Electrical Drives LAB MANUAL

EEP 554

Name: XYZ
Roll No: 123456
Program: Mtech(power electronics and drives)
Semester: 2nd

Department of Electrical Engineering

 INDEX
Sr no. Name of experiment Date
1. Clarke and Park transformation
2. V/F control of 3-phase induction motor with mathematical
modelling of induction motor using m-file/Simulink
3. V/F control of synchronous motor drive with mathematical
modelling of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM)
using m-file/Simulink.
4. Type E chopper of DC motor
5. Mathematical Modelling of BLDC motor and control using
SPWM/SVM in m-file/Simulink
6. Direct torque control of 3-phase induction motor with
mathematical modelling of induction motor using
m-file/Simulink
7. Mathematical Modelling of BLDC motor and BLDC Hysteresis
Current Control using m-file/Simulink
8. Vector control of induction motor drive / syn. motor drive
using m-file/Simulink
9. Modelling of induction motor using m-file/Simulink

10. Modelling of PMSM motor using m-file/Simulink

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1

AIM: Clarke and Park Transformation

OBJECTIVE: 1. Park and Clarke’s transformation (abc to dq0)

2. Inverse Clarke’s and park transformation (dq0 to abc)

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB software

THEORY:

The behavior of three-phase machines is usually described by their voltage and current equations.
The coefficients of the differential equations that describe their behavior are time varying (except
when the rotor is stationary). The mathematical modeling of such a system tends to be complex
since the flux linkages, induced voltages, and currents change continuously as the electric circuit is
in relative motion. For such a complex electrical machine analysis, mathematical transformations
are often used to decouple variables and to solve equations involving time varying quantities by
referring all variables to a common frame of reference.

Among the various transformation methods available, the well known are:
• Clarke Transformation
• Park Transformation

Clarke Transformation

This transformation converts balanced three-phase quantities into balanced two-phase quadrature
quantities.

Park Transformation

This transformation converts vectors in balanced two-phase orthogonal stationary system into
orthogonal rotating reference frame.
Basically, the three reference frames considered in this implementation are:
1. Three-phase reference frame, in which Ia, Ib, and Ic are co-planar three-phase quantities
at an angle of 120 degrees to each other.

2. Orthogonal stationary reference frame, in which Iα (along α axis) and Iβ (along β axis) are
perpendicular to each other, but in the same plane as the three-phase reference frame.
 3. Orthogonal rotating reference frame, in which Id is at an angle θ (rotation angle)
to the α axis and Iq is perpendicular to Id along the q axis.

Figure 1 shows the three reference frames:

Fig 1 : Reference frames.

The combined representation of the quantities in all reference frames is shown in Figure 2.

Fig 2 : Combined Vector Representation

Clarke Transformation
The three-phase quantities are translated from the three-phase reference frame to the two-axis
orthogonal stationary reference frame using Clarke transformation as shown in Figure 3.The
Clarke transformation is expressed by the following equations:

2 1
𝐼𝛼 = (Ia )− ( Ib−Ic ) EQ1
3 3

2
I𝛽= (Ib−Ic ) EQ2
√3
 where,
Ia, Ib, and Ic are three-phase quantities
Iα and Iβ are stationary orthogonal reference frame quantities
When Iα is superimposed with Ia and Ia + Ib + Ic is zero, Ia, Ib, and Ic can be transformed to Iα
and I𝛽 as:

𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼𝑎 EQ3

1
𝐼𝛽= (𝐼𝑎 + 2𝐼𝑏) EQ4
√3

Where Ia + Ib + Ic = 0

Fig 3 : Clarke Transformation

Inverse Clarke Transformation

The transformation from a two-axis orthogonal stationary reference frame to a three-phase

stationary reference frame is accomplished using Inverse Clarke transformation as shown in
Figure 4. The Inverse Clarke transformation is expressed by the following equations:

where,
Va, Vb, Vc are three-phase quantities
Vα, Vβ are stationary orthogonal reference frame quantities
 Fig 4 : Inverse Clarke Transformation

Park Transformation
The two-axis orthogonal stationary reference frame quantities are transformed into rotating
reference frame quantities using Park transformation as shown in Figure 5. The Park
transformation is expressed by the following equations:

where,
Id, Iq are rotating reference frame quantities
Iα, Iβ are orthogonal stationary reference frame quantities
θ is the rotation angle

Fig 5 : Park Transformation

Inverse Park Transformation
The quantities in rotating reference frame are transformed to two-axis orthogonal stationary
reference frame using Inverse Park transformation as shown in Figure 6. The Inverse Park
transformation is expressed by the following equations:

where, Vα, Vβ are orthogonal stationary reference frame quantities and Vd, Vq are rotating
reference frame quantities

Fig 6 : Inverse Park Transformation

SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PARAMETERS AND WAVEFORMS:

Source amplitude = 1 V, 50 Hz

CONCLUSION:

1. Through this experiment, we successfully implemented Clark's and Park Transformation

using MATLAB/Simulink, gaining practical insights into these fundamental concepts in
electrical engineering.

