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Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze

(NAB) alloy

Article in Journal of Materials Research · September 2015

DOI: 10.1557/jmr.2015.282

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ARTICLES

Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of

NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy
Yuting Lv
State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s
Republic of China
Meng Hu
School of Nuclear Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic
of China
Liqiang Wang,a) Xiaoyan Xu, Yuanfei Han, and Weijie Lub)
State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s
Republic of China

(Received 10 June 2015; accepted 14 August 2015)

Fatigue crack growth tests of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy heat treated at different temper
temperature after quenching at 920 °C are performed using direct current potential drop method.
The influences of heat treatment on the fatigue crack growth behavior of NAB alloy are
investigated. The results show that the fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR) of NAB alloy decreases
with the increase of temper temperature. A few large secondary cracks are obtained as the sample
is tempered at 350 °C and the secondary cracks diminish with the increase of temper temperature.
With further increasing temper temperature to 550 °C, a large number of small secondary cracks
are obtained, which is responsible for its lower FCGR. The as-cast NAB alloy has a lower FCGR
than that tempered at 550 °C at low stress intensity factor range (DK) region, and the lower
FCGR is attributed to the crack deflection effect of the as-cast microstructure. At high DK region,
the crack deflection effect diminishes, which leads to the higher FCGR of as-cast sample.

I. INTRODUCTION To improve the corrosion and mechanical properties of

Nickel–aluminum bronze (NAB) alloy is widely used
for marine equipment such as propeller, pump, valve etc.
due to the high mechanical properties and excellent
corrosion resistance. As a quaternary system, NAB alloy
typically contains 9–12 wt% Al and 6 wt% each of
Fe, Ni, and Mn.1,2 The addition of alloying elements
improves the mechanical properties and inhibits the
formation of c2 phase (Al4Cu9), which is harmful to the
corrosion resistance due to the high Al content.3 Typical
microstructure of as-cast NAB includes ɑ matrix phase,
martensite b phase (b9 phase), iron rich jⅰ, jⅱ, jⅳ, and
nickel rich jⅲ phases. According to Nakhaie’s study, the
anodic character of j phases with tens of millivolt higher
than copper rich ɑ phase, which increases the galvanic
corrosion of NAB alloy.4 The NAB alloy is also easily
subjected to the selective phase corrosion in seawater.4,5
It is well accepted that the corrosion of NAB is initially
confined to the ɑ phase within the ɑ 1 jⅲ eutectoid
microstructure.6
Contributing Editor: Yang-T. Cheng
Address all correspondence to these authors.
a)
e-mail: wang_liqiang@sjtu.edu.cn
b)
e-mail: luweijie@sjtu.edu.cn
DOI: 10.1557/jmr.2015.282
cast NAB alloy, several techniques have been used such as
equal channel angular extrusion,7,8 friction surfacing,9 and
friction stir processing10–13 etc. It is commonly reported
that these techniques significantly improves the corrosion
and mechanical properties of as-cast NAB alloy due to the
refined grains and simplified microstructure. However, it is
difficult to use these techniques in real produce for large
NAB propeller due to the low efficiency and high cost.
Heat treatment is traditionally used to modify the
microstructure and improve the mechanical properties
of NAB alloy in real produce.14 Moreover, the simplified
microstructure of ɑ, b9, and fine jⅱ phases can be also
obtained when NAB alloy is cooled from the temperature
of 860–930 °C at a high cooling rate,15 which is expected
to improve the corrosion resistance of NAB alloy due to
the decrease of galvanic corrosion. Therefore, the heat
treatment of quenching followed by tempering is chosen
in this study.
In addition, the fatigue properties are the main essential
consideration on the marine application of NAB alloy.
Chakrabarti et al.16 reported that mean stress, defect size,
and surface proximity had a significant influence on the
high cycle fatigue life of cast NAB. Czyryca17 found that
both casted and weld NAB showed large closure loads,
and the higher crack growth rate is due to the residual
stress in the weldment. The microstructure also has

