Atoms, Element and Compounds Drawing Electronic Configuration Ions

Atoms—all substances are made from atoms.
Element—a substance made from one type of atom. There are
approximately 100 elements in the periodic table.
Compounds—2 or more elements chemically combined.
Mixture—2 or more elements or compounds not chemically
combined.
Structure of the Atom
Every atom has a central nucleus containing protons and
Most of the time the exam paper will only ask you to draw the
electronic configuration. In order to do this you need to know
the number of electrons. This is the atomic number (the bottom
number).
Example:
11 electrons
If an atom gains or loses electrons to achieve
the structure of a noble gas it becomes an ion.
Ion: a charged particle due to gaining or los-
ing electrons.
This sodium atom lost a negative electron and
therefore becomes an ion with a positive
charge. You can get negative ions too if they
gain electrons.

Write out the word PEN to calculate the number of protons,

Note that an ion is just 1 atom with
neutrons and electrons.
a charge.
Shell 1: maximum 2 electrons 2,8,1
P - Protons (bottom number)
E—Electrons (bottom number) Shell 2: maximum 8 electrons
N—Neutrons (top—bottom) Shell 3: maximum 8 electrons Ionic Bonding—when a metal and non metal react

The electronic configuration of Sodium (Na) can also be written This is when 2 ions are bonded together because of
like this 2,8,1. This shows there is 2 electrons in the 1st shell, 8 their charge. If one atom has 1 electron in its outer
electrons in the second shell and 1 electron in the 3rd shell. shell it will transfer that extra electron to another
atom which has 7 electrons in its outer shell. The aim
The Periodic Table
is that they both have a full outer shell like the noble
So…..P = 3 E = 3 N = 4 gases.
The number of protons and electrons is always the same. The periodic table can be separated
into metals and non-metals.
Atoms have no overall charge
because they have the same
number of positive protons as
negative electrons.
The periodic table is also split
into groups which go across
Describing Equations the top. Exam Style Description (3 marks)
Sodium transfers 1 electron to chlorine
2H₂ + O₂ 2H₂O Sodium becomes positively charged and chlorine
Elements in the same group have: becomes negatively charged.
You need to be able to describe symbol equations in terms
 The same number of electrons in their outer shell
of the number of molecules so here goes:  Similar properties Covalent bonding is between 2 non-metals. When
2 molecules of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of oxygen to The noble gases are in group 0 and are unreactive because they this happens a covalent bond is formed between the
make 2 molecules of water. have a full outer shell of electrons. two atoms. This make a molecule.
 Limestone Limestone
Calcium Carbonate ADD HEAT Calcium Carbonate
CaCO₃ (thermal
decomposition)
The CaCO₃
ADD HEAT
(thermal
decomposition)
Calcium Hydroxide CO₂ Limestone Calcium Oxide
CaO
Solution Calcium Oxide ADD WATER
Ca(OH)₂ CaO Cycle Calcium Hydroxide H₂O
Ca(OH)₂
ADD WATER ADD WATER
ADD WATER Calcium Hydroxide H₂O H₂O
H₂O Ca(OH)₂ Calcium Hydroxide
Used to neutralise acids Solution
Ca(OH)₂ ADD CARBON
The limestone cycle can be given to you in either of the forms presented above. It is exact-
ly the same information just presented differently. It is as simple as LEARNING it off by DIOXIDE
heart. Limestone CO₂
Limestone: is quarried out of the ground and is used as a building
material.
Calcium Carbonate
Acid Rain: Limestone can be damaged by acid rain. CaCO₃
Cement: Is made by heating limestone and mixing it with clay. Quarrying
Mortar: Cement + Sand
Positives Negatives

Jobs Visual pollution

Thermal Decomposition: This means breaking something down (decomposition) using heat
(thermal). Notice it in the carbon cycle. Examples: Improves transport links Noise pollution