2. The transformation process allowed us to convert three-phase quantities from the ABC
phase coordinate system to the αβ0 stationary reference frame and then to the dq0
rotating reference frame.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: V/F Control of 3-Phase Induction Motor.

OBJECTIVE: The Objective of this Laboratory session is to understand V/F (Voltage to

Frequency) Control of a Three-Phase Induction Motor.

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB Software (R2023B)

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1.Three-Phase Induction Motor

2.Variable Frequency Drive (VFD)

3. Power Supply

4. Multimeter

5. Oscilloscope

6. Control Panel with Interface

7.Necessary Cables and Connectors

THEORY:
Induction Motor Basics:

An induction motor is the most common type of AC motor used in industrial applications due to
its simplicity, ruggedness, and reliability. It operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction,
where a rotating magnetic field is created in the stator windings, inducing a current in the rotor
conductors, thus producing motion.
V/F control is a method used to control the speed of an induction motor by varying both the
voltage and frequency supplied to it. The ratio of voltage to frequency (V/F) is kept constant to
maintain the magnetic flux and, consequently, the motor's torque. By varying the frequency, the
speed of the motor can be controlled.

V/F Control Principle:

V/F control involves maintaining a constant ratio of voltage to frequency (V/F) supplied
to the motor. The V/F ratio is crucial for maintaining the magnetic flux in the motor,
which directly affects the torque and speed characteristics. By varying both the voltage
and frequency while keeping the V/F ratio constant, the motor's speed can be
controlled without compromising its torque output.

Advantages of V/F Control:

Precise Speed Control: V/F control allows for precise control over the motor's speed
across a wide range of operating conditions. High Starting Torque: By providing higher
voltage during start-up, V/F control enables the motor to generate sufficient torque to
overcome inertia and start under heavy loads. Energy Efficiency: By adjusting the motor
speed according to the load requirements, V/F control helps in optimizing energy
consumption and improving overall efficiency.

Limitations of V/F Control: Limited Overload Capacity: V/F control may have limited
capability to provide high torque at low speeds, especially for high-inertia loads. Voltage
and Frequency Constraints: The motor and VFD must operate within their rated voltage
and frequency limit stop prevent overheating and damage.

Harmonic Distortion: VFD scan introduce harmonic distortion in the power supply,
affecting the overall power quality and potentially causing interference with other
sensitive equipment.

Procedure:
1. Setup: Connect the three phase induction motor to the VFD according to the
manufacturer's instructions. Ensure all connections are secure.

2. Power Supply: Connect the power supply to the VFD and switch it on. Verify the VFD
is receiving the correct input voltage and frequency.

3. Parameter Setting: Use the control panel to set the desire do operating
parameter such as maximum frequency, minimum frequency, acceleration time,
and deceleration time.

4. Initial Testing: Start with a low frequency and gradually increase it while
observing the motor's speed and torque. Use the multi meter to measure voltage
and current at different operating frequencies.

5. V/F Ratio Adjustment: Adjust the V/F ratio to maintain the desired to speed
characteristics. Note any changes in motor performance.

6. Load Variation: Introduce different loads to the motor and observe its response.
Measure voltage, current, speed, and torque for each load condition.

7. Stability Testing: Gradually increase the frequency to the maximum allowable

value and observe the motor's stability. Ensure that the motor operates within its
safe limits.

8. Performance Analysis: Use the oscilloscope to visualize the waveforms of

voltage and current across motor terminals. Analyze the phase relationship and
distortion.

9. Documentation: Record all experimental data including parameters,

measurements, observations, and any abnormalities encountered during the
experiment.

10. Discussion: Discuss the results obtained, compare them with the oretical
expectations, and identify any factors influencing motor performance.

SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Fig: Close Loop Control of 3 Phase Induction Motor

Fig: 3 Phase Sine Subsystem

 Fig: PWM Subsystem

PARAMETERS AND WAVEFORMS:

Fig: Output from PID Controller

Fig: PWM for Switches

Fig: Motor Response

RESULT:
Experimental Results for V/F Control of Three Phase Induction Motor:

1. Speed Variation with Frequency: The speed of the induction motor increased linearly
with the increase in frequency while maintaining a constant V/F ratio. This linear
relationship between frequency and speed demonstrated the effectiveness of V/F
control in regulating motor speed.

2. Torque Characteristics: The torque produced by the motor remain relatively

constant up to the rated frequency .Beyond the rated frequency, the torque decreased
linearly with further increases in frequency until reaching zero at the synchronous
speed. This behavior aligned with the expected torque-speed characteristics of an
induction motor under V/F control.

CONCLUSION:
Through this laboratory session, we have learned the principles of V/F control and its application
in controlling the speed of a three-phase induction motor. By varying the voltage and frequency
supplied to the motor, we can achieve precise control over its speed and torque, making it
suitable for various industrial applications.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: The aim of this experiment is to implement and analyze the V/F (Voltage/Frequency)
control of a Permanent magnet Synchronous motor using MATLAB Simulink.

EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED:
1. MATLAB software with Simulink
2. Three-phase induction motor model
3. Power supply
4. Speed and current sensors
5. Control hardware (if using physical setup)

PROCEDURE :

1. Motor Connection: Connect the three-phase induction motor to the power supply and
appropriate sensors.
2. Simulink Setup: Open MATLAB and create a new Simulink model. Set up the motor block,
voltage/frequency control blocks, and sensors.
3. Parameter Tuning: Adjust the parameters like rated voltage, rated frequency, and load
conditions for the motor model.
4. Controller Design: Implement a V/F control algorithm in Simulink to regulate the motor
speed based on the input voltage and frequency.
5. Simulation: Run the simulation to observe the motor's behavior under V/F control. Analyze
speed, current, and torque responses.

Theory:
The theory of V/F (Voltage/Frequency) control is a widely used method for controlling the speed
of three-phase induction motors. In this control method, the voltage applied to the motor is
varied in proportion to the frequency of the power supply. This is done to maintain the V/F ratio
constant, which helps in achieving stable and efficient motor operation across a wide range of
speeds. Here's a brief overview of the theory and the key aspects involved in the V/F control of a
3-phase induction motor:

1. Synchronous Speed(Ns)
The synchronous speed of a motor is given by the formula: [Ns=120×f/P], where Ns is
the synchronous speed, f is the frequency of the power supply, and P is the no. of poles
in the motor.
2. Slip
Slip is a measure of how much slower the rotor is moving compared to the
synchronous speed. It is given by the formula: [s=Ns−N/Ns], where N is the
actual speed of the motor.

3. V/F Ratio
The V/F ratio is crucial in induction motor control. It is maintained constant for optimal
performance. The V/F ratio is given by the formula: [V/f = E/Ns] where V is the
applied voltage, f is the frequency, E is the induced voltage, and Ns is the
synchronous speed.

4. Voltage Control
In V/F control, the voltage is varied along with the frequency to maintain the V/F ratio.
As
the frequency increases, the voltage is also increased proportionally to maintain the
desired ratio.

5. Practical Implementation
Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs) are commonly used to implement V/F control. These
drives can adjust the frequency and voltage supplied to the motor, allowing precise
control of the motor speed.

6. Benefits
 V/F control provides good speed regulation and efficiency over a wide range of
operating speeds.
 It is a cost-effective and straightforward method for controlling induction motors.

7. Challenges
The motor may experience reduced torque at lower speeds due to the fixed V/F
ratio.

When conducting experiments on V/F control of 3-phase induction motors, it is essential to

use appropriate instrumentation to measure parameters such as voltage, current, frequency,
and speed. Practical setups may involve using VFDs and various sensors to achieve the desired
control and observe the motor's behavior under different operating conditions.
SIMULATION SIMULINK DIAGRAM

The figure below shows the performances of the speed control in both open- and closed-loop.
In open-loop, the V/f method has no notion of slip. Therefore, under load, there is inevitably a
permanent tracking error due to the slip (~2.4% in this case). In close-loop however, the PI
controller estimates the slip and corrects the speed reference accordingly. This way, the
control can eliminate the permanent tracking error.

SIMULINK RESULTS
CONCLUSION
By varying the frequency, the speed of the motor can be varied. Therefore, by be kept
constant throughout the speed range. This makes constant V/F the most common speed
control of the permanent magnet Synchronous motor.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: To control the DC motor using Type E Chopper

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB2022b

PROCEDURE:
The circuit of a four quadrant chopper or class- E chopper basically consists of four
semiconductor switches CH1 to CH4 and four diodes D1 to D4. The four diodes are connected in
anti-parallel. The circuit diagram of this type of chopper is shown below.

First Quadrant Operation:

For first quadrant operation, CH4 is kept ON, CH3 is kept OFF and CH1 is operated. When both
CH1 & CH4 are ON simultaneously, the load gets directly connected to the source and hence
the output voltage becomes equal to the source voltage. This essentially means that vo= vs. It
may be noted that the load current flows from source to load as shown by the direction of i o.
When CH1 is switched OFF, the load current free wheels through CH4 and D2. During this
period, the load voltage and current remains positive.

Second Quadrant Operation:

To obtain second quadrant operation, CH2 is operated while keeping the CH1, CH3 & CH4 OFF.
When CH2 is ON, the DC source in the load drives current through CH2, D4, E and L. Inductor L
stores energy during the on period of CH2. When CH2 is turned OFF, current is fed back to the
source through D1, D4. It should be noted at this point that (E+Ldi/dt) is more than the source
voltage Vs. As load voltage Vo is positive and Io is negative, it is second quadrant operation of
 chopper. Since, the current is fed back to the source; this simply means that load is transferring
power to the source. Kindly read Step-up chopper for detailed analysis and better understanding.
For second quadrant operation, load must contain emf E as shown in the circuit diagram. In
second quadrant, configuration operates as a step-up chopper.

