Aspects of Twin Screw Technology

LRTA Paper No.
6 (1998 30/9/99 16:07 Page i
LR Technical Association
Aspects of Twin Screw Ship

Technology
by J. S. Carlton and C. G. Holland
Paper No 6
Session 1998–1999
LRTA Paper No. 6 (1998 30/9/99 16:07 Page ii
The authors of this paper retain the right of subsequent

publication, subject to the sanction of the Committee of
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping. Any opinions expressed and
statements made in this paper and in the subsequent
discussions are those of the individuals and not those of
Lloyd’s Register of Shipping.
Written contributions to the discussion of this paper are

invited from members of the Lloyd’s Register Technical
Association. To ensure inclusion in the discussion paper,
the contributions should be received by the Hon. Secretary
in London not later than 30th December 1999.
© Lloyd’s Register of Shipping 1999. All rights reserved.

Except as permitted under current legislation no part of
this work may be photocopied, stored in a retrieval
system, published, performed in public, adapted,
broadcast, transmitted, recorded or reproduced in any
form or means, without the prior permission of the
copyright owner.
Enquiries should be addressed to Lloyd’s Register of

Shipping, 71 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 4BS,
England.
H ONORARY S ECRETARY, LR T ECHNICAL A SSOCIATION

A. McKinven
71 Fenchurch Street, London EC3M 4BS
LRTA Paper No. 6 (1998 30/9/99 16:07 Page 1
Aspects of Twin Screw

Ship Technology
by J. S. Carlton and C. G. Holland
Mr Carlton trained initially as a mechanical Department where he served for nine years in
engineer and upon completion of these studies general engineering analysis and trouble
he subsequently read for a degree in shooting roles and, subsequently, in the
mathematics. After a period of time in the Royal Advanced Engineering and Performance
Naval Scientific Service where he was Technology Departments. In 1987 he became
concerned with hydrodynamic research he Deputy Head of the Performance Technology
joined Stone Manganese Marine in 1969. During Department and in 1992 Head of the Technical
this time he was involved in the design of marine Investigation Department. In his present role as
propellers and bow thrusters as well as Senior Principal Surveyor he also sits on several
undertaking research into propeller off-design international technical committees and is author
performance. In 1975 Mr Carlton joined Lloyd’s of the book Marine Propellers and Propulsion.
Register, first in the Technical Investigation
Mr Holland served an engineering design appraisal and the investigation of

apprenticeship in the power generation machinery and structural failures. He is
industry, gaining an Honours degree in Principal Surveyor and Head of the Condition
Mechanical Engineering from the University Monitoring, Vibration and Noise Section of
of Bath in 1975. Soon after graduating he the Technical Investigation Department,
joined a shipping company as a sea-going having responsibility for the provision of a
engineer officer on a variety of ocean going variety of machinery condition monitoring,
ships, obtaining his Class I (Motor) Certificate noise and vibration services and related
of Competency. In 1985 he joined Lloyd’s research activities.
Register, gaining experience in machinery
Table of Contents
Synopsis
1 Introduction
2 Machinery
3 Propulsion Hydrodynamics
4 Structural Considerations
5 Vibration
6 Noise
7 Condition Monitoring
8 Concluding Remarks
9 Acknowledgements
10 References
LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 1

Synopsis 1 Introduction
The Paper describes some of the twin screw ship experience The Technical Investigation Department (TID) provides a
that the Technical Investigation Department has acquired in technical consultancy service to all of the industries that LR
the context of their problem solving and research activities. serves and also to LR itself. The Paper has been compiled
Numerous practical examples are cited to demonstrate from the results of investigations undertaken and other
lessons learnt in the fields of propulsion machinery, information gained by the Technical Investigation
hydrodynamics, ship structures, vibration, noise and Department. As such, it comprises a pot pourri of examples
condition monitoring. Experience with the solution of noise and lessons learnt which relate mostly to twin screw ships,
and vibration problems is also used to support the although occasionally results from triple screw ships are also
development of LR’s recently issued Provisional Rules for cited. The set of examples chosen relate predominantly to
Passenger and Crew Accommodation Comfort. passenger ships in the form of cruise liners, ferries and Ro/Ro
ships, however, experience is also drawn from our work on
other ship types, particularly high speed craft, where the
Department has considerable expertise.
In addition to the results of investigation work, a proportion

of the Paper is devoted to the underlying development of
LR’s new Provisional Rules for Passenger and Crew
Accommodation Comfort [1] and a further short section to the
application of condition monitoring. The subject matter of
the Paper, in addition to these two topics, addresses
machinery, ship structural, vibration and hydrodynamic
issues.
A complimentary paper relating to single screw ships will be

published in the next session of the LRTA. Clearly, there are
certain issues which transcend the relatively artificial
boundaries of single and twin screw ships and, as such, the
Papers should be read in this context.
2 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