magnesium carbonate magnesium oxide + carbon dioxide Future development of the Destroys habitats
zinc carbonate zinc oxide + carbon dioxide quarry
Hopefully you can see that a metal carbonate is broken down using heat to produce a met- Provides materials for build- Increased Traffic
al oxide and carbon dioxide. ing
Extraction of Metals
 A metal ore is a rock, dug out of the ground, that
contains enough metal that it is economical to
extract. For example magnesium oxide. In order for
us to use the magnesium we need to extract it
from the oxide.
 Metals more reactive than carbon are extracted
from their ore using electrolysis.
 Metals which are less reactive than carbon are
extracted from their ore using reduction (by adding
carbon). Reduction is the removal of oxygen as
seen in the example.
Example: Iron Oxide + Carbon --> Iron + Carbon Dioxide
 The least reactive metals such as gold and silver
are found on their own—they do not form a
compound. This means they do not need to be
extracted from their ore.
Electrolysis
Electrolysis is used to extract metals more reactive than
carbon from their ore (as mentioned above).
For example, aluminium oxide is split into aluminium and
oxygen.
The aluminium oxide is melted
into a liquid so that the ions can
move.
The positive ion (always the
metal) move towards the negative
electrode because they have
opposite charges. The negative ion moves towards the
positive electrode.
Expensive because:
 This process has many steps
 Uses a large amount of energy to make the
substance which is being separated liquid
Extraction of Copper
Extraction of copper has its own story. The main way has 2 stages:
 Smelting is used to extract copper by heating it in a furnace (like a
big oven).
 It is then purified by electrolysis.
Copper rich ores are ores with a high percentage of copper. These high
grade copper ores are in high demand, but are limited. So new methods
are being used to extract copper from low grade ores:
Phytomining—this means using plants to extract the copper. The plants
absorb copper from soil and the plants are burned to produce ash
containing copper.
Bioleaching—uses bacteria to extract the copper. The bacteria are gown
in an area where there is copper and then they produce a solution that
contains copper.
Recycling of Metal—we should recycle because
Pure Metals
 Metal ores are running out
Soft because:
 Extraction of metals from their ores uses
 They have atoms all of the same size energy and realises carbon dioxide
so
 The atoms are arranged in rows
 The layers can slide over each other
The Transition Metals
The transition metals, in the central block of the
periodic table are :
Alloys a mixture of metals
Stronger than pure metals because:  good conductors of heat and electricity.
 They have different sized atoms so  can be bent or hammered into shape.
 The atoms are not arranged in layers so
 copper is used in plumbing because it is
 The layers cannot slide over each other.
resistant to corrosion (will not react with the
water in the pipes) and electrical wiring
Iron made in a blast furnace is impure, brittle and has limited because it is a good conductor of heat and
uses therefore it s converted into steel (alloy of iron and car- electricity.
bon).
 Aluminium and titanium are useful metals
 High-carbon steel are hard and resistant to corrosion. because they have a low density and are
 Low-carbon steels are easily shaped. resistant to corrosion.
Crude oil
 Crude oil is a dark, smelly liquid which is a mixture of lots of
different chemical compounds.
 Crude oil straight out of the ground is not much use, as
there are too many substances in it, all with different boil-
ing points.
 Before we can use crude oil we have to separate it into its
different substances. We do this by fractional distillation.
Burning Hydrocarbons—issues
When hydrocarbons are burned they release waste gases into
the atmosphere.
Carbon dioxide: The carbon in the fuel reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide. This causes global warming and a consequence of
this is rising sea levels.
Test for CO2—bubble through limewater, will turn cloudy.
Sulphur dioxide: The sulphur reacts with oxygen in the air to form
sulphur dioxide. This dissolves in rain to form acid rain.
To reduce acid rain you can:
1. Remove the sulphur from the fuel before you burn it or
2. Remove the sulphur dioxide from waste gases.
Hydrocarbons
Nearly all of the compounds in crude oil are made up of just two chemical elements: Hydrogen and Carbon
We call these compounds hydrocarbons.
CH₄ C₂H ₆ C₃H₈
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are alkanes.
Some examples are shown here:
We can write a general formula for alkane molecules
like this: CnH2n+2 which means that ‘for every n
carbon atoms, there are (2n+2) hydrogen atoms.
The—between the atoms represents a covalent bond.
How does fractional distillation work?
 Crude oil is heated and vaporises/boils.
 Vapours rise up the column, gradually cooling and condensing.
 Hydrocarbons with different size molecules condense at different lev-
els/temperatures
 The crude oil is separated into a series of fractions with similar num-
bers of carbon atoms and boiling points. These are called fractions.

Nitrous oxides: When nitrogen and oxygen in the air pass through
a car engine they get so hot they react to form nitrous oxides. This
causes acid rain.
Carbon particles: when fuel is burned without enough oxygen solid
carbon particles are released into the air. This causes global dim-
ming.
As the number of carbon atoms increases:
 Molecules become larger and heavier
 Boiling point increases
 Flammability decreases (catches fire less easily)
 Viscosity increases (liquid becomes thicker)

Carbon Monoxide: all you need to know is that the symbol is CO

Positives of using Biofuels: Negatives of using Biofuels:

Biofuels—an alternative to biodiesel or ethanol
A biofuel is made from dead animal and plant matter
A common example is wood or sugar cane
 They do not release sulphur dioxide so do not  The land should be used to grow plants for
produce acid rain. food not plants to make biofuels
 They are renewable
 Crops are not reliable
 They are carbon neutral which means they take
in as much carbon dioxide in photosynthesis  Deforestation for land
Cracking Alkenes Making Polymers
The long hydrocarbons we get from crude oil, separat- These hydrocarbons have dou- Alkenes can work as monomers (small molecules) to make polymers
ed by fractional distillation, aren’t as useful as the ble bonds between the carbon (plastics). Chemical reactions take place where lots and lots of alkene
shorter ones. atoms—therefore they are monomers (shown with ‘n’ for a large number) open their double bond
called unsaturated. The word and join to another monomer to make very long chains, called poly-
So large/long alkanes get CRACKED, which means they
get broken in two. alkene has 2 e’s which means double bond!! mers.