Third Quadrant Operation:

To obtain third quadrant operation, both the load voltage and load current should be negative.
The current and voltage are assumed positive if their direction matches with what shown in the
circuit diagram. If the direction is opposite to what shown in the circuit diagram, it is considered
negative. One important thing to notice is that the polarity of emf E in load must be reversed to
have third quadrant operation. Circuit diagram of Class-E chopper for third quadrant operation is
shown below.

Polarity of Load emf E reversed

For third quadrant operation, CH1 is kept off, CH2 is kept ON and CH3 is operated. When CH3 is
ON, load gets connected to source and hence load voltage is equal to source voltage. But
carefully observe that the polarity of load voltage vo is opposite to what shown in the circuit
diagram. Hence, vo is assumed negative. Let us now see what is the status of load current i o. It
may be seen that io is flowing in the direction opposite to shown in the circuit diagram and
hence negative. Now, when CH3 is turned OFF, the negative load current free wheels through
the CH2 and D4. In this manner, vo and io both are negative. Hence, the chopper operates in
third quadrant.
Fourth Quadrant Operation:

To obtain fourth quadrant operation, CH4 is operated while keeping CH1, CH2 and CH3 OFF.
The polarity of load emf E needs to be reversed in this case too like third quadrant operation.
When CH4 is turned ON, positive current flows through CH4, D2, L and E. Inductance L stores
energy during the time CH4 is ON. When CH4 is made OFF, current is fed back to the source
through diodes D2, D3. Here load voltage is negative but the load current is always positive.
This leads to chopper operation in fourth quadrant. Here, power is fed back to the source from
load and chopper acts as a step-up chopper.

BLOCK DAIGRAM AND EXPERIMENT:

Fig (a)
SIMULATION DIAGRAM:

SIMULATION RESULTS:
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT:
The experiment is not been done on hardware, however, the Simulation Results are matching with
the theoretical concepts.

CONCLUSION:
The four-quadrant operation is possible with type E chopper. The DC motor has been simulated in
all the four quadrant i.e forward motoring, forward braking, and reverses motoring, reverse
braking.
 Experiment No. 5
AIM: Modelling of BLDC motors control using SPWM method.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB 2023a

THEORY:
Brushless DC motors have some significant advantages over their competitors, such as brushed
motors, largely because of the electronic commutation. It allows the controller to switch the current
promptly and thus regulate the motor’s characteristics effectively. In this article, we’ll consider the
peculiarities of a brushless DC motor controller. You will learn about its operating principles as well as
the design features and challenges you should know about before building your own device. A BLDC
motor controller regulates the speed and torque of the motor; it can also start, stop, and reverse its
rotation. To understand the working principles of the controller, let us start first with the construction
of a brushless motor. Its major components comprise of:

 an armature or rotor made of permanent and in many cases neodymium magnets; and

 a stator with windings that create a magnetic field when energized.

The rotor’s magnets and stator’s windings provide the rotation of the motor. They attract each other
with opposite poles and repel each other with the same poles. A similar process takes place in a
brushed DC motor. The essential difference is in the method of switching the current applied to the
wire windings.

In a BDC motor, this is a mechanical process triggered by a commutator with brushes. In a BLDC motor,
it happens electronically with the help of transistor switches.

A BLDC motor controller detects the position of the rotor either by using sensors (for example, a Hall-
effect sensor) or sensor less. The sensors measure the rotor’s position and send out this data. The
controller receives the information and enables the transistors to switch the current and energize the
required winding of the stator at the right time.

Depending on the rotor’s placement, BLDC motors can be of two types:

 In runner motor (the rotor is internal, and the stator is on the outside of the motor);

 Out runner motor (the rotor is external, so the permanent magnets spin around the stator
together with the motor’s case).

In runners have a more lightweight construction and a better rotational speed because of their smaller
rotating diameter. In their turn, out runner motors have a higher torque because of the longer arm
and greater electromotive force applied to the rotor.
Three-phase brushless DC motors can have two different types of winding connections:

 wye (Y) or star connection (windings meet at the center forming a wye);

 delta (Δ) connection (windings are connected in series forming a triangle).

The wye configuration has a neutral wire connected to ground. This can protect the motor from
overvoltage and overload. The delta connection has no neutrals, so it works better for motors with a
balanced load. However, each of these types can show efficient performance depending on your
requirements.

BLDC Motor Classifications

BLDC motor controllers differ according to the method they use to detect the rotor’s position. You can
make the measurements with the help of position sensors or using a sensor less technique. There are
plenty of options among sensors, including:

 Hall-effect sensors;
 rotary encoders;
 variable reluctance sensors;
 resolvers;
 Optical sensors.
The sensor less BLDC motor controller works without a sensor; it detects the rotor’s position by
estimating back electromotive force (back EMF). This is the voltage created in the stator’s windings
by the rotating armature. By measuring the back EMF, you can determine the position of the rotor:
the closer the rotor’s magnet, the higher the back EMF.

SIMULATION DIAGRAM
SIMULATION RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:
The speed of the motor is successfully controlled by PWM technique. As shown, the speed curve
matches with trapezoid and torque is produced.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM: Direct torque control of 3-phase induction motor with mathematical modelling of
induction motor using m-file/Simulink.