2 Machinery manoeuvring at speed, little effect of these loadings is usually

experienced beyond the first inboard shaft span in most shaft
line arrangements. It has, however, been found that the
hydrodynamically induced loads can alter the positions of
support in the A-bracket and sterntube bearings. When this
occurs, either during turning or normal ahead operation, and
Propulsion shafts on passenger ships have an inherent
the loads are sufficient to alter the basic static alignment
flexibility associated with them and, therefore, their
assumptions, then lateral modes of vibration of the shafting
alignments may remain relatively robust when the ship
can, in some cases, be induced. Figure 2 illustrates such a case
experiences damage. One recent TID assignment involved a
in terms of a 60,000 tonne cruise ship when the ship was
cruise ship that struck an underwater object while entering
executing a 10 degree turn to port at a speed of 22.5 knots. In
port, causing considerable damage to the starboard
this figure the overall, first and blade order components of
controllable pitch propeller. An appreciation of the level of
shaft displacements relative to the inboard stern seal
damage suffered can be gained from Figures 1(a) and 1(b)
housing, as measured on the port shaft line when turning to
which show the state of the propeller blades and crank pin
port, are shown in comparison to the normal ahead
sliding shoes after the incident. The ship subsequently
characteristics. When considering this figure, which shows
entered dry-dock in order for the propeller to be replaced
the shaft dynamics at the forward sterntube seal, it should
and to enable checking of the starboard tail shaft alignment.
be noted that the overall measured displacements at the A-
After removal of the tail shaft, a sighting telescope was
bracket bearing were less than ± 0.1mm and ± 0.4mm when
mounted at the A-bracket bearing housing and an
running ahead and turning to port respectively. It has
illuminated target fitted at the sterntube forward bearing
subsequently been shown that these orbits can be
housing. Offsets of targets mounted at intermediate positions
successfully modelled theoretically given the appropriate
from a reference line of sight showed that the shaft alignment
input data [2].
had not been significantly affected by the accident.
Propulsion shafting may not always be constructed from
In other cases of cruise ships on trials, despite the relatively
steel materials, this is particularly true for high speed craft
large hydrodynamic forces and moments induced during
where monel, composites or other materials are sometimes
Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b)

Damage to Propeller Blade Damage to Crankpin Sliding Shoe

10 Degree Port Helm
1.5 1.5
0° 0°
1.0 90° 1.0 90°
180° 180°
Vertical movement (mm)

270° 270°
0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5
Transverse movement (mm) Transverse movement (mm)
Overall 1st order
Zero Helm
1.5 1.5
0° 0°
90° 1.0 90° 1.0
180° 180°
270°
270°
0.5 0.5
-1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1.5
Transverse movement (mm) Transverse movement (mm)
Overall 1st order
Figure 2
Shaft Displacements measured at the Forward Sterntube Seal
used. If proper care is not exercised in the use of novel manufacturing methods of the shafts showed that the
materials, problems can arise. One such example related to procedures had not fully recognised the nature of the
a series of 37 knot passenger-carrying hovercraft. In order to material, leading to an abusive manufacturing process for
reduce weight in the design, a titanium alloy was specified this particular material. This, in turn, led to a significant
for the propulsion shaft material. The shafts transmitted the deterioration of the fatigue properties of the shafts to a level
full propulsion power at 900 rpm which, in this case, was which could not then withstand the imposed propeller forces
generated from high speed diesel engines driving through a and moments. As such, the importance of specifying and
gearbox to a five-bladed, highly skewed fixed pitch marine adhering to proper manufacturing procedures is underlined
propeller. During trials the shafts frequently failed by this example.
predominantly due to a bending fatigue mechanism as seen
in Figure 3. Sea trials measurements using TID’s underwater It should also be noted that some materials prescribed within
telemetry system confirmed that the levels of mean and a shaft line arrangement, when brought into intimate contact,
bending strains on the surfaces of the shafts were well within may not enjoy each other’s company . For example, two such
the nominal fatigue capabilities of the material. Of concern materials are Inconel and bronze, such as might be found as
here were the high eccentricies of loading produced by shafts cladding to a shaft in way of a journal bearing and in the
possessing significant rake. Further investigation into the bearing housing respectively. When these materials come