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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy
a significant influence on the fatigue crack growth
behavior of materials.18,19 For titanium alloy, the thick
ɑ platelets can deflect the main crack and thus slow the
Fatigue crack growth rate (FCGR), while thin ɑ platelets
can be cut easily by main crack.18 The acicular and
lamellar ɑ phases are most favorable to deflecting the
main crack and improve the fatigue crack growth
resistance compared to large primary ɑ grains and smaller
transformed ɑ 1 b lamellae.19 However, the effects of
microstructures on the fatigue crack growth behavior of
NAB alloy have rarely been investigated.
In this study, as-cast NAB alloy is heat treated at
different temper temperatures after quenching at 920 °C
and the fatigue crack growth tests are performed using
direct current potential drop (DCPD) method. The fatigue
crack growth behavior of heat treated NAB alloy is
investigated, and then the effects of microstructures and
secondary cracks on the fatigue crack growth behavior of
heat treated NAB alloy are discussed.
II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The NAB cast ingot with a dimension of f150 mm
200
mm is prepared by nonvacuum melting. The chemical
composition of the cast NAB is determined by fluorescence
spectrophotometer, as shown in Table I. The as-cast micro-
structure of NAB alloy includes ɑ matrix phase, martensite
b phase (b9 phase), jⅱ, jⅲ and jⅳ phases (Fig. 1). The
samples for fatigue crack growth test are heated up to 920 °C
for 1 h followed by water quenching. After that, the samples
TABLE I. The chemical composition of as-cast NAB alloy.
Elements (wt%) Al Fe Ni Mn Cu
As-cast NAB 10.05 3.74 3.55 0.83 Balanced
FIG. 1. SEM micrograph of as-cast NAB alloy microstructure.
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are tempered at 350, 450, and 550 °C for 2 h, respectively,
and then air cooling (coded as QT-350, QT-450, and QT-
550, respectively). The samples for microstructure obser-
vation are cut, cold mounted, grounded, polished, and then
etched by a solution of 5g FeCl312 ml HCl195 ml
C2H5OH. Phase structure is identified by a D8 AD-
VANCE x-ray diffractometere (XRD; D/max-IIIA,
Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan) with Cu Ka radiation at room
temperature. Tensile samples with gauge section of 15 mm

4 mm
1.5 mm are machined and then are tested on
ZwickT1-Fr020 TN.A50 at the strain rate of 103 s1.
Fatigue crack growth tests are performed on a DLU-50
test machine from Bairuo (Shanghai, China) using three-
point bending samples according to ASTM E399 and
ASTM E647 standards. Figure 2 shows the exact
dimensions of test sample. “Uref” is the reference voltage
drop, and “Uac” is the main voltage drop. All fatigue
crack growth tests are conducted at a stress ratio (R 5
Kmin/Kmax) of 0.3 with a sine-wave loading frequency of
1 Hz at room temperature. DCPD crack length measure-
ment devices are used to monitor the crack propagation in
computer based on the finite element analysis of elec-
tricity distribution. The stress intensity factor K is
controlled by a software in accordance with ASTM
E399. Fatigue fracture surface and crack propagation
path from side surface of heat treated samples are
observed by Sirion 200 scanning electron microscope
(SEM; JEM-2100F, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan).
III. RESULTS
A. Microstructure
1. Heat treatments of NAB alloy
Figure 3 shows the microstructure of NAB alloy with
different heat treatments. It can be seen that the
microstructure of heat treated NAB alloy is signifi-
cantly different from that of the as-cast one (Fig. 1).
For QT-350 sample, the microstructures include a, jⅡ,
and b9 phases [Fig. 3(a)]. The jⅡ and b9 phases are
formed during quenching. The present result is consis-
tent with Anantapong’s study,15 which reports that a,
jⅡ, and b9 phases are formed when NAB alloy is cooled
from peak temperature of 860–930 °C at a high cooling
rate. Figure 3(b) shows the microstructure of QT-450
sample. In comparison with lower temper temperature
(350 °C), the amount of acicular martensite phase
decrease and that of jⅡ phase increase. This indicates
that acicular martensite phase decomposes and jⅡ
phase is precipitated during tempering treatment. With
further increasing temper temperature to 550 °C, acic-
ular martensite phase disappears totally and more j
grains are formed. It is suggested that acicular mar-
tensite phase is transformed to a (Cu) and j phases
completely when the quenched sample is tempered at
550 °C.
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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy

FIG. 2. The dimensions of samples for fatigue crack growth test.

FIG. 3. SEM images of NAB alloy with different heat treatment. (a) QT-350, (b) QT-450, (c) QT-550 and (d) Enlarged image of the area inside the
square frame shown in Fig. 3(c).