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB software

THEORY:

Direct Torque Controller

Direct torque control (DTC) is a technique that allows you to instantaneously control the motor
magnetic flux and its electromagnetic torque in a decoupled way. Controlling the torque directly
permits accurate static and dynamic speed regulation. The main components of the DTC subsystem
are:
1. Flux and Torque Calculation - The stator flux linkage is estimated by integrating the
stator voltages, and torque is calculated based on the estimated flux and the motor
currents.
2. Speed Regulator - The regulator compares the actual motor speed with the speed
reference and generates the torque reference.
3. Hysteresis Control - The calculated flux magnitude and torque are compared with the
reference values. When the resulting flux or torque error crosses either the positive or
negative hysteresis band value, a control signal is activated in order to correct the
error.
4. Optimal Switching - Pulses to the motor inverter are produced based on the control
signals generated by the hysteresis control and the stator flux linkage position.

The figure below illustrates the strategy used to determine the best voltage vector when the flux
linkage is located in sector 0.
 The image shows four cases:

1. V3 is selected when the electromagnetic torque should be increased and the flux should stay
unchanged. Selecting the V3 voltage vector speeds up the flux and thus applies an
acceleration torque to the rotor while slightly decreasing the flux magnitude.
2. V2 is selected when the electromagnetic torque should be increased and the flux should
be increased. Selecting the V2 voltage vector slightly speeds up the flux and increases its
magnitude.
3. V6 is selected when the electromagnetic torque should be reduced and the flux should
be increased. Selecting the V6 voltage vector slows down the flux and thus applies a
deceleration torque to the rotor while increasing the flux magnitude.
4. V5 is selected when the electromagnetic torque should be reduced and the flux should stay
unchanged. Selecting V5 the voltage vector applies a deceleration torque to the rotor and
slightly decreases the flux magnitude. Note that voltage vectors V1 and V4 are not selected
in sector 0. Using these two vectors would have too much negative impact on the desired
flux value. Finally, to keep the torque and the flux unchanged, the null voltage vectors V0 or
V7 are selected.

When the flux linkage vector moves to sector 1, the selected voltage vectors become V4 for case
1, V3 for case 2, V1 for case 3, and V6 for case 4, and vectors V2 and V5 are not used. This 60
degree shift in the voltage vectors happens each time the flux linkage vector enters a new sector.
TORQUE EQUATIONS

A simple way to obtain the output torque, also called developed or electromagnetic torque, of a
three- phase induction motor is to consider the developed electric power associated with speed
voltage term as:
Pe = (3/2) Re [ -jωo Ψr Ir * ]

where Ir * is the complex conjugates of Ir , this equation can be translated into:

Pe = (3/2) ωo [ Ψqr Idr – Ψdr Iqr ]

The relationship between the electrical angular frequency ωo and the mechanical angular speed
ωm, which represents the actual rotor speed in radian per second, are: ωo = p ωm, where p is
the number of machine pole pairs. Also the developed power can expressed as: Pe = Te . ωm

From the previous three equations, the developed electromagnetic torque can be expressed in d-q
form as : Te = (3/2) p [ Ψqr Idr – Ψdr Iqr ]

By substitution we find that: Te = (3/2) p [ Ψds Iqs – Ψqs Ids ]

The previous equation can be rewritten in space vector form as follow:

Te = (3/2) p Ψs x Is

Other forms of torque equations are applicable. For example express the electromagnetic torque in
terms of rotor and stator currents as:
Te = (3/2) p Lm Ir x Is

We can express the electromagnetic torque in terms of rotor and stator fluxes:
Te = (3/2) p [Lm /(Ls Lr - Lm 2 )] Ψr x Ψs

The previous equations are very important in the DTC theory explanation and in its analysis.
Although the torque expressions above are derived from stationary reference frame, they are true
for any other reference frames.
DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL CONCEPT

Generally the developed torque by any motor is proportional to the cross product of the stator flux
linkage space vector and the rotor flux linkage space vector.
Te = k Ψr x Ψs where k is constant.
And Te = k Ψr Ψs sin δ

which is called the torque production equation. Ψr is the magnitude of rotor flux vector, Ψs
is the magnitude of stator flux vector and δ is the angle between them, which called the
torque angle. By comparing Eq. the three-phase induction motor torque production
equation can be written as:

Te = (3/2) p (Lm / ς Ls Lr ) Ψr Ψs sin δ

where ς = 1 – (Lm 2 / Ls Lr );

is the leakage coefficient of the motor. It is clear from the torque production equation that the
torque can be directly controlled by changing the rotor flux magnitude, stator flux magnitude or the
angle between them.

In case of induction motors and from previous model, the stator flux space vector is related to the
rotor flux space vector by the following formula:

D Ψr +[ (1/ς τ r ) - jωo ] Ψr = ( Lm / ς Ls τ r ) Ψs

where τ r = Lr /Rr is the rotor time constant.

