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Developments in Earth Surface Processes, 20
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ISBN: 978-0-444-63590-7
ISSN: 0928-2025
vii
Contributors
Numbers in Parentheses indicate the pages on which the author’s contributions begin.
K.D. Adams (145), Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV, United States
N.J. Anderson (1), Earth Science Education, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
G. Atwood (1), Earth Science Education, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
B.G. Bills (145), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, CA, United States
B.B. Bowen (598), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
J.M. Broughton (292, 371), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
G.T. Carling (526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
T.E. Cerling (165), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
M.A. Chan (570, 617), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
K. Cornwell (75), California State University, Sacramento, CA, United States
H.S. Godsey (617), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
J.S. Honke (221), U.S. Geological Survey, MS980, Denver Federal Center, Denver,
CO, United States
S.U. Janecke (28), Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
P.W. Jewell (88, 570, 598), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
D.S. Kaufman (28), School of Earth Sciences and Environmental Sustainability,
Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, United States
G. Komatsu (570), International Research School of Planetary Sciences, Università
d’Annunzio, Pescara, Italy
B.J.C. Laabs (462), North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, United States
M.S. Lachniet (551), University of Nevada Las Vegas, Las Vegas, NV, United States
N.A. Lifton (165), Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
T.C. Lowndes (75), 2301 NE Blakeley St., Apt 306, Seattle, WA, United States
K.D. Lupo (352), Southern Methodist University, Dallas, TX, United States
D.B. Madsen (504), Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, United States
A.L. Mayo (184, 526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
J.H. McBride (526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
xix
xx Contributors
J.P. McGeehin (221), U.S. Geological Survey, MS926A, 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive,
Reston, VA, United States
D.M. Miller (60, 127), U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, United States
J.S. Munroe (462), Middlebury College, Middlebury, VT, United States
D.T. Nelson (598), University of North Carolina—Pembroke, Pembroke,
NC, United States
S.T. Nelson (184, 526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
R.Q. Oaks Jr. (28), Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
J. O’Connor (105), U.S. Geological Survey, Portland, OR, United States
C.H. Okubo (570), U.S. Geological Survey, Tucson, AZ, United States
o (570), Centro de Astrobiologı́a (CSIC-INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, Spain
J. Orm€
C.G. Oviatt (75, 88, 221, 442), Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
T.J. Parker (570), Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology,
Pasadena, CA, United States
J.L. Pederson (28), Utah State University, Logan, UT, United States
V.A. Pedone (442), California State University, Northridge, CA, United States
G.A. Phelps (60), U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, CA, United States
F.M. Phillips (165), New Mexico Tech, Socorro, NM, United States
L.W. Raming (598), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
M.C. Reheis (28), U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, CO, United States
K.A. Rey (184, 526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
D. Rhode (420), Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV, United States
D.N. Schmitt (352), SWCA Environmental Consultants, Salt Lake City, UT,
United States
J.F. Shroder (75), University of Nebraska at Omaha, Omaha, NE, United States
G.R. Smith (292), Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
MI, United States
J.V. South (526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
R.S. Thompson (221), U.S. Geological Survey, MS980, Denver Federal Center,
Denver, CO, United States
D.G. Tingey (184, 526), Brigham Young University, Provo, UT, United States
T.J. Wambeam (1), Earth Science Education, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
A.L. Wolfe (371), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
Foreword
xxi
xxii Foreword
monograph. The original Lake Bonneville dealt with shorelines, lake deposits,
glacial moraines, playas, the isostatic deformation induced by the paleolake’s
water load, and Gilbert’s discovery that the immense lake had filled to a level
defined by a well-developed shoreline before incising a deep spillway at its
northern end, thereby lowering to a second prominent shoreline level. Lake
Bonneville: A Scientific Update not only revisits all these topics, but its nearly
two-dozen chapters also include treatments on vegetation, fishes, birds, mam-
mals, and early human occupation. The update shows how technological and
scientific advances since Gilbert’s day are providing more precision and insight
into the paleolake’s sedimentology, geochronology, geochemistry, paleocli-
mate, and geophysics. It shows how the northern spillway incision, first recog-
nized by Gilbert, is now understood to have generated a cataclysmic megaflood
that coursed through the Snake and Columbia Rivers to the Pacific Ocean. But
this updating of Gilbert’s Lake Bonneville also reveals much more.
