the‬
‭combustion‬ ‭include‬ ‭chemicals‬ ‭such‬ ‭as‬ ‭quality of a drinking water:‬
‭methane,‬ ‭benzene,‬ ‭and‬ ‭a‬ ‭class‬ ‭of‬ ‭●‬ ‭1.‬ ‭Physical:‬ ‭Physical‬ ‭quality‬ ‭correlates‬‭to‬
‭compounds‬ ‭called‬ ‭polycyclic‬ ‭aromatic‬ ‭the‬ ‭characteristics‬ ‭of‬ ‭water‬ ‭for‬ ‭domestic‬ ‭use‬
 ‭ nd‬ ‭are‬ ‭usually‬ ‭associated‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
a ‭‬
‭appearance‬ ‭of‬ ‭water,‬ ‭color‬ ‭or‬ ‭turbidity,‬
‭temperature, and, in particular, taste and odor.‬
‭●‬ ‭2.‬‭Chemical:‬‭The‬‭chemical‬‭classification‬‭of‬
‭drinking‬ ‭water‬ ‭includes‬ ‭the‬ ‭identification‬ ‭of‬ ‭its‬
‭components and their concentrations.‬
‭●‬ ‭3.‬‭Microbiological‬‭:‬‭Microbiological‬‭agents‬
‭are‬ ‭important‬ ‭to‬ ‭public‬ ‭health‬ ‭and‬ ‭may‬ ‭also‬
‭be‬ ‭significant‬ ‭in‬ ‭modifying‬ ‭the‬ ‭physical‬ ‭and‬
‭chemical characteristics of water.‬
‭●‬ ‭4.‬‭Radiological:‬‭Radiological‬‭factors‬‭must‬
‭be‬ ‭considered‬ ‭in‬ ‭areas‬ ‭where‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭may‬
‭have‬ ‭come‬ ‭in‬ ‭contact‬ ‭with‬ ‭radioactive‬
‭substances.‬ ‭The‬ ‭radioactivity‬ ‭of‬‭the‬‭water‬‭is‬‭of‬
‭public health concern.‬
‭‬
● ‭In‬‭a‬‭typical‬‭water‬‭treatment‬‭plant‬‭(Figure‬
‭9),‬ ‭the‬ ‭first‬ ‭step‬ ‭is‬ ‭to‬ ‭pass‬ ‭the‬‭water‬‭through‬‭a‬
‭screen that physically removes large impurities.‬
F‭ igure‬ ‭9.‬ ‭A‬ ‭typical‬ ‭municipal‬ ‭water‬ ‭treatment‬ ‭facility.‬
‭(Fahlman et al., 2018).‬
‭‬
● ‭The‬ ‭next‬ ‭step‬ ‭is‬‭to‬‭add‬‭aluminum‬‭sulfate‬
‭(Al2(SO4)3) and calcium hydroxide‬
‭(Ca(OH)2).‬
‭ ‬ ‭Aluminum‬ ‭sulfate‬ ‭and‬ ‭calcium‬
● ‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭major‬ ‭disadvantages‬‭of‬
‭hydroxide‬‭are‬‭flocculating‬‭agents;‬‭that‬
‭is,‬ ‭they‬ ‭react‬ ‭in‬ ‭water‬ ‭to‬‭form‬‭a‬‭sticky‬
‭floc‬ ‭(gel)‬ ‭of‬ ‭aluminum‬ ‭hydroxide,‬
‭Al(OH)3.‬
‭○‬ ‭T‭h
‬ is‬‭gel‬‭c‭o
‬ llects‬‭suspended‬‭clay‬
‭ nd‬ ‭dirt‬‭particles‬‭on‬‭its‬‭surface‬‭.‬‭As‬
a ‭inactivating‬ ‭Cryptosporidium‬
‭the‬ ‭Al(OH)3‬ ‭gel‬ ‭slowly‬ ‭settles,‬ ‭it‬
‭carries‬ ‭particles‬ ‭with‬ ‭it‬ ‭that‬ ‭were‬
‭suspended‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭water.‬ ‭Any‬
‭remaining‬ ‭particles‬ ‭are‬ ‭removed‬
‭as‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭is‬ ‭filtered‬ ‭through‬
‭charcoal or gravel and then sand.‬
● ‭The‬‭crucial‬‭step‬‭comes‬‭next—disinfecting‬
‭the water to kill disease-causing microbes.‬
‭ ‬ ‭In‬ ‭the‬ ‭United‬ ‭States,‬ ‭this‬ ‭is‬ m
● ‭ ost‬
‭commonly‬ ‭done‬ ‭ ith‬
w
‭chlorine-containing compounds.‬
‭Chlorination‬
‭■‬ ‭ hlorination‬‭is‬ ‭accomplished‬ ‭by‬
C
‭adding‬ ‭chlorine‬ ‭gas‬ ‭(Cl2),‬ ‭sodium‬
‭hypochlorite‬ ‭(NaClO),‬ ‭or‬ ‭calcium‬
‭hypochlorite‬ ‭(Ca(ClO)2).‬ ‭All‬ ‭of‬
‭these‬ ‭compounds‬ ‭generate‬ ‭the‬
‭antibacterial‬ ‭agent‬ ‭hypochlorous‬
‭acid, HClO.‬
‭■‬ ‭ ‬‭very‬‭low‬‭concentration‬‭of‬‭HClO,‬
A
‭0.075‬ ‭to‬ ‭0.600‬ ‭ppm‬‭,‬ ‭remains‬ ‭to‬
‭protect‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭against‬ ‭further‬
‭bacterial‬ ‭contamination‬ ‭as‬ ‭it‬
‭passes through pipes to the user.‬
‭■‬ ‭ esidual‬ ‭chlorine‬ ‭refers‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬
R
‭chlorine-containing‬‭chemicals‬‭that‬
‭remain‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭after‬ ‭the‬
‭chlorination‬ ‭step.‬ ‭These‬ ‭include‬
‭hypochlorous‬ ‭acid‬ ‭(HClO),‬
‭hypochlorite‬ ‭ions‬ ‭(ClO−),‬ ‭and‬
‭dissolved‬ ‭elemental‬ ‭chlorine‬‭(Cl2).‬
‭When‬ ‭used‬ ‭properly,‬ ‭chlorine‬ ‭is‬
‭effective, and practical.‬
‭ ‬ ‭It‬ ‭has‬ ‭several‬ ‭advantages‬
■
‭over‬ ‭other‬ ‭disinfectants.‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬
‭long-lasting‬ ‭and,‬ ‭therefore,‬
‭provides‬ ‭a‬ ‭residual‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭distribution system.‬
‭chlorine‬ ‭are‬ ‭the‬ ‭formation‬ ‭of‬
‭chlorinated‬ ‭by-products‬ ‭due‬
‭to‬‭the‬‭reaction‬‭of‬‭chlorine‬‭with‬
‭naturally‬ ‭occurring‬ ‭organic‬
‭matter‬ ‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭lack‬ ‭of‬
‭effectiveness‬ ‭of‬ ‭chlorine‬ ‭in‬
‭oocysts.‬
‭Fluoridation‬
‭■‬ ‭The‬ ‭addition‬ ‭of‬ ‭fluoride‬ ‭to‬
‭strengthen‬ ‭teeth‬ ‭enamel‬ ‭and‬
‭reduce‬‭the‬‭number‬‭of‬‭cavities,‬
‭especially‬‭in‬‭children,‬‭can‬‭also‬
‭be‬ ‭a‬ ‭part‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭treatment‬
‭process.‬
 ‭ ‬ ‭Water‬ ‭fluoridation‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬
■
‭controlled‬ ‭adjustment‬ ‭of‬
‭fluoride‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭public‬ ‭water‬
‭supply‬ ‭solely‬ ‭to‬ ‭reduce‬ ‭tooth‬
‭decay.‬ ‭Fluoridated‬ ‭water‬
‭contains‬ ‭fluoride‬ ‭at‬ ‭a‬ ‭level‬
‭that‬ ‭is‬‭effective‬‭for‬‭preventing‬
‭cavities;‬ ‭this‬ ‭can‬ ‭occur‬
‭naturally or by adding fluoride.‬