ferry was powered by two high speed diesel engines each

driving, through a fluid coupling connected to a cardan shaft
arrangement, a Voith Schneider propulsor. The fluid
coupling was connected to the diesel engine by means of a
1:10 tapered shaft connection having a keyway. The resulting
failure of this connection is shown in Figure 5 from which
the fretted external surface is seen as are a multiplicity of
separate crack origins on the shaft surface. Additionally,
crack origins are also seen along the driven side of the
keyway; all disposed at the large end of the taper. A series of
measurements quantifying the transmitted torques, visual
and fluorescent magnetic particle observations, together
with calculations checking the intended design stresses and
the influence of the dowel hole in the keyway were made.
The conclusion was reached that, during construction, the
assembly procedure had failed to achieve the expected grip
stress. As a precautionary measure the other coupling on the
Figure 3 ship was dismantled. On this coupling there was evidence
Bending Fatigue Failure of a Propulsion Shaft of incipient fretting damage but no detectable cracks. In TID’s
experience this is a common characteristic of fretting fatigue
problems where there can be a large statistical spread in the
into contact, there is always the possibility of grain boundary
fatigue behaviour of nominally identical assemblies.
embrittlement taking place with the consequent implications
for the fatigue life and integrity of the shaft. Figure 4 shows
A-brackets are relatively stiff structures whether in their ‘A’
a pattern of craze cracking of the Inconel cladding that
or ‘L’ geometric forms. The estimation of their stiffness is of
occurred following rubbing contact after a bearing failure. In
importance in the design and analysis of shafting systems and
subsequent examination, the materials were shown to have
clearly their stiffness varies between different arrangements.
reached temperatures of the order of 900 degC.
The total stiffness is a function of the mechanical stiffnesses
of the bracket structure, taking into account its hull
An interesting example of shaft line fretting fatigue occurred
foundation effects, and the lubricant film stiffnesses. In a
recently in a small inter island Ro/Ro ferry. This twin screw
recent case of a cruise ship fitted with A-brackets, it was
Figure 4
Thermal Craze Cracking of Clad Welding on a Propeller Shaft in way of the ‘A’ Bracket Bearing aft Retaining Ring

Figure 5
Fretting Fatigue Failure of a Driveshaft
necessary as part of the wider investigation to measure the to the loadings on the shaft, Figure 7 shows the
stiffness of the A-bracket structure. This was done by pulling hydrodynamic flow regime set up at 85 rpm with the journal
the structure against the dock wall. The resulting transverse being set 0.05mm up and 0.3mm outwards at the aft end. At
stiffness of the structure was measured to be 120 tonnes/mm. the forward end, the journal centre was displaced 0.18 mm
inboard. At this stage in the development of this kind of
Due to the forces and moments exerted on the A-bracket analysis for these problems, the results should be viewed
bearings by the propeller, particularly when turning, a qualitatively as the compliance of the bearing material still
complex flow regime is set up within the bearing. In one has to be taken into account and this requires considerably
investigation relating to extreme wear of the A-bracket increased complexity to an already large computational
bearings on a large twin screw cruise ship fitted with water problem.
lubricated bearings, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
study was undertaken. To enable an adequate definition of Integrated electric propulsion is now becoming a relatively
these bearings, having an L:D ratio of 2.73:1, a computational popular form, indeed a predominant form, of propulsion for
mesh was produced having 326 circumferential, 86 twin screw ships having both variable propulsion and
longitudinal and 5 radial elements; making a total of around significant hotel loads. With this form of propulsion, either
140,000 elements in the computational domain. The bearings gas turbine or diesel driven generators convert the fuel
received water from a series of holes arranged around a energy into electrical energy which is then re-converted
circumference in the upper part of the bearing at mid-length through the motor back into rotational energy. Clearly, this
and also from the forward annular face of the bearing. Figure is relatively inefficient as a basic process since the two
6 shows the computed flow field through the bearings for a conversion processes result in a greater set of losses than if
ship speed of 24 knots in association with a rotational speed a single process was involved. However, the efficiency of
of 150 rpm when the bearing and journal surfaces are parallel. electrical machines does not fall-off with shaft speed as with
From this figure, the flow directions, stagnation regions mechanical transmissions and, in some cases, it can be more
between the incident flow and centrally injected flow, and efficient at lower speeds. Furthermore, the integrated electric
the flow velocities are clearly seen. In the corresponding case propulsion concept allows for the use of a number of
of the journal and bearing surfaces being poorly aligned due individual generator units which, depending on the load