2. X-ray diffraction pattern analysis comparison with as-cast sample, quenched sample shows
Figure 4 shows the x-ray diffraction patterns of NAB lower a (Cu) phase peaks and the (Fe, Ni) Al peaks
alloy with different heat treatments. The curve of sample disappear. It is indicated that the solution of (Fe, Ni) Al
quenched at 920 °C is also included. As can be seen, in phases and a (Cu) phase into b phase occurs and large

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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy

quantity of b phase are formed when the NAB alloy is
heated to 920 °C. The quenching treatment leads to the
formation of acicular b9 martensitic phase, which is
consistent with SEM observation results [Fig. 3(a)].
The peaks of b9 martensitic phase decrease and that of
a (Cu) and (Fe, Ni) Al phases increase with increase of
temper temperature (see QT-350 and QT-450 curves).
This indicates that b9 phase transfers to a (Cu) phase and
(Fe, Ni) Al phases during tempering. With further
increasing the temper temperature to 550 °C, the peaks
of b9 martensite phase disappear completely, which
indicates that b9 martensitic phase transfers to a (Cu)
and (Fe, Ni) Al phases totally.
B. Tensile properties
Figure 5 shows the stress–strain curves of NAB alloy at
different heat treatment. The tensile properties are shown
in Table II. As can be seen, the mechanical properties
change significantly after different heat treatments.
The QT-350 sample exhibits highest ultimate tensile
strength and lowest elongation. The ultimate tensile
strength decreases and the elongation increases with
increase of temper temperature. With further increasing
the temper temperature to 550 °C, the ultimate tensile
strength and elongation are 730.2 6 13 and 9.3 6 0.8,
respectively.
C. Fatigue crack growth rate
Figure 6 shows the FCGR for the heat treated NAB alloy
in log–log coordinate. A distinct Paris’ regime with different
microstructures is illustrated followed this relationship:
da
¼ CðDK Þn ; ð1Þ
dN
where C and n are the constants related with material
variables, environment, frequency, temperature, and
stress ratio. DK is the stress intensity factor range in
MPa m1/2 and da/dN is the FCGR in mm/cycle. It can be
found that the FCGR of as-cast and the QT-550 samples
is lower than that of QT-350 and QT-450 samples. At
low DK-levels, as-cast sample has a higher FCGR than
QT-550 sample and opposite result is obtained at high
DK-levels. The material related constants C and n
obtained from the intersections and slopes of log–log
plots (Fig. 6) are shown in Table III. C and n values of
the Paris modal are significantly different for various heat
treatments, indicating that these parameters are closely
related to the microstructure of materials.

D. Crack profile and fractography

FIG. 4. The x-ray diffraction patterns of NAB alloy with different
heat treatment.
Figure 7 shows the crack propagation path of heat treated
NAB alloy at lower DK region. As seen in Fig. 7(a), the
fatigue crack of as-cast NAB alloy prefers to propagate
either following the a 1 jIII interfaces, passing through b9
phase, cutting off the a 1 jIII lamellar, or going along with
the interface of a and jII phases rather than passing through
a grains [As indicated by A, B, C, and D respectively in
Fig. 7(a)]. The direction of main crack can be changed by
jII, jIII, and b9 phases, which lead to the formation of crack
deflection and thus slow crack propagation rate. It can be
seen from Figs. 7(b)–7(d) that the fatigue crack of QT-350
and QT-450 samples prefer to propagate toward a phase.
However, the main crack of QT-350 sample prefers to

TABLE II. Tensile properties of NAB alloy with different heat

treatment.

Heat treatment YS (MPa) UTS(MPa) El (%)

As-cast 299 6 6 600 6 15 12.7 6 0.7

920/350 422 6 3 795 6 5 2.4 6 0.4
920/450 440 6 5 761.1 6 8 3.4 6 0.4
FIG. 5. Engineering stress–strain curves of the NAB alloy with 920/550 468 6 7 730.2 6 13 9.3 6 0.8
different heat treatment.