‭Ozonation‬
‭■‬ ‭Many‬ ‭European‬ ‭and‬ ‭a‬ ‭few‬
‭U.S.‬ ‭cities‬ ‭use‬ ‭ozone‬ ‭to‬
‭disinfect‬ ‭their‬ ‭water‬ ‭supplies.‬
‭One‬‭advantage‬‭is‬‭that‬‭a‬‭lower‬
‭concentration‬ ‭of‬ ‭ozone‬
‭relative‬ ‭to‬ ‭chlorine‬ ‭is‬ ‭required‬
‭to‬ ‭kill‬ ‭bacteria.‬ ‭Furthermore,‬
‭ozone‬ ‭is‬ ‭more‬ ‭effective‬ ‭than‬
‭chlorine‬ ‭against‬ ‭water-borne‬
‭viruses.‬

‭ ut‬
B ‭ozonation‬ ‭also‬
‭comes with disadvantages.‬
‭●‬ ‭One‬ ‭is‬ ‭cost‬‭.‬ ‭Ozonation‬ ‭only‬
‭becomes‬ ‭economical‬ ‭for‬
‭large‬ ‭water-treatment‬ ‭plants.‬
‭Another‬ ‭is‬ ‭that‬ ‭ozone‬
‭decomposes‬ ‭quickly‬‭,‬ ‭and‬
‭hence‬‭does‬‭not‬‭protect‬‭water‬
‭from‬ ‭possible‬ ‭contamination‬
‭as‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭piped‬ ‭through‬ ‭the‬
‭municipal‬ ‭distribution‬ ‭system.‬
‭Consequently,‬ ‭a‬ ‭low‬ ‭dose‬ ‭of‬
‭chlorine‬ ‭must‬ ‭be‬ ‭added‬ ‭to‬
‭ozonated‬ ‭water‬ ‭as‬ ‭it‬ ‭leaves‬
‭the treatment plant.‬