The intellectual position of geology and the Earth sciences has changed
since the late 19th century. Owing in part to the explorations and discoveries
in which Gilbert was one of many participants, 19th-century geology was at
the peak of the intellectual hierarchy for the realms of the academy, political
influence, and the public imagination. During the 20th century the frontiers of
scientific exploration, discovery, and explanation moved in the direction of
fundamental physics, operating at both subatomic and cosmic scales. While
the late 20th century saw much scientific emphasis shifting to explorations
in molecular biology, the new millennium appears to involve an awakening
to critical issues that relate humankind to a changing Earth, and Lake
Bonneville: A Scientific Update illustrates much of the kind of science that
needs to be a part of this awakening.
Geology is commonly been viewed as dealing with very ancient Earth history.
However, Lake Bonneville: A Scientific Update, like its 1890 predecessor, deals
with those very recent portions of Earth history that are most relevant to human
welfare. As Gilbert writes in the second paragraph of his Lake Bonneville:
When the work of the geologist is finished and his final comprehensive report is
written, the longest and most important chapter will be upon the latest and
shortest of the geologic periods.
Gilbert ascribed the importance of the latest geological period to its rather
complete recording of various processes of change through the products of
those processes. The processes, in turn, are to be understood through a com-
bination of present-day observations and, “…the study of freshly formed
and perfectly preserved products, [such] that the relation of product to pro-
cess is learned.” Moreover, “It is through the study of the phenomena of the
latest period that the connection between the present processes of change
and the products of past changes is established.” Gilbert used this argument
to establish two purposes to his study of the long-gone phenomenon of Lake
Bonneville. The first purpose is that of “…discovery of the local Pleistocene
Foreword xxiii
V. Baker
University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
Introduction
xxv
xxvi Introduction
FIG. 1 Map of Lake Bonneville produced by Ken Adams. The solid black line represents the drain-
age divide of the Bonneville basin. Three shades of blue show lakes in the Bonneville basin; the
lightest shade is for modern lakes, Great Salt Lake (GSL), Utah Lake (UL), and Sevier Lake (SL);
Introduction xxvii
Wheat, 1979; Smith and Street-Perrott, 1983; Benson and Thompson, 1987;
Adams and Redwine, 2016), but it was atypical in terms of its size. Lake
Bonneville was much larger in surface area and deeper than the next-largest
Pleistocene lake in the Great Basin, Lake Lahontan, in western Nevada
(Morrison, 1991).
At its highest level, marked by the Bonneville shoreline, Lake Bonneville
had inundated a number of smaller closed basins (Eardley et al., 1957). The
two largest of the subbasins of Lake Bonneville are the main body in the
north, which consists primarily of the Great Salt Lake subbasin and a number
of smaller closed basins, and the Sevier body in the south (Fig. 1). The main
body was fed by the major rivers Provo, Weber, and Bear, in addition to many
smaller streams and rivers. The Sevier body was fed by the Sevier and Beaver
Rivers. All of these major rivers headed in high, glaciated mountains along
the eastern side of the basin. Apart from a few exceptional streams, such as
Grouse Creek and Deep Creek, which today are ephemeral but which in
Bonneville times produced recognizable deltas, little runoff was supplied to
the lake from the west side of the basin.
During the time since G.K. Gilbert’s tremendous work was published in
1890, many people have pursued research topics concerning Lake Bonneville
and the Bonneville basin. Notable research has been undertaken and published
by A.J. Eardley, D.R. Currey, and W.E. Scott. Not everything produced by these
three people has withstood scientific tests, but they had a lasting impact on the
evolving understanding of the lake, and many, many others have made important
contributions that have built on and refined Gilbert’s accomplishments.