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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy
FIG. 6. Fatigue crack propagation curves of NAB with different heat
treatments.
TABLE III. Material related constants C and n for NAB with different
heat treatment.
Heat treatment C n
10
QT-350 2.47
10

1011
QT-450 5.59
QT-550 8.93
1011
As-cast 5.30
1011
propagate along a/b9 phases boundaries [Fig. 7(b)] and that
of QT-450 sample pass through a phases [Fig. 7(c)]. The
main crack of QT-550 sample propagates in a flat way
[Fig. 7(d)], which indicates that the crack path is insensitive
to the microstructure. It is worth mentioning that secondary
cracks can be found in all samples. A few large secondary
cracks can be seen in QT-350 sample [Fig. 7(b)], while
large number of small secondary cracks can be found in
QT-550 sample [See yellow arrows in Fig. 7(d)].
IV. DISCUSSION
A. Effect of microstructure
Based on above the analysis, the microstructure of
NAB alloy has a significant influence on fatigue crack
growth behavior. The microstructures of as-cast sample
are favorable to deflecting the main crack and increasing
the crack path tortuosity. While the QT-550 sample
exhibits a flat crack path and it can be expected that
the sample has higher FCGR. However, the QT-550 sample
has a higher FCGR than that of as-cast sample at low DK
region and opposite result is obtained at high DK region.
To understand the significant variation in FCGR at low
and high DK region, the fracture surfaces of as-cast and
heat treated samples at low DK region are examined by
SEM, as shown in Fig. 8. Large quantities of facets are
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observed on fracture surfaces of all heat treated samples
[seen in Figs. 8(b)–8(d)], which indicate that the fatigue
mechanism of heat treated NAB alloy is controlled by
cleavage fracture at low DK region. This also can explain
the lower FCGR of QT-550 sample that material with
cleavage failure has a faster FCGR than that of striations
failure.20 It is worth mentioning that some voids with a
phase morphology are observed on the fracture surface of
QT-350 sample [see yellow arrows in Fig. 8(b)], which is
remained when the main crack propagates through a/b9
grains boundaries. While some a grain planes are found
on the fracture surface of QT-450 sample [see Fig. 8(c)].
The observation of large quantities of a grain voids and
planes on the fracture surfaces of QT-350 and QT-450
samples respectively indicates that their fracture mecha-
nisms are controlled by intergranular and transgranular
fracture, respectively. In other word, the main crack of
QT-350 and QT-450 samples propagate toward a phase.
This may be due to the higher hardness of b9 phase which
can hamper the propagation of the main crack. For
QT-350 sample, the crack prefers to propagate along
a/b9 boundaries. This is because there is a high diversity
between a and b9 phases and the diversity decreases with
5.31 increase of temper temperature. When the sample is
5.9
tempered at 450 °C, the main crack can cut the a phase
4.13
5.45 easily. Thus the crack of QT-450 sample prefers to
propagate through a phase. This can also explain the
lower FCGR of QT-450 sample that the transgranular
fracture has a lower FCGR that intergranular fracture.
With further increasing the temper temperature to 550 °C,
b9 phase transforms to a(Cu) and j phases and the
diversity between a and b9 transformation products
diminishes. Thus the main crack propagates in a flat way.
As seen in Figs. 8(a) and 8(d), although some fine
striates are observed on the fracture surface, the fracture
mechanism is predominantly controlled by cleavage
failure. The fracture surface of as-cast sample is rougher
than that of QT-550 sample. The jⅡ gains, voids with jⅡ
morphologies and a 1 jIII lamellar are observed on the
fracture surface [see yellow arrow and circle in Fig. 8(a)].
It is indicated that the microstructure can deflect crack
path and increase the fatigue crack growth resistance.
This can explain the reason why lower FCGR of as-cast
sample is obtained compared with QT-550 sample at low
DK region. The crack deflection effect of microstructure
at low DK region has been reported in other materials.21–23
Shi et al.24 studied the effects of microstructure on the
fatigue crack growth behavior for titanium alloy and
claimed that at low DK region, the crack tip plastic zone
was small and the cleavage fracture dominated the
fatigue crack propagation mechanism. Thus the micro-
structure could deflect the main crack and increased the
fatigue crack growth resistance.
Figure 9 shows the fractographies and crack profile for
the as-cast and QT-550 samples at high DK region. It can
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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy

FIG. 7. SEM images of fatigue crack propagation paths of NAB alloy with different heat treatment at lower DK region. (a) As-cast, (b) QT-350,
(c) QT-450, (d) QT-550.