‭Ultraviolet (UV) Light‬

‭■‬ ‭Disinfecting‬ ‭water‬ ‭using‬ ‭ultraviolet‬
‭(UV)‬‭light‬‭is‬‭gaining‬‭in‬‭popularity.‬‭By‬‭UV,‬
‭we‬ ‭mean‬ ‭UVC,‬ ‭the‬ ‭high-energy‬ ‭UV‬
‭radiation‬‭that‬‭can‬‭break‬‭down‬‭DNA‬‭in‬
‭microorganisms, including bacteria.‬

‭ ‬ ‭Disinfection‬ ‭with‬ ‭UVC‬ ‭is‬ ‭fast,‬ ‭leaves‬

■
‭no‬ ‭residual‬ ‭by-products,‬ ‭and‬ ‭is‬
‭economical‬ ‭for‬ ‭small‬ ‭installations,‬
‭including‬ ‭rural‬ ‭homes‬ ‭with‬ ‭unsafe‬‭well‬
‭water.‬‭Like‬‭ozone,‬‭however,‬‭UVC‬‭does‬
‭not‬ ‭protect‬ ‭the‬ ‭water‬ ‭after‬ ‭it‬ ‭leaves‬
‭the‬ ‭treatment‬ ‭site.‬ ‭Again,‬ ‭a‬ ‭low‬ ‭dose‬
‭of chlorine must be added.‬
 THE CHEMISTRY OF ATMOSPHERE:
THE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERIC CYCLE
Earth
● a planet that is chemically active and rich in
oxygen
Atmosphere
● protective blanket which nurtures life on the Earth
and protects it from the hostile environment of
outer space
Evolution of Atmosphere
● 3-4B years ago, Earth’s atmosphere consisted
mainly of ammonia, methane, and water
● UV radiation may have made Earth's surface sterile,
but it likely initiated chemical reactions, possibly
below the surface, leading to life
● Early organisms used UV energy and volcanic CO2
for photosynthesis, producing oxygen as a key
by-product that shaped the atmosphere.
● Oxygen gradually transformed the atmosphere,
reducing reactive gases like ammonia and
methane.
● Biological processes, notably photosynthesis,
heavily influenced atmospheric gas
concentrations, resulting in today's
oxygen-dominated, nitrogen-rich atmosphere.
Nitrogen
● with its triple bond, is a very stable molecule.
● atmospheric nitrogen gas is converted into nitrates
and other compounds suitable for assimilation by
algae and plants.
● lightning - important mechanism for producing
nitrates from nitrogen gases
Nitrogen Cycle
● About 30 million tons of HNO3 are produced this
way annually.
● Nitric acid is converted to nitrate salts in the soil
which are taken up by plants and ingested by
animals.
● Animals use the nutrients from plants to make
proteins and other essential biomolecules.
● Denitrification reverses nitrogen fixation to
complete the cycle.
The Oxygen Cycle
● movement of oxygen through the atmosphere,
biosphere, and lithosphere
● plants take in carbon dioxide, humans take in
oxygen
● plants give off oxygen, humans give off carbon
dioxide
● Plants are the major contributor of oxygen through
the process of PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Photosynthesis
● a biological process wherein plants synthesize their
food through the presence of sunlight, water, and
carbon dioxide.
Layers of the Atmosphere
● divided according to temperature variation and
composition
Troposphere
● contains about 80 percent of the total mass of air
and practically all of the atmosphere’s water vapor
● thinnest layer of the atmosphere (10 km)
● it is where all the dramatic events of weather—rain,
lightning, hurricanes—occur
● temperature decreases with increasing altitude
Stratosphere
● consists of nitrogen, oxygen, and ozone
● the air temperature rises with altitude
● exothermic reaction occurs triggered by UV
radiation
● OZONE - product of the exothermic reaction which
serves to prevent harmful UV rays from reaching
Earth’s surface
Mesospehre
● above the stratosphere
● the concentration of ozone and other gases is low
● temperature decreases with increasing altitude
Thermosphere/Ionosphere
● uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
● rising temperature is due to the bombardment of
molecular oxygen, nitrogen, and atomic species by
energetic particles, such as electrons and protons,
from the sun
 THE CHEMISTRY OF ATMOSPHERE: ● A natural atmospheric constituent, and it is required
for plant growth.
AIR POLLUTANTS AND TREATMENT
● The level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, now
at about 360 parts per million (ppm) by volume, is
Categories of Environmental Pollution
increasing by about 1 ppm per year.
● Water
● This increase in atmospheric CO2 may well cause
● Air
general atmospheric warming—the “greenhouse
● Land
effect,” with potentially very serious consequences
● All three of these areas are linked, like some gases
for the global atmosphere and for life on earth.
emitted to the atmosphere can be converted to
strong acids by atmospheric chemical processes,
Carbon Monoxide
fall to the earth as acid rain, and pollute water with
● CO
acidity.
● Can be a serious health threat because it prevents
● Improperly discarded hazardous wastes can leach
blood from transporting oxygen to body tissues.
into groundwater that is eventually released as
polluted water into streams.
Nitrogen Oxide
● Pollution is a clear-cut phenomenon, whereas in
● The two most serious nitrogen oxide air pollutants
others it lies largely in the eyes of the beholder.
are nitric oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide, NO2,
collectively denoted as “NOx.”
Pollutants
● These tend to enter the atmosphere as NO, and
● A substance present in greater than natural
photochemical processes in the atmosphere can
concentration as a result of human activity that has
convert NO to NO2.
a net detrimental effect upon its environment or
● Further reactions can result in the formation of
upon something of value in that environment.
corrosive nitrate salts or nitric acid, HNO3.