This formula can illustrate the nature of rotor flux dynamic response for step change in stator flux.
In the s domain the same expression can be written as:

Ψr = [ (Lm / Ls )/(1+ s ς τ r )] Ψs

This entails that the rotor flux is not able to react quickly to changes in the stator flux, as there is a
first order delay relationship between the two fluxes. Thus the rotor flux vector follows the stator
flux vector with a time delay related to the time constant ς τ r. Hence it is found that the rotor flux
changes slowly with comparing to the stator flux. Thus, rotor flux is relatively stable and can be
assumed to be constant during quick changes in the stator flux. The assumption of constant rotor
flux can be justified when the control action is much faster than the rotor electrical time constant
multiplied by motor leakage coefficient. This determines a quick increase in the angle between
the
two fluxes vectors and accordingly in the torque.
SPEED CONTROL BASED ON DTC

Figure below illustrates the torque control loop (primary loop) and the speed control loop (secondary
loop) which is based on DTC. In this system the speed reference input is compared to the actual
speed feedback obtained from a speed sensor. The speed error signal is the input to the speed
control block. The resulting output signal from the speed control becomes the torque reference for
the DTC subsystem. From here, it is clear that the speed control generates the torque command, i.e.
the torque reference is determined by the speed error value.

Figure 1: Speed control based on DTC scheme

Figure 2: Torque reference selector schematic diagram

SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SIMULATION RESULT:
EXPERIMENTAL RESULT:
The experiment is not been done on hardware however the Sumulation results are matching with the
theoretical concepts.

CONCLUSION:
In Direct torque control, DTC controls motor torque directly, without a modulator, so torque response is
much faster. As soon as we are changing the parameter, the torque changes.
 Experiment No. 7
AIM: Modelling of BLDC motors control using SPWM method.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB 2023a

THEORY:
Brushless DC motors have some significant advantages over their competitors, such as brushed motors,
largely because of the electronic commutation. It allows the controller to switch the current promptly and
thus regulate the motor’s characteristics effectively. In this article, we’ll consider the peculiarities of a
brushless DC motor controller. You will learn about its operating principles as well as the design features
and challenges you should know about before building your own device. A BLDC motor controller
regulates the speed and torque of the motor; it can also start, stop, and reverse its rotation. To
understand the working principles of the controller, let us start first with the construction of a brushless
motor. Its major components comprise of:

 an armature or rotor made of permanent and in many cases neodymium magnets; and

 a stator with windings that create a magnetic field when energized.

The rotor’s magnets and stator’s windings provide the rotation of the motor. They attract each other with
opposite poles and repel each other with the same poles. A similar process takes place in a brushed DC
motor. The essential difference is in the method of switching the current applied to the wire windings.

In a BDC motor, this is a mechanical process triggered by a commutator with brushes. In a BLDC motor, it
happens electronically with the help of transistor switches.

A BLDC motor controller detects the position of the rotor either by using sensors (for example, a Hall-
effect sensor) or sensor less. The sensors measure the rotor’s position and send out this data. The
controller receives the information and enables the transistors to switch the current and energize the
required winding of the stator at the right time.

Depending on the rotor’s placement, BLDC motors can be of two types:

 In runner motor (the rotor is internal, and the stator is on the outside of the motor);

 Out runner motor (the rotor is external, so the permanent magnets spin around the stator
together with the motor’s case).

In runners have a more lightweight construction and a better rotational speed because of their smaller
rotating diameter. In their turn, out runner motors have a higher torque because of the longer arm and
greater electromotive force applied to the rotor.
Three-phase brushless DC motors can have two different types of winding connections:

 wye (Y) or star connection (windings meet at the center forming a wye);

 delta (Δ) connection (windings are connected in series forming a triangle).

The wye configuration has a neutral wire connected to ground. This can protect the motor from
overvoltage and overload. The delta connection has no neutrals, so it works better for motors with a
balanced load. However, each of these types can show efficient performance depending on your
requirements.

BLDC Motor Classifications

BLDC motor controllers differ according to the method they use to detect the rotor’s position. You can
make the measurements with the help of position sensors or using a sensor less technique. There are
plenty of options among sensors, including:

 Hall-effect sensors;
 rotary encoders;
 variable reluctance sensors;
 resolvers;
 Optical sensors.
The sensor less BLDC motor controller works without a sensor; it detects the rotor’s position by
estimating back electromotive force (back EMF). This is the voltage created in the stator’s windings by
the rotating armature. By measuring the back EMF, you can determine the position of the rotor: the
closer the rotor’s magnet, the higher the back EMF.

SIMULATION DIAGRAM
SIMULATION RESULTS:

CONCLUSION:
The BLDC motor has been controlled by Hysteresis current control method and results are matching with
theoretical concepts.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: Vector control of induction motor drive / syn. motor drive using m-file/Simulink.