Figure 6
CFD Analysis of a Parallel Aligned Water Lubricated Sterntube Bearing
Figure 7
CFD Analysis of a Misaligned Water Lubricated Sterntube Bearing

required at a given time, can be used as required in order to principal aero-derivative engines that have been marinised
satisfy the propulsion and hotel loads. Such machines as are for Royal Navy use have been the simple cycle Tyne,
used can, therefore, be used more efficiently due to the prime Olympus and Spey; each engine having undergone lengthy
mover being operated close to its design conditions. development and marinisation programmes during their
operation with the fleet. However, the principal drawbacks
The problems associated with diesel engine prime movers to the adoption of gas turbines in the merchant fleet have
are similar to those experienced on other ship types and are been the relatively poor fuel consumption together with the
discussed elsewhere, [3] and [4]. Similarly, with auxiliary relatively high fuel prices when compared to the diesel
machinery, although for large passenger ships the number engine, coupled with the adoption of a different
of machinery items is more extensive. infrastructure for maintenance. To address the former of
these problems the co-operative development between
Gas turbine propulsion units have, over the years, made Westinghouse and Rolls-Royce of the WR21 engine, which
occasional appearances in twin screw merchant ships . These is an intercooled recouperated machine, has been
were normally with high speed passenger or Ro/Ro ships; progressed. Clearly, much of this development relies on the
perhaps one of the most notable being the Finnjet on the Baltic accumulated knowledge derived from previous engines and
Sea routes. More recently, the large HSS1500 catamaran Figure 8 illustrates how the WR21 utilised a number of
ferries together with several other high speed craft have used components from earlier designs. With regard to prime
this form of propulsion. In contrast, gas turbine propulsion mover efficiencies, Figure 9 shows a comparison between
has for many years been the high power mode of propulsion medium and slow speed diesel engines and gas turbines.
for major surface ships belonging to the Royal Navy and the
other principal world navies. When designing a mechanical drive system involving gas
turbine propulsion, sea trials experience has shown that care
Gas turbines broadly divide into two categories; the aero- is needed in the proper consideration of transient situations.
derivatives and the industrial turbines, both are used for For example, since gas turbines can accelerate very quickly
propulsion purposes. In the former case, thermal efficiency but ships or high speed craft take rather longer, the high
is optimised whereas in the latter case the emphasis tends to powers available at low ship speeds can cause extremely high
be on maximising the mean time between overhauls. torques to be induced in the propulsion system.
Nevertheless, efficiency and meantime between overhaul Alternatively, during rapid decelerations and crash stop
considerations are important for both types of unit. The manoeuvres, particularly with controllable pitch propellers,
Figure 8
Modular Breakdown of a WR21 Gas Turbine