Contaminants
Nitrogen Dioxide
● Not classified as pollutants unless they have some
● Significant in atmospheric chemistry because of its
detrimental effect, cause deviations from the
photochemical dissociation by light with a
normal composition of an environment.
wavelength less than 430 nm to produce highly
● Every pollutant originates from a source.
reactive O atoms.
● This is the first step in the formation of
Source
photochemical smog.
● The logical place to eliminate pollution.
● After a pollutant is released from a source, it may
Sulfur Dioxide
act upon a receptor.
● SO2
● Reaction product of the combustion of
Receptors
sulfur-containing fuels such as high-sulfur coal.
● Anything that is affected by the pollutant.
● Part of this sulfur dioxide is converted in the
● Humans whose eyes smartform oxidants in the
atmosphere to sulfuric acid, H2SO4, normally the
atmosphere are receptors. Eventually, if the
predominant contributor to acid precipitation.
pollutant is long-lived, it may be deposited in a sink,
a long- time repository of the pollutant. Here it will
Methane
remain for a long time, though not necessarily
● CH4
permanently.
● The most abundant hydrocarbon in the
● There lattice point DOES NOT CONTAIN any
atmosphere.
particle; Each lattice point is occupied by an atom
● Released from underground sources as natural gas
(mostly metals)
and produced by the fermentation of organic
● A unit cell is one part of the whole structure
matter.
● One of the least reactive atmospheric
Oxides
hydrocarbons
● Oxides of carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen are
● Produced by diffuse sources, so that its
important constituents of the atmosphere and are
participation in the formation of pollutant
pollutants at higher levels.
photochemical reaction products is minimal.
● The most significant atmospheric pollutant
Carbon Dioxide
hydrocarbons are the reactive ones produced as
● CO2
automobile exhaust emissions.
● The most abundant.
 o Aided by the development of mechanically
Photochemical Smog strong, heat-resistant fabrics, baghouse
● In the presence of NO, under conditions of installations have increased significantly in
temperature inversion low humidity, and sunlight, the effort to control particulate emissions.
these hydrocarbons produce undesirable
photochemical smog manifested by the presence
of visibility-obscuring particulate matter, oxidants
such as ozone, and noxious organic species such as
aldehydes.

Atmospheric Particles
● Range from small aggregates to visible dust.
● Some, like sea salt, are natural and beneficial.
● Condensation nuclei are essential for raindrop
formation.
● Colloidal-sized particles are called aerosols.

Particle Types Scrubbers

● Dispersion aerosols from grinding bulk matter. ● Venturi Scrubbers - Gas passes through a
● Condensation aerosols from gas reactions, tend to converging-diverging device. Scrubbing liquid
be smaller. breaks into small droplets to scavenge particles.
● Smaller particles are more harmful due to light Can serve as quenchers to cool exhaust gas and
scattering and inhalation risk. scrub pollutant gases.
● Ionizing Wet Scrubbers - Electrical charge on
Air Pollution Control particles upstream. Larger particles and some
● Particle removal from gas streams is widely gases removed by scrubbing action. Smaller
practiced. particles tend to induce opposite charges in water
● Various devices with different effectiveness, droplets in the scrubber and are removed by
complexity, and cost are used. attraction of the opposite charges.
● Selection depends on particle loading, size
distribution, and gas-scrubbing system. Efficiency and Advancements
● Baghouses - Generally effective, removing particles
Particle Removal Mechanisms down to 0.01 μm. Increased installations due to
● Sedimentation - Occurs continuously in nature, developments in heat-resistant fabrics.
Gravitational settling chambers that takes up large ● Scrubbers - Venturis and ionizing wet scrubbers offer
space and have low efficiency. Over time, sizes of efficient particle removal and additional functions
particles increase and number of particles like cooling and scrubbing pollutant gases.
decreases.
o Brownian motion of particles less than about
0.1 μm is primarily responsible for their
contact, enabling coagulation to occur.
o Particles greater than about 0.3 μm in radius
do not diffuse appreciably and serve
primarily as receptors of smaller particles.
● Inertia - Inertial mechanisms for particle removal,
e.g., dry centrifugal collectors. Depend upon the
fact that the radius of path of a particle in a rapidly
moving, curving air stream is larger than the path of
the stream as a whole.
● Filtration - Fabric filters (baghouses) effectively
remove particles. Consist of fabrics that allow the
passage of gas but retain particulate matter.
Baghouses are simple and can remove particles as
small as 0.01 μm.