Lake Bonneville at the Provo shoreline is shown in the next darker blue, and the darkest blue shade
shows the lake extent at the Bonneville shoreline. Two primary subbasins merged at lake levels
higher than the Stansbury shoreline—the main body, which includes the Great Salt Lake basin and
some smaller closed basins, and the Sevier body. The primary connection between the main body
and the Sevier body was a strait at the modern topographic divide between the two bodies, the Old
River Bed threshold (ORBT). Two additional straits southwest of the ORBT connected the two bod-
ies at lake levels higher than the Provo shoreline. Major rivers tributary to Lake Bonneville were the
Beaver River (RB), Sevier (SR), Provo (PR), Weber (WR), Ogden (OR), and Bear (BR). The highest
and most extensive mountain ranges along the east side of the basin are the Uinta Mountains (U) and
the Wasatch Mountains (W). Two tributaries on the west side of the basin are labeled: DC (Deep
Creek) and GC (Grouse Creek). SLC, Salt Lake City, D, Delta, We, Wendover, L, Logan, and
RRP, Red Rock Pass.
xxviii Introduction
was based on an analysis of 368 radiocarbon ages from outcrops in the Bon-
neville basin obtained by many researchers since the 1950s. Many other ages
from sediment cores were not included in the compilation. Even with
hundreds of available ages some parts of the Bonneville chronology are not
well dated, but despite uncertainties, certain features of the Bonneville radio-
carbon chronology are well understood. New work on dating techniques in
addition to radiocarbon (such as optically stimulated luminescence and sur-
face exposure dating using cosmogenic radionuclides; Chapter 9) has poten-
tial to improve the accuracy and precision of the chronology.
Lake Bonneville began rising above elevations similar to modern Great
Salt Lake about 30 cal ka BP (Fig. 2). This age estimate is dependent on a
small number of radiocarbon ages with large uncertainties; it is a “nice round
number” that is consistent with the available evidence, but future research will
likely improve upon it (Chapter 11). Climate change probably initiated Lake
Bonneville, but diversion of the upper Bear River into the Bonneville basin
prior to the beginning of the Bonneville lake cycle played a role (Chapter 2).
Limited evidence from sediment cores from Great Salt Lake suggests that at
least as far back as 40 cal ka BP the lake supported brine shrimp at times,
and saline-tolerant ostracods (Limnocythere staplini) at other times
(Chapter 11). Both brine shrimp and saline-tolerant ostracods require the lake
to be shallow enough for the water to have the appropriate chemistry (salinity
and ionic composition) to support them. As far as is known, these conditions
prevailed during all of MIS 3 (29–60 cal ka BP; Oviatt et al., 2014).
The lake fluctuated and oscillated constantly in the closed basin during its
transgressive phase (Gilbert, 1890; Jewell, 2016; Chapter 3). By about 25 cal ka
BP it had risen about a third of the way to its highest elevation, when it experi-
enced two or more oscillations referred to collectively as the Stansbury oscilla-
tion (Oviatt et al., 1990). The Stansbury shoreline, which actually consists of
multiple shorelines within a narrow elevational range (less than 50 m), formed
at this time. After the Stansbury oscillation the long-term trend of lake-level
change was upward, punctuated by numerous fluctuations and oscillations, at
an average rate of about 50 m/ka decreasing to about 13 m/ka at about 22 cal ka
BP (1500 m in elevation). The largest and most impressive depositional land-
forms in the basin, referred to by Gilbert (1890) as the “intermediate shorelines”
because of their topographic position between the Bonneville and Provo
shorelines, formed during the post-Stansbury transgressive phase. Some
transgressive-phase oscillations have been dated (Oviatt, 1997; Nelson and
Jewell, 2015), and evidence of others will probably be discovered and dated.
Major transgressive-phase oscillations are important because they were caused
by climate changes that might be hemispheric or global in scope.
As Currey (1990) and Wambeam (2001) noted, because of the approxi-
mately linear relationship between lake-surface elevation and surface area,
lake elevation (lake level) is a proxy for both surface area and water volume.