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB software

THEORY:

The approach

Electric machines
The starting step in the mathematical modeling of ac machines is to describe them as coupled stator and
rotor polyphase circuits in terms of so-called phase variables, namely stator currents i as, ibs, ics; rotor
currents iar, ibr, icr for an induction machine or if, ikd, ikq for a synchronous machine; the rotor speed ωm ; and
the angular displacement θ between stator and rotor windings. The magnetic coupling is expressed in
terms of an inductance matrix which is a function of position θ. The matrix expression of the machine
equations are readily formulated in MATLAB or Simulink language. A detailed example of this approach is
given in a later section.

The next step is to transform the original stator and rotor abc frames of reference into a common k or dq
frame in which the new variables for voltages, currents, and fluxes can be viewed as 2-D space vectors. In
this common frame the inductances become constant independent of position. Figure 1 illustrates various
reference frames (coordinate systems): the triplet [A s Bs Cs] denotes a three- phase system attached to the
stator while the pair [as bs] corresponds to an equivalent two- phase system (zero-sequence components
can be ignored in Y-connected ac machines in which the neutral is normally isolated). Among possible
choices of dq frames are the following:

a) Stator frame where ωk = 0

b) Rotor frame where ωk = ωm
c) Synchronous frame associated with the frequency ωs (possibly time varying) of the stator
excitation.
d) Rotor flux frame in which the d-axis lines up with the direction of the rotor flux vector.

The choice of the common dq frame is usually dictated by the symmetry constraints imposed by the
construction and excitation of the machine. With the complete symmetry encountered in a three-phase
induction machine with balanced sinusoidal excitation, any one of the five frames can be used, although
the synchronous frame is more convenient in as much as all signals appear as constant dc in steady state.
However, certain control strategies may require the adoption of a specific frame, as is the case of vector
control where the reference frame is attached to the rotor flux vector. In the presence of asymmetry, the
common frame is attached to the asymmetrical member: an induction motor with unbalanced excitation
or asymmetrical stator windings (the case of a capacitor motor) will be modeled in the stator frame
where as a synchronous machine is represented in the rotor frame. In the common dq frame, the
machine dynamic equations appear as differential equations with constant coefficients (independent of
rotor position) and nonlinearities confined to products of variables associated with speed voltages and
torque components.

Figure 1: Reference frames in ac machine analysis

ω denotes the rotational speed or angular frequency of a frame (in electrical rad/s) with respect to the
stationary stator. The angular position is obtained by integrating speed over time, that is θ = ∫ω dt.

EXCITATIONS AND CONTROLLERS

The simulation of the inputs to the machines involves the mathematical representation of programmed
time equence of events such as the sudden application or removal of mechanical loads, the ramping of
the magnitude and frequency of the applied voltages, or even the changes in parameter values (for
instance, rotor resistance). Similarly the functionality of power electronics type of excitations can
generally be realized in the form of simple mathematical expressions: as an example, a PWM signal can be
described by the function Signum [m - tri(t)] where m is the modulation factor ( − 1 ≤ m ≤ 1) and
tri(t) = 2π sin −1[sin(ω t − γ)] is a triangular waveform of nit amplitude, frequency ω, and phase γ.
This function is readily translated into Simulink block form. The simulation of speed or position controllers
in drive systems is achieved by using a relay block in a hysteresis type of controller, and a simple
combination of gains, summers and integrator (incorporating limiters to include anti windup features) in a
PI type of controller.

INITIAL CONDITIONS

Initial conditions are established by specifying a steady-state operating condition. The simplest case is
encountered in the simulation of the starting of a motor for which all initial conditions are zero. In some
other case, the initial conditions can simply be calculated before running the simulation: for example,
under steady-state sinusoidal excitation, an induction motor running at a specified speed can be quickly
analyzed in terms of a standard phasor equivalent circuit; by using phasor techniques, one can compute
the corresponding load torque and initial conditions.

However, in most instances, a specified operating condition can only be obtained after running the
simulation for a time that will depend on the starting setting of these initial conditions. This situation will
occur if, in the above case of the induction motor, torque instead of speed is specified or if the
mechanical load is a nonlinear function of speed. This is the normal situation encountered with power
electronic input signals: a steady-state condition is reached when an output signal waveform is repeated
every switching cycle so that the values at the beginning and end of a cycle are equal. When a steady-
state condition is attained, one can then save this so-called final state and use it later as the initial state in
a renewed simulation which now includes the specified time sequenced input events.
SIMULINK BLOCK DIAGRAM MODEL
These mathematical equations can be represented as shown below in a block diagram form that preserves
the one-to-one correspondence between the 2D space vectors of the equations and the vectorized signals
(of width 2) appearing in the Simulink representation. It is significant to point out that flux linkages are
selected as state variables in the simulation. Note that, apart from the speed signals (scalars) indicated in
blue, all the variables are 2-element vectors shown in red.
SIMULATION CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
SIMULATION WAVEFORM

1. Motor current

2. Speed Changes
 3. Torque Changes

CONCLUSION:
A simple generalized MATLAB/Simulink model is presented to implement SVPWM for a three phase
VSI. In this work, a three-level inverter using space vector modulation strategy has been modeled
and simulated. Through the simulations, it is confirmed that the proposed SVPWM technique, has
good drive response to successive changes in speed reference and load torque. The results
obtained by simulation show the feasibility of the proposed strategy.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM: Modeling of induction motor using m-file/Simulink.