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
SOIL CHEMISTRY
Nature and Composition of Soil
Importance of soil:
• Production of food
• Maintaining the balance of carbon, nitrogen
and phosphorus
• Construction of building materials, etc.
The chemical nature of soil is that, it is a mixture of:
• weathered rocks and minerals;
• decayed plants and animal material (humus
and detritus); and
• small living organisms which includes plants,
animals and bacteria.
Soil is also consists of water and air.
TYPICAL PRODUCTIVE SOIL
• solid fraction of almost 5% organic matter
• 95% inorganic matter.
OTHER SOIL
• least 1% organic matter
• some soil such as peat soils may contain as
much as 95% organic matter.
Peat soil - consists of partially decomposed
organic matter, derived mostly from plant
material, which has accumulated under
conditions of waterlogging, oxygen deficiency,
high acidity and nutrient deficiency.
DISTINCTIVE LAYERS OF A TYPICAL SOIL
HORIZON
• layer of a typical soil
• Product of complex interactions between
processes that develop during weathering. The
rainwater that percolates through the soil bring
dissolved and colloidal solids to lower horizons
where they are deposited.
• Topsoil which is the top layer of soil is several
inches in thickness. Maximum biological activity
in the soil happens in this layer.
• Contains most of the soil organic matter and is
important in the productivity of plant.
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
WATER AND AIR IN SOIL
Water
• Part of the three-phase, solid−liquid−gas system
making up soil.
• transport medium for carrying essential plant
nutrients from solid soil particles into plant roots
and to the farthest reaches of the plant’s leaf
structure
• The water phase is not totally independent of
soil and matter because of the presence of
small capillaries and pores in the soil
• Water present in larger spaces of soil is
relatively more available to plants and readily
drains away.
• Soils containing high organic matter may hold
more water than other soils, but it is somewhat
less available to plants because of physical
and chemical sorption of the water by the
organic matter.
• A much strong interaction between clays and
water in soil do exist, clay particles absorbed
water on its surface.
• Much amount of water may be bound in this
manner because of the high surface/volume
ratio of colloidal clay particles.
• But as soils becomes saturated with water,
there will be a direct change in its physical,
chemical, and biological properties.
• Oxygen in such soil is immediately consumed
by the respiration of microorganisms that
causes degradation of organic matter in soil.
• The bonds holding soil colloidal particles
together are broken, which causes disruption of
soil structure.
• It is known that the excess water in such soils is
detrimental to plant growth, and the soil does
not contain the air required by most plant roots.
• Most important crops (exception of rice)
cannot grow on soil soaked with water.
TRANSPIRATION
• A process that the water in a plant evaporates
into the atmosphere from the plant’s leaves.

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
INORGANIC COMPONENTS AND ORGANIC MATTER IN
SOIL
The Inorganic Components of Soil
• The formation of inorganic colloids from the
inorganic soil components are produced from
the weathering of parent rocks and minerals.
• Inorganic soil colloids plays a role in the
detoxification of substances that could harm
plants because these colloids often absorb
toxic substances in soils.
• In determining soil productivity, the abundance
and nature of inorganic colloidal material in soil
are certainly an important aspect.
• The uptake of plant nutrients by roots often
involves complex interactions with the water
and inorganic phases.
Importance of organic matter in soil are:
• For example, a nutrient held by inorganic
colloidal material has to traverse the
mineral/water interface and then the
water/root interface. This process is often
strongly influenced by the ionic structure of soil
inorganic matter.
• Minerals composed of these elements—
particularly silicon and oxygen—constitute most
of the mineral fraction of the soil.
The most common elements on the earth’s crust are:
● oxygen,
● silicon,
● aluminum,
● iron,
● calcium,
● sodium,
● potassium, and
● magnesium.
Common soil mineral constituents are:
● Finely divided quartz (SiO2)
● Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
● Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
● Epidote {Ca2}{Al2Fe3+}(Si2O7)(SiO4)O(OH)
● Goethite (FeO(OH))
● Magnetite (Fe3O4)
● calcium and magnesium carbonates (CaCO3
and MgCO3)
● oxides of manganese and titanium.
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
Colloids
• Repositories of water and plant nutrients which
can be made available to plants as needed.
• A heterogeneous mixture whose particle size is
intermediate between those of a solution and
a suspension.
• The dispersed particles are spread evenly
throughout the dispersion medium, which can
be a solid, liquid, or gas.
• Examples are fog, smog, and spray, smoke
and dust in the air,milk and mayonnaise.
Organic Matter in Soil
• Mostly determines soil productivity even though
it typically constitutes only less than five
percent of a productive soil.
• source of food for microorganisms,
• undergoes ion exchange chemical reaction,
• contribute to the weathering of mineral matter
(process by which soil is formed).
• An example for this process is when oxalate ion
(C2O42-) produced as a soil fungi metabolite
which occurs in soil as the calcium salts
whewellite and weddellite.
• The build-up of organic matter in soil is greatly
influenced by temperature and by the
availability of oxygen.
• The rate of biodegradation decreases with
decreasing temperature
• Does not degrade rapidly in colder climates
and tends to build up in soil.
• In water and in waterlogged soils, decaying
vegetation does not have easy access to
oxygen, and organic matter accumulates.
• The organic content may reach 90% in areas
where plants grow and decay in soil saturated
with water. The organic compounds in soil are
summarized in