Specific Fuel Consumption kg/kW.hr
0.20
0.19
Gas Turbine
Adv. Cycles
0.18
0.17
Medium Speed
Diesel Engine
0.16
Slow Speed
Diesel Engine
5764/45
Figure 9
Comparison of Prime Mover Efficiencies
the response of the system can permit the torque in a part or state and have occasional flame fronts and carbonised
all of the propulsion system to reverse; this represents a particles passing through the blade passages. While in this
particularly dangerous situation for the gas turbine. As such, condition they must remain strong enough to withstand the
to ensure that these onerous situations are not unexpectedly significant centrifugal loads imposed upon them and also
encountered in new designs, experience has shown that it is maintain their aerodynamic shape. By way of example,
prudent to simulate the range of manoeuvring conditions centrifugal loads on small gas turbine blades having a mass
considered feasible within the overall operating envelope of of some 60 grams can reach values of the order of 2 tonnes.
the vessel. These loads in addition to the aerodynamic bending loads
must be withstood, recognising that the blades will also
Gas turbines generate considerable heat which, despite the experience high frequency fluctuations deriving from the
inclusion of thermal barriers and ventilation, tends to raise non-homogeneous spatial and temporal gas conditions and
the surrounding temperatures. One investigation on a twin also considerable thermal shock. Clearly, under the influence
screw warship demonstrated the potential problems that can of these loadings the blades will grow in length under the
arise in these situations when the controllable pitch oil action of creep which, in addition to normal fatigue
distribution boxes were placed too close to the Olympus gas considerations, introduces a further limitation on the life of
turbines. The increase in ambient temperature after the blades. The development of materials to successfully
approximately twenty minutes of operation at full power operate in these conditions has progressed from those
caused a thermal expansion in the control valves located in possessing small crystals oriented in an ad-hoc manner,
the oil distribution boxes which, in turn, then caused the through directionally oriented materials in which the crystals
propeller pitch mechanism to back-off, hence restricting are aligned in a columnar fashion along the blade length to
power absorption and causing a gradual slowing down of single crystal blades. Figure 11 shows, in schematic form, the
the ship. Such an example serves to underline the imperative advantages to be gained in turbine blade life with these
of preserving the design thermal environment between advances in material technology.
machinery components.
In contrast to the civil aviation industry, the problem of hot
Turbine blades, in keeping with combustion cans, operate corrosion of gas turbines used in marine environments is one
within a particularly challenging environment. Current aero- that still persists. Blades having experienced hot corrosion
engine technology is looking toward the adoption of first normally exhibit relatively large greenish-black blisters;
turbine row gas passage temperatures of the order of 2000 most frequently on the blade concave surfaces towards the
degC. Furthermore, pyrometric measurements made on trailing edges. There is also a loss of material associated with
turbines, when working at full power, show non-uniform the corrosion activity. Hot corrosion produces a non-
radial temperature profiles in the annular gas passages of the protective oxide on the blade surfaces and is a combination
type illustrated in Figure 10 where the highest temperatures of oxidation and reactions with sodium, sulphur, vanadium
are seen to be present in the vicinity of the blade tips. Despite and other contaminants present in either the air or fuel.
the introduction of air cooling passages, during normal high Although the full processes are not yet fully understood, in
power operation the turbine blades glow in a cherry red hot shipborne operations, sodium chloride reacts with sulphur

Gas Temperature
Distance along Blade Tip
5764/46
Figure 10
Temperature Distribution across Gas Passages in a Gas Turbine
Extension limit
l
sta
cry
ta l
ry s
tal
Diametral extension
ed
ys
lc
nt
ie
cr
na
ct
io or
le
ire lly ng
d tio
na Si
– c
lti Dir
e
Mu
5764/26
Life
Figure 11
Extension Versus Life for Different Turbine Blade Material
and other components of the gas stream in the hottest regions of stator laminations, short circuits due to broken field
of the turbine to produce sodium sulphate. This, in turn, connectors of split rotor designs and some rotor cracking
reacts with the sodium chloride to form a slag which melts problems, the motors and generators used in the electric
on the surfaces of the component in the region of 620 degC. propulsion machinery of cruise ships today provide a reliable
This then fluxes the layer of protective chromium and source of motive power. The only recent examples of failure
aluminium oxides and leaves the component open to attack in which TID were involved have been in relation to broken
by the gases within the turbine resulting in the substrate connectors of stator windings. Transformers, however, have
becoming depleted in chromium. a greater incidence of problems, usually arising either from
manufacture, assembly or from bolted joints; the latter often
With regard to the electrical aspects of the propulsion resulting from an absence of tightness checking after a short
machinery, apart from some early problems with the fretting period in service when the unit has shaken down. It is also