Lake elevation increased by over 300 m during the transgressive phase. By
about 18 cal ka BP Lake Bonneville had risen high enough to reach the low
point on its basin rim (Fig. 2). The Bonneville shoreline marks the highest ele-
vation attained by the lake (Chapter 5) when it reached the threshold at Zenda
just north of Red Rock Pass, Idaho, and overflowed into the Snake River
drainage basin. Gilbert assembled the pieces of the geomorphic puzzle in
the Red Rock Pass area and reasoned that lake overflow led to a catastrophic
drawdown of the lake as the alluvium, landslide deposits, and nonresistant
Neogene sediment at the outlet were washed away by what he called “the
Bonneville flood” (Gilbert, 1890; Chapters 4 and 6). Lake level fell rapidly
by 125 m or more (Currey, 1982; Miller et al., 2013), in probably less than
a year (Jarrett and Malde, 1987; O’Connor, 1993; Chapter 6), from the
Bonneville shoreline (determined by initial overflow at the Zenda threshold)
to the Provo shoreline (controlled by overflow at the Red Rock Pass thresh-
old). The large landslide on the west side of Red Rock Pass, which had been
reactivated by the Bonneville flood (Chapter 4), continued to move, while the
xxx Introduction
Provo shoreline was forming and caused the Red Rock Pass threshold to rise
by at least 15 m during the ensuing 3 ka (Godsey et al., 2011; Miller et al.,
2013; Chapter 7). The Provo shoreline marks the overflowing (open-basin)
phase of lake history (Fig. 2).
Climate change led to a shift in water budget, from inputs exceeding outputs
during most of the transgressive phase and probably all of the overflowing
phase, to evaporative outputs exceeding inputs during the regressive phase. As
a result, the lake dropped from the Provo shoreline at about 15 cal ka BP to ele-
vations similar to those of modern Great Salt Lake, about 200 m lower, by about
13 cal ka BP. This decline was rapid, with an average rate of about 100 m per
thousand years. The lake occupied a closed basin during this 2-ka regressive
phase and must have experienced multiple oscillations and fluctuations on its
way down, but a stratigraphic record of those oscillations has not yet been found.
Regressive-phase shoreline deposits are thin or do not exist in many places,
compared to the thick and widespread transgressive-phase deposits.
The lake remained at low levels, probably similar to those of modern Great
Salt Lake, for about 1.4 ka, until it rose by about 15 m during the Gilbert epi-
sode, which culminated at about 11.6 cal ka BP (Oviatt, 2014). The concept
of a “Gilbert shoreline” has been around at least since Currey (1982) showed
it on a map, yet evidence does not exist that the landforms at most of the sites
mapped by Currey as the “Gilbert shoreline” are related to the Gilbert episode.
Lacustrine landforms (mostly gravel barriers) at most of Currey’s (1982)
Gilbert-shoreline sites are too high in elevation to be related to the Gilbert epi-
sode, and some were formed during the transgressive phase of Lake Bonneville.
The culmination of the Gilbert episode at 11.6 cal ka BP was at the tail end
of the Northern-Hemisphere climate event known as the Younger Dryas
(12.9–11.6 cal ka BP; Bromley et al., 2014). The physical link between the
Younger Dryas and the Gilbert episode has not been firmly established.
Between about 13 and 11.6 cal ka BP, including the time of the Gilbert
episode, the lake supported ostracods tolerant of high-alkalinity waters but not
brine shrimp (Oviatt, 2014; Chapter 11). The Great Salt Lake has contained
hypersaline water and has supported brine shrimp (no ostracods) since the end
of the Gilbert episode. Holocene lake rises were less than 6 m above average
historic levels, compared to 15 m for the Gilbert episode. See Chapter 1 for an
overview of links between modern Great Salt Lake and Lake Bonneville.
THIS VOLUME
Our intention for this volume is to summarize the state of knowledge in the
early 21st century concerning many topics related to Lake Bonneville and
the Bonneville basin. In addition to the chronology and history of Lake
Bonneville, many other scientific topics have been pursued in the basin and
are reviewed in this volume. The history of scientific research in the
Bonneville basin is an important subject in itself (Sack, 1989), partly because
Introduction xxxi