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
Oxalate
• Oxalate in soil dissolves minerals, therefore
speeding the weathering process and
increasing the availability of nutrient ion
species.
• Complexation of iron or aluminum in minerals
which is involved in the weathering process is
expressed by the reaction:
in which M is Al or Fe.
SOIL FUNGI
• Produce citric acid and other chelating
organic acids that react with silicate minerals
and release potassium and other nutrient metal
ions held by these minerals.
SOIL HUMUS
• Composed of a base-soluble fraction called
humic and fulvic acids (an organic material
that remains in the acidified solution), and an
insoluble fraction called humin (is the residue
left when bacteria and fungi biodegrade plant
material).
HUMIC SUBSTANCES
• Has an influence in properties of soil even
though it has a small percentage in soil
composition.
• Have an acid-base character which serve as
buffers in soil and they significantly increase the
water-holding capacity of soil.
• Strongly bind metals and serve to hold
micronutrient metal ions in soil.
SOIL SOLUTION
• Aqueous portion of soil that contains dissolved
matter from the chemical and biochemical
processes in soil and from the exchange with
the hydrosphere and biosphere.
• Transports chemical species to and from soil
particles and provides contact between the
solutes and the soil particles.
• Important pathway for the exchange of plant
nutrients between roots and solid soil aside from
water which is vital for plant growth.
ADJUSTMENT OF SOIL ACIDITY
• The mineral and organic portions of soils both
exchange cations.
• Clay minerals undergo this process because of
the presence of negatively charged sites on
the minerals resulting from the substitution of an
atom of lower oxidation number for one of
higher number (e.g. magnesium for aluminum).
The concentrations of chemicals in soil are given in
mass units:
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
● parts per million (ppm),
● milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg), or
● micrograms per kilogram (ug/kg).
The units vary somewhat based on the magnitude
of the mass of chemical present per unit mass
(usually kilograms) of soil.
• For example, when dealing with carbon,
the concentration is usually given in
percent because carbon generally
accounts for about 1 to 25% of soil
material.
• When working with nutrient concentrations
(e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.) units of
milligrams per kilogram are used.
• When working with many hazardous
wastes, whose concentrations are usually
small, we use units of parts per billion or
micrograms per kilogram.
• The movement of ionic nutrients such as
nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate is
governed by ion-exchange reactions.
• For example, sodium ions may be
attached to the soil surface by
electrostatic interactions. If water
containing calcium is passed through the
soil, the calcium will be preferentially
exchanged for the sodium according to
this reaction.
• By this reaction, two sodium ions are
released for every ion of calcium
exchanged; thus maintaining the charge
balance. Thus, an important characteristic
of soil is its exchange capacity.
EXCHANGE CAPACITY
• Essentially, the extent to which a unit mass
of soil can exchange a mass of a certain
ion of interest.
• Reported in units of equivalents of ions per
mass of soil
• An important characteristic of soil in terms
of its ability to leach ions such as
magnesium, calcium, nitrate, and
phosphate.
CATION EXCHANGE
• The mechanism by which potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and essential trace-level metals
are made available to plants.
• When nutrient metal ions are taken up by plant
roots, hydrogen ion is exchanged for the metal
ions.
 CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024

• This process, plus the leaching of calcium,
magnesium, and other metal ions from the soil
by water containing carbonic acid, tends to
make the soil acidic:
chemical characteristics of the pollutant, but also
on the nature of the soil itself.
• With most neutral organic chemicals, sorption
occurs predominately on the organic fraction of
the soil itself (as long as the fraction of organic
material on the soil is “significant”).

BUFFERING CAPACITY

• Depends upon its type wherein the soil acts as

a buffer and resists changes in pH.
• Most common plants grow best in soil with a pH
near neutrality. If the soil becomes too acidic
for optimum plant growth.
• May be restored to productivity by liming
through the addition of calcium carbonate:

ALKALINE SOILS

• In areas of low rainfall, soils may become too

basic (alkaline) due to the presence of basic
salts such as Na2CO3.
• may be treated with aluminum or iron sulfate,
which release acid during hydrolysis:

SULFUR

• Added to soils is oxidized by bacterially

mediated reactions to sulfuric acid: MACRONUTRIENTS in SOIL

MACRONUTRIENTS

• Elements that occur in substantial levels in plant

and sulfur is used, therefore, to acidify alkaline soils. biomass and fluids.

SORPTION The elements that are usually recognized as essential

macronutrients includes:
• Essentially the attachment of a chemical to either
the mineral or organic portions of soil particles and • Carbon,
includes both adsorption and absorption. • Hydrogen,
• With low concentrations of pollutants, sorption can • Oxygen,
be described mathematically by a linear • Nitrogen,
expression. • Phosphorous,
• Potassium,
• Calcium,
• Magnesium, and
• Sulfur.

These macronutrients can be absorbed from the

atmosphere (carbon, hydrogen and hydrogen) while
others which are also essential macronutrients can be
obtained from soil. But nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium are commonly added to soil as fertilizers.