 They are heated and The general formula for alkenes is CnH2n
 A catalyst is also added
Alkenes react with bromine water and make it go
Cracking produces two molecules: from orange to colourless.
1. One shorter (useful as a fuel) alkane Alkanes do not have a double bond so the bromine Lots of ethene monomers make the polymer polyethene.
2. One alkene (used to make polymers). water stays orange.
Lots of butene monomers make the polymer polybutene.
Summary
catalyst and heat Polymers are very useful. You already know lots of uses of plastics, but
some new uses include:
Long Chain Alkane Short Chain Alkane + Alkene  New packaging materials
 Waterproof coatings for fabrics
Good fuel Polymers
 Dental polymers

Ethanol  Wound dressings

Ethanol can be made in two ways: Useful  Hydrogels
 Smart materials, which includes shape memory polymers
Fermentation
Sugar + Yeast Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
Substances from Recycling Polymers
This method is renewable because sugar can be grown relatively quickly. Most polymers are NOT biodegradable. This means they are not bro-
Positives Negatives ken down by microorganisms, so they end up in landfill sites and cause
Carbon neutral Deforestation/destruction of habitats for land Some polymers are being de- a lot of littering. Therefore they need to be recycled.
Renewable Land should be used for food production
veloped which are biodegrada- Positives of recycling plastics Negatives of recycling plastics
Using Ethene ble. They are made from a
Reduces CO2 emissions—new Litter problem at collection site
Ethene + Steam Ethanol mixture of polymers and corn-
plastic bags are not made
starch.
The addition of steam Conserves resources (plastic Burning plastic bags release car-
is called hydration is made from alkenes) bon dioxide
A catalyst and heat is added—this is a thermal decomposition reaction. Reduces landfill—landfill is
This method is non-renewable as it comes from crude oil. filling up
Plant oils: Food and Fuel Many plants contain oils that can be extracted. This is done by:
Plant oils contain a lot of energy, so they are useful fuels
and good foods. They provide us with nutrients: some  Pressing (to release the liquids: water and oil) then
plant oils contain essential fatty acids, for instance.  Filtering (to remove the solid parts)

Cooking with Oils

Food can be cooked in oil at higher temperatures than in The diagram shows a more complicated way to remove the oil using distillation
water. The foods are: using steam. Steam is inserted into part A, at the bottom. The crushed plant mate-
 Crispier Plant Oils and rial is above it (1). The steam carries the oils out of the plant (the oil evaporates)
 Contain more energy through the other tubes—so oil vapour and water vapour move together. The oil
 A different colour Their Uses and steam condense to liquid in part D, which uses cold water to cool down the
 Taste different
vapours. They drip into part E, and the oil floats on top of the water (7 marks the
oil, 8 is the water). This means the water can be tapped off from underneath the
oil, leaving just the plant oil we want.
Emulsions