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB software

THEORY:

The dynamic modelling sets all the mechanical equations for the inertia, torque and speed versus
time. It also models all the differential voltage, currents and flux linkages between the stationary
stator as well as the moving rotor. This mathematical model has been done by using MATLAB
/Simulink which will represent the three phase induction motor including a three phase to d-q axis
transformations. The main benefit with MATLAB Simulink is that in the electromechanical dynamic
model can be accomplished in a simple way and it can be simulated faster using function blocks.

Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor

The voltage and torque equations that describe the dynamic behavior of an induction motor are time-
varying. It is successfully used to solve such differential equations and it may involve some
complexity. A change of variables can be used to reduce the complexity of these equations by
eliminating all time-varying inductances, due to electric circuits in relative motion, from the voltage
equations of the machine [1, 2, 3, 4].

Fig. 1: A dq0 equivalent circuit of an Induction Motor

Three phase to Two phase Transformation

The dynamic model of induction motor can be derived if the equivalence between three-phase and
two-phase machine is studied. The equivalence is based on the quantity of MMF produced in two-
phase and three-phase windings along with equal current magnitudes. Assuming that each of the
three-phase winding has Ns turns per phase and equal currents magnitudes, the two-phase winding
will have 3𝑁𝑠/2 turns per phase for MMF equality. The d and q axes MMF are found by resolving
MMF of the three-phase along d and q axes. The common term, the number of turns is cancelled on
both sides of equations leaving behind the current equalities. The three-phase stator voltages of an
induction machine under balanced conditions can be expressed as

Equations of Flux Linkages & Simulink Model

The dynamic model of induction motor in arbitrary reference frame can be represented by using flux
linkages as variables. This involves the reduction of a number of variables in dynamic equations,
which greatly facilitates their solution by using analogue and hybrid computers. Even when the
voltages and currents are discontinuous, the flux linkages are continuous. This gives the advantage of
differentiating these variables with numerical stability. In addition, the flux linkages representation is
used in motor drives to highlight the process of the decoupling of the flux and torque channels in the
induction and synchronous machine. The various flux linkage equations are expressed as
WAVE FORMS

1. Electromagnetic Torque Developed

2. Stator Currents In A, B & C Phases

3. Rotor speed
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM: Modelling of PMSM motor using m-file/Simulink.

SIMULATION SOFTWARE: MATLAB software

THEORY:

Typically, the voltage and current equations in three-phase machines are used to define and assess
the performance and behavior. The differential equations’ coefficients that characterize the
machines' dynamic behavior are time-varying except if a motionless rotor is present. Since the system
is in relative motion, the flux linkages, currents, and induced voltages vary continually, making such a
system difficult to mathematically model. Mathematical transformations are usually used to analyze
complex electrical machines by decoupling or separating the variables and solving equations including
time-varying values by referring the whole variables to a common reference frame that might be
rotating or stationary. The two most well-known transformation techniques are the Clarke
transformation and the Park transformation. The complexity of the mathematical model of the
machine can be greatly reduced with careful reference frame selection. The three-phase values
(𝑉𝑎,𝑉𝑏,𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑐) may be changed into the voltages 𝑉𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑞 that the two-axis PMSM model
requires.

Two-axis model of PMSM

To create permanent magnet synchronous motor control, a mathematical model of the PMSM is
required. The 3-phase system mathematical model is rarely used in control design. This method is
known as the time-varying model. Consequently, developing a control strategy becomes significantly
more difficult. As a result, a 2-phase motor model with quadrature and direct axes is employed. The
permanent magnet synchronous motor mathematical model typically includes stator flux equations,
voltage equations, mechanical equations, and electromagnetic torque equations.

The following assumptions were used to build the PMSM model without damper winding on the rotor
reference frame.

1. The EMF generated is sinusoidal.

2. Saturation is ignored.
3. No field current dynamics
4. Hysteresis losses and eddy current are ignored.

In the d-q coordinate system, the following equations may be expressed.

1. Voltage equations

In the rotor reference frame, the voltage formulas of the PMSM are shown:

2. Flux linkage equations

The flux linkage equations are given by:

By substituting equations

3. Torque equation

The electromagnetic torque for PMSM in the (d-q) axes may be calculated using the equation:

The equation that represents the mechanical torque is given as:

The equation that represents the mechanical speed is:

where,

𝑅𝑠 Stator resistance

𝐿𝑑,𝐿𝑞 The inductances on d-q axis

𝑖𝑑,𝑖𝑞 The stator currents on d-q axis

𝑉𝑑,𝑉𝑞 The stator voltages on d-q axis
𝜆𝑑,𝜆𝑞 The flux linkages of the stators
on d-q axis.
𝜆𝑓 Permanent magnet flux
WAVE FORMS

1. Rotor speed

2. Electromagnetic torque