• The partition coefficients of various organic

pollutants can vary over at least eight orders of
magnitude, depending predominately on the

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
CALCIUM
• Deficient soils are relatively uncommon.
• Application of lime, a process used to treat
acid soils provides a more than adequate
calcium supply for plants.
• Uptake by plants and leaching by carbonic
acid (H2CO3) may produce a calcium
deficiency in soil.
• Acid soils may still contain an appreciable level
of calcium which, because of competition by
hydrogen ion, is not available to plants.
• Treatment of acid soil to restore the pH to near
neutrality generally remedies the calcium
deficiency.
• In alkaline soils, the presence of high levels of
sodium, magnesium, and potassium sometimes
produces calcium deficiency because these
ions compete with calcium for availability to
plants.
SULFUR
● Assimilated by plants as the sulfate ion.
● Lack of sulfur in soil do not support plant growth
well, largely because sulfur is a component of
some essential amino acids and of thiamin and
biotin.
● Sulfate ion is generally present in the soil as
immobilized insoluble sulfate minerals or as
soluble salts that are readily leached from the
soil and lost as soil water runoff.
● Unlike the case of nutrient cations such as
potassium ion (K+), little sulfate is adsorbed to
the soil (i.e., bound by ion-exchange binding),
where it is resistant to leaching while still
available for assimilation by plant roots.
NITROGEN
● Organic nitrogen content in soil is over ninety
percent (90%) - product of the biodegradation
of dead plants and animals
● Hydrolyzed to ammonium ion which can be
oxidized to nitrate ion by means of bacterial
activities in the soil.
● an important component of proteins and other
constituents of living matter and its attachment
to soil humus
● essential in maintaining soil fertility.
● is not a significant product of mineral
weathering,
● Inorganic nitrogen from fertilizers and rainwater
which is often largely lost by leaching
● an essential component of proteins and other
constituents of living matter.
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
● Plants and cereals grown on nitrogen-rich soils
● Nitrogen is most generally available to plants as
nitrate ion.
PHOSPHOROUS
● must be present in a simple inorganic form
before it can be taken up by plants
● it is an important component of plants.
● dihydrogen phosphate ion and hydrogen
phosphate ion are the predominant
orthophosphate species.
● Orthophosphate is most available to plants at pH
values near neutrality
● in acidic soils, orthophosphate ions are
precipitated or sorbed by species of Al(III) and
Fe(III).
● In alkaline soils, orthophosphate may react with
calcium carbonate to form relatively insoluble
hydroxyapatite
• little phosphorus applied as fertilizer leaches
from the soil
POTASSIUM
• activates some enzymes and it is also essential
for some carbohydrate transformations
• Lack of potassium in soil can generally reduce
crop yields
• the higher the productivity of the crop, the more
potassium will be removed from the soil.
• When nitrogen fertilizers are added to soils to
increase productivity, removal of potassium is
enhanced.
• It may become a limiting nutrient in soils heavily
fertilized with other nutrients.
ESSENTIAL PLANT MACRONUTRIENTS
• Boron,
• Chlorine,
• Copper,
• Iron,
• Manganese,
• Molybdenum (for nitrogen fixation), and
• Zinc
• Can be components of essential enzymes.
• Low levels of these elements are needed by
plants but usually higher levels of these
micronutrients are toxic to plants.
• Manganese, iron, chlorine, and zinc may be
involved in photosynthesis.
• Sodium, silicon, nickel, and cobalt may also be
an essential nutrient for some plants.

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
• Iron and manganese occur in a number of soil
minerals.
• Sodium and chlorine (as chloride) occur
naturally in soil.
• Boron is substituted isomorphically for Si in some
micas and is present in tourmaline, a mineral
with the formula
• Copper is isomorphically substituted for other
elements in feldspars, amphiboles, olivines,
pyroxenes, and micas; it also occurs as trace
levels of copper sulfides in silicate minerals
• Molybdenum occurs as molybdenite (MoS2)
• Vanadium is isomorphically substituted for Fe or
Al in oxides, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and micas.
• Zinc is present as the result of isomorphic
substitution for Mg, Fe, and Mn in oxides,
amphiboles, olivines, and pyroxenes and as
trace zinc sulfide in silicates.
• Other trace elements that occur as specific
minerals, sulfide inclusions, or by isomorphic
substitution for other elements in minerals are:
o Chromium,
o Cobalt,
o Arsenic,
o Selenium,
o Nickel,
o Lead, and
o Cadmium.
• Major components of crop fertilizers are
o nitrogen,
o phosphorus and
o potassium
• but magnesium, sulfate and micronutrients may
also be added
FERTILIZERS
• Fertilizers are designated by number
o Six (6) for nitrogen (equivalent to 6%)
expressed as N
o Twelve (12) for phosphorus (equivalent
to 12%) expressed as P2O5
o Eight (8) for potassium (equivalent to
8%) expressed as K2O.
• Farm manure corresponds to an approximately
0.5-0.24 fertilizer
• The anhydrous ammonia product has a very
high nitrogen content of 82%. It may be added
directly to the soil.
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
• because of the toxicity of ammonia gas the use
of aqua ammonia which is a thirty percent (30%)
solution of NH3 in water must observe greater
safety.
• ammonia vapor is toxic and NH3 is reactive in
some substances and it is considered as a
hazardous waste.
• Ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), a common solid
nitrogen fertilizer contains 33.5% nitrogen.
• One of the common problem that can be
produced from the use of fertilizer is water
pollution
• Eutrophication can occur, the excessive growth
of algae in water body which is caused by the
nutrients in fertilizers
• algal biomass decay that will consume oxygen,
and bodies of water are seriously damaged
because of oxygen depletion
SOIL POLLUTANTS and REMEDIATION
POLLUTANTS FROM LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
• Livestock production generates significant
amounts of environmental pollutants.
• Livestock manure has a very high BOD and can
rapidly deplete oxygen when it gets into
waterways.
• Decomposition of animal waste products
produces inorganic nitrogen that can
contaminate water with potentially toxic nitrate.
• eutrophication of water can happen when
inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus released to
water from the decomposition of livestock
wastes
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) released to the atmosphere
from livestock waste degradation can be an air
pollutant
• Methane generated in the anaerobic
degradation of livestock wastes is a potent
greenhouse gas.
PESTICIDES AND THEIR RESIDUES IN SOIL
• four major concerns regarding pesticides in soil
that need to be considered with respect to their
licensing and regulation:
o carryover of pesticides and biologically
active degradation products to crops
grown in later seasons
o biological effects on organisms in terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems including
bioaccumulation and transfer through food
chains
o groundwater contamination
o effects on soil fertility

SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1
• Herbicides are considered the most common
chemicals that affect soil and organisms that it
supports
• effectivity of herbicides come into direct
contact with soil
• foreign compounds that remain in soil for a long
period of time have its effects:
o the substances become increasingly
resistant to extraction and desorption
process
o they become significantly less bioavailable
to organisms
o overall toxicity is decreased
WASTES IN SOIL
• large quantities of waste products are received
by soil
• Sulfur dioxide emitted in the burning of sulfur-
containing fuels ends up as sulfate in soil.
• Nitrogen oxides from atmosphere converted to
nitrates are eventually deposited in soil.
• Particulate lead from the exhaust of an
automobile is found at high concentration in soil
along heavily traveled highways. Also, elevated
levels of heavy metals from mines and smelters
are found on soil near such facilities.
• Soil is the receptor of many hazardous wastes
from landfill leachate, lagoons, and other
sources.
• land farming of degradable hazardous organic
wastes is practiced as a means of disposal and
degradation. The degradable material is worked
into the soil, and soil microbial processes bring
about its degradation.
• Natural organic matter, especially humic
substances, attracts organic contaminants and
heavy metal ions.
• Soils may contain elemental carbon from
burned crop residues, serving as a repository for
organic contaminants.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) , like
benzene, toluene, xylenes, dichloromethane,
trichloroethane, and trichloroethylene, can
contaminate soil in industrialized and
commercialized areas (countries in which
enforcement of regulations is not very stringent)
• sources of these VOCs are:
o leaking underground storage tanks;
o landfills built before current stringent
regulations were enforced and;
o improperly discarded solvents.
SOIL LOSS AND DEGRADATION
• Soil is fragile to erosion and degradation due to
cultivation practices causing to not being useful
to support crops
• Desertification, associated with drought and
fertility loss, hinders plant growth.
CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024
• Desertification involves a number of interrelated
factors, including erosion, climate variations,
water availability, loss of fertility, loss of soil
humus, and deterioration of soil chemical
properties.
• Deforestation exacerbates soil deterioration
through erosion and nutrient loss.
• Soil erosion, primarily caused by water and wind,
is a primary source of erosion.
AGROFORESTRY
• Soil conservation practices include terracing,
contour plowing, and cover cropping.
• Crop conservation tillage, like no-till agriculture,
reduces erosion by leaving crop residues on the
soil. In the newly planted crop row, weeds are
killed by application of a herbicide prior to
planting. The surface residue of plant material
left on top of the soil prevents soil erosion.
AGROFORESTRY
• Trees are a known perennial plants which are
very effective in stopping soil erosion. In the past,
trees were often allowed to grow naturally with
native varieties without the benefit of any
special agricultural practices such as fertilization.
• Agroforestry, crops are grown in strips between
rows of trees, helps preserve and balance soil,
especially on sloping terrain.
• Alley cropping of crops between rows of trees
running across sloping land can be an effective
means of practicing agroforestry sustainably.
SOIL RESTORATION
• Soil can be impaired by loss of fertility, erosion,
buildup of salinity, contamination by phytotoxins,
such as zinc from sewage sludge, and other
insults.
• Soil has a degree of resilience and can largely
recover whenever the conditions leading to its
degradation are removed.
• Soil restoration involves active measures, such as
physical alterations provide terraces and
relatively flat areas not subject to erosion.
• Organic matter can be restored by planting
crops the residues of which are cultivated into
the soil for partially decayed biomass.
 CIVIL ENGINEERING | LECTURE
SCI 401: GENERAL CHEMISTRY 1 First Semester A.Y. 2023 – 2024

• Nutrients may be added and contaminants

neutralized.

GREEN CHEMISTRY AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

• Green chemistry in agriculture aims to address

issues like:
• Pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers and their
products have accumulated on agricultural
lands and waters leading to adverse effects on
wildlife, the environment, and potentially
humans as well.
• Nontarget organisms have suffered and insect
and weed pests have built up resistance to
agents used in their eradication.
• Poorly trained and inadequately protected
personnel in less developed countries have
suffered adverse effects from modern
agricultural products.
• Disposal problems have arisen with respect to
obsolete pesticides.