Oil does not dissolve in water—this is why Saturated and Unsaturated Oils
oil and water do not mix. It floats on top Some plant oils are saturated, which means
because it is less dense. However, it is pos- they DON’T contain any double bonds be-
sible to mix oil and water to make an tween carbon atoms.
EMULSION. To keep them mixed requires
Others are unsaturated, which means they
an EMULSIFIER.
DO contain double bonds between carbons.
Emulsions are often described as better than water or oil because:
Using the bromine water test (the same one
 They are thicker than oil or water alone. that shows alkanes or alkenes), you can see if
 They have better textures,
a plant oil is saturated or unsaturated. Un-
 They have a better appearance
saturated oils, because they have double
 They have a better coating ability.
bonds, decolourise bromine water.
Examples include foods like ice cream or mayonnaise; make-up; and
paint (which should be good at coating!)
Hydrogenation
Higher Tier: Unsaturated oils can be hardened, by reacting them with
Higher Tier: emulsifier molecules have
a hydrophobic end and a hydrophilic  hydrogen
end, which mean they can mix with  a nickel catalyst
both oil and water (see diagram). Suffi-  at 60oC.
cient emulsifier must be used to get a This process is called hydrogenation, and it literally makes the oils harder, so they are solid at
stable emulsion. room temperature. This is how margarine is made, and hardened oils are useful in baking cakes
and pastries and other delicious foods.
Atmosphere Higher tier only:
The atmosphere has been as it is today for the past 200 million years. It is about 80% nitrogen and 20%
oxygen with tiny amounts of other gases (e.g. CO2, water vapour and noble gases) The Miller Urey experiment:
One theory (there are many!) of how life was formed involves the
Early atmosphere interaction of hydrocarbons, ammonia and lightening.
 For the first billion years of the Earth’s existence, there were lots of volcanoes. The gases they Two scientists sealed a mixture of water, ammonia, methane and
released formed the Earth’s early atmosphere.
 Water vapour released from the volcanoes condensed to make the oceans. hydrogen in a flask and heated to produce water vapour.
 It is suggested that the early atmosphere was like Mars and Venus’ current atmosphere. Electric sparks were passed through the mixture of water vapour and
gases, simulating lightning.
How the atmosphere changed After a week, contents were analysed. Amino acids, the building blocks
CO2 decreased because:
for proteins, were found.
 Carbon from the CO2 became locked up in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels.
 CO2 dissolves in oceans (however this has an impact on sea life) This supports the ‘primordial soup’ theory.
 CO2 has been taken in by plants during photosynthesis Separating air:
O2 Increased because: Because air is a mixture of many gases, it can be separated using
 Plants and algae produced the oxygen that we have today.
fractional distillation—just like crude oil.
This can be used to provide a source of raw materials for many
Structure of the Earth industrial processes.

 Core—liquid and a thick section.

Continental Drift
 Mantle—mainly solid but the particles can move to form a convection
current. This is a thick section. Wegner’s theory was that all the continents used to be in one super
 Crust—solid and thinner than the mantle and the core. continent called Pangea. The evidence for this theory is:
The crust and upper mantle are cracked into tectonic plates.
 The continents fit together like a jigsaw
Convection Currents—happen in the mantle  There are the same type of rocks found on the coast of South
 Natural radioactive processes in the core heat the mantle
America and the coast of Africa.
 This causes a convection in the mantle
 Which causes the tectonic plates to move a few cm each year  There are the same type of fossils found on the coast of South
At boundaries between the tectonic plates, volcanoes, tsunamis and earthquakes occur. This is when America and the coast of Africa.
the plates move together/ spread apart. These movements can be sudden and disastrous and can
cause a lot of damage. We don’t know how life began on Earth because:
 There is insufficient evidence
Earthquake warnings—it is hard to predict earthquakes and people often ignore them because:  No-one was there to see it
 You cannot predict where earthquakes will occur
 You cannot predict when earthquakes will occur
 Most earthquakes do not cause any damage
Data Continuous Vs Categoric Data
In science lessons, and therefore in exams, you are often questioned about data and A set of results can be displayed on a graph—the type of
maths stuff. Here is some information to help you. graph used depends on the type of data.

Averages 2,2,2,3,5,6,7 Continuous—if both the variables are continuous data use a
line graph/scatter graph. Continuous means ‘can take any
Mode—the most common. From the numbers above it would be 2
value’ eg weight, height, shoe length etc.
Median—the one in the middle. From the numbers above it would be 3

Mean—add them all up and divide by how many you have. Frome the numbers above it
would be 3.9 (you could round this to four.
Categoric—if one of the variables is categoric data use a bar
Anomalies 2,2,2,3,5,6,15
chart. Categoric means will fit into a category such as blood
This is a piece of data which does not fit the pattern as group, eye colour, gender.
seen on the graph. In the numbers above the anomalies
is the number 15.

To calculate the mean you would miss out the anoma-

lous result therefore only adding the 2,2,2,3,5,6 and Describing and Explaining Graphs
divide by 6.
Describing graphs means to say what you see. You do not have to use the word because—
Variables you are not explaining what is happening. Always quote data.

Independent—what you change  Between 0 and 4 light intensity units, as light in-
tensity increases the rate of photosynthesis in-
Dependent—what you measure
creases rapidly.
Control—what you keep the same.  Between 4 and 12 light intensity units, as light
intensity increases rate of reaction increases
A common question usually goes like this: more slowly.
Q—In the investigation we did not get the results we expected. What could have caused  Between 12 and 16 light intensity units the graph
these errors. levels off and the rate of photosynthesis no longer increases.
The answer is usually measuring errors such as:
 Measured the time incorrectly Explaining graphs means telling the examiner why.
 Measured the mass incorrectly  Between 0 and 12 light intensity units the rate of reaction increases because there is
 Measure temperature incorrectly more energy for photosynthesis to occur.
 Measured the volume of gas incorrectly  Between 12 and 16 light intensity units the rate of reaction levels off because there is
Just read the question thoroughly and figure out what could have been measured incor- another limiting factor such as the amount of carbon dioxide.
rectly.