FIG. 8. SEM images of the fracture surfaces for the heat treated NAB alloy at low DK region. (a) As-cast, (b) QT-350, (c) QT-450, (d) QT-550.

be found that as-cast sample exhibits a flat fracture deflection effect of as-cast microstructure diminishes at
surface, while the as-cast sample shows a rough fracture high DK region. Moreover, large quantity observations of
surface at low DK region. This indicates that the striations on the fracture surfaces of as-cast and QT-550

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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy
FIG. 9. SEM images of fractography and crack profile and for NAB alloy. (a) As-cast, (b) Magnified image of the area inside square frame shown
in Figs. 9(a), (c) QT-550, (d) The crack profile of QT-550 sample.
samples indicate that the fatigue crack mechanism is
controlled by striation crack. Therefore, we believe that
crack tip plastic zone size increases with increase of DK
and the fatigue striation mechanism becomes a main
fracture mechanism when the crack tip plastic zone reach
a critical value. Thus, the crack deflection effect caused
by microstructure can exert little influence on the FCGR
resistance, which leads to a higher FCGR of as-cast
sample at high DK region. In addition, the martensite
transformation products of QT-550 sample contain large
amount of finer j phases [Fig. 9(d)]. These finer j phases
can increase the fatigue crack growth resistance because
the dislocations can be shared by small-coherent precip-
itates which are localized in different width planar bands,
then make glide more or less reversible during cyclic
loading. This planar reversible slip is claimed to decrease
the FCGR by increasing tip deflection and reducing
damage accumulation.23,25,26
B. Effect of secondary crack
Secondary cracks are observed in fatigue fracture
surface of all samples, as shown in Fig. 7. A few large
secondary cracks can be seen in the QT-350 sample and
the secondary cracks diminish with increase of temper
temperature [Seen in Figs. 7(b)–7(d)]. The secondary
cracks are responsible for the deceleration of crack
growth by consuming the energy of crack tip.27 However,
the FCGR of heat treated samples decrease with increase
of temper temperature. This is because of the high
dislocation density and deformation potency of heat
treated samples with lower temper temperature.27 When
the NAB alloy are tempered at 350 and 450 °C, the
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dislocation density and stored energy may be higher than
the as-cast and QT-550 samples. As the fatigue cracks
propagate, the movement of dislocations and release of
stored energy are beneficial to the formation of secondary
cracks. The secondary cracks diminish with increase of
temper temperature due to the release of stored energy
[Figs. 7(a)–7(c)]. Figure 9(d) shows detailed observation
of crack propagate path of QT-550 sample. A large
number of small secondary cracks can be found, which
can consume the energy of crack tip and slow the FCGR.27
Moreover, when the sample is tempered at 550 °C, the
martensite phase transforms to a (Cu) phase and j phases
totally. The martensite transformation products are
tougher, and thereby effectively reduce the crack tip
driving force by mechanisms of crack tip blunting and
deflection.27 Therefore, QT-550 sample has lowest FCGR
although the main crack propagates in a flat way.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The main conclusions drawn on the basis of the
experimental results are summarized as follows:
(1) The microstructure of NAB alloy heat treated by
quenching followed tempering contains a, jⅡ, and b9
phases. The b9 phase transforms to a (Cu) and j phases
with the increase of temper temperature. When temper
temperature is increased to 550 °C, the martensite phase
disappears.
(2) The FCGR of heat treated NAB alloy decreases
with increase of temper temperature. The as-cast sample
has a lower FCGR than QT-550 sample at low DK region
and the opposite results are obtained at high DK region.
The deflection effect of microstructure makes a main
3047
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 Y. Lv et al.: Influences of heat treatment on fatigue crack growth behavior of NiAl bronze (NAB) alloy
attribution to the lower FCGR of as-cast alloy at low DK
region, while the deflection effect diminishes at high DK
region, which leads to the higher FCGR of as-cast alloy.
(3) The main cracks of QT-350 and QT-450 samples
propagate toward a phase due to the higher hardness of
martensite phase. The crack of QT-350 sample prefers to
propagate along the a/b9 boundaries due to the diversity
of these phases. As the temper temperature is increased to
450 °C, the crack prefers to pass through a grains. With
further increasing the temper temperature to 550 °C, the
crack propagates in a flat way.
(4) A few large secondary cracks are obtained at
QT-350 sample and the secondary cracks diminish with
increase of temper temperature. The QT-550 sample has
a large number of small secondary cracks, which is
responsible for higher fatigue crack growth resistance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support of this research provided by 973
Program under Grant No. 2014CB046701, National
Science Foundation under Grant No. 51302168,
Shanghai Postdoctoral Sustentation Fund under Grant
No. 14R21410900, China Postdoctoral Science Foundation
(Grant No. 2014M561471, 2014M550235).
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