clear from our failure investigation work that care is needed This has important implications for podded propulsors,
in the provision of adequate cooling systems to dissipate the since the pod dimensions are governed, to a large extent, by
heat generated by electrical equipment used for main the size of the electrical machine and by reducing these
propulsion machinery purposes. dimensions this allows further gains in hydrodynamic
efficiency to be made.
Permanent magnet technology has in recent years embraced
rare earth materials such as neodymium iron boron (NdFeB) The transverse flux machine presents a new arrangement but,
and samarium cobalt (SmCo). These materials have the as yet, is still not a mature technology. However, it has the
required magnetic properties to enable high power density potential to overcome many of the constraints imposed by
machines for marine propulsion purposes to be either the axial or conventional radial flux machines. The basic
contemplated. However, although possessing the necessary arrangement of the transverse flux machine comprises a
magnetic properties they have significant differences in circular coil co-axial with the rotor as shown in Figure 12. In
mechanical strength, fatigue properties, corrosion resistance, this arrangement the stator winding links the flux generated
temperature performance and cost. by the permanent magnets by means of a series of stator hoop
pole pieces. The flux path for this arrangement is shown in
Conventional electrical machines are reaching a high level of Figure 13 where it can be seen that stator pole pieces are
evolution with improvements in power density being introduced, both inside and outside the rotor, so as to improve
achieved through direct water cooling, albeit at the expense the electromagnetic performance of the machine with torque
of efficiency and higher cost. Consequently, there is scope to being developed at the inner and outer surfaces of the rotor.
explore the potential of rare earth materials in achieving Currently, while proposals for 20MW machines have
higher power densities. Currently used design arrangements appeared, a considerable amount of further work is required.
tend to constrain an electrical machine’s torque capacity due
to the magnetic flux and armature conductors competing for
the same space. Furthermore, the torque in a conventional
machine is developed in the annular cylinder of the air gap
and the armature and field windings which is a small Stator winding
proportion of the overall size of the machine. The
underpinning philosophy for the development of a new
generation of permanent magnet machines is threefold. First,
the development of flux concentrating designs; secondly,
increasing the packing density of the active components; and
S →
thirdly, separation of the magnetic and electrical circuits of →
S →
→ N
→ →
→ N
→
the machine such that they no longer compete for space. → N
→
S → S
→
When combined, these changes potentially allow
→
→ →
→
improvements of up to eight times the power and torque
density available with conventional arrangements. Clearly, Ro
tat
ion
such an advantage while allowing for greater power from a
similar sized conventional machine also permits the
5764/24
converse situation of similar power from a smaller machine.
Figure 13
Flux Path in Transverse Flux Machine
Stator cores
→ N
→
→
→ S
→→ N Rotor
Stator →→ S
winding
N
→→
S
Magnet 5764/23
Pole
piece
Figure 12
Basic Arrangement of Transverse Flux Machine

3 Propulsion
Hydrodynamics
Flow problems with twin screw ships sometimes manifest

themselves as cavitation erosion in the root regions of the
propeller blades and on the supporting struts of the A and
P-brackets. These problems result from the transverse flow
components over the shaft which, in conjunction with the
axial component, induce a three dimensional compound
vortex structure over the tops of the shafts. These vortices
then attract a proportion of the hull boundary layer flow
down along the upper surface of the shaft line. The
consequence of this interaction is that the leading edges of
the bracket arms close to the shaftline, or alternatively the
propeller blade root, experience higher than expected angles
of attack, or hydrodynamic misalignment. This can then lead
to the formation of a thick leading edge cavitation sheet
which has the potential to induce erosion. Figure 14 shows
one such example of A-bracket erosion which manifested
itself on a twin screw cruise liner. Unfortunately, this type of
flow mechanism is significantly affected by hydrodynamic
scaling laws and this makes prediction by model tests
difficult. When trying to address these problems the use of
computational fluid dynamics methods can be of
considerable assistance although the development of
complete solutions using these methods alone cannot, as yet, Figure 15
CFD Analysis of Flow over A-bracket
be achieved due to the modelling assumptions necessary
both for the geometric grid and for the thick boundary layer
at the stern of the ship. Figure 15 shows a modelling of the
ferry indicated that the shape and positioning of the A-
surface pressure distribution for the full scale case shown in
brackets together with the design of the propeller were likely
Figure 14, from which it can be seen that the general character
to be the main causes of unwelcome cavitation activity on
of the phenomena is simulated. However, the solution to
the propeller blades and consequent levels of structural
these types of problem still requires the qualitative use of
vibration; in this case reaching levels of 125 mm/s on the
theoretical methods in conjunction with pragmatic
after decks. Due to the scaling complexities of using model
hydrodynamic experience.
tests to understand the flow field around the A-brackets and
also recognising the limitations associated with the use of
A corresponding problem associated with A-brackets is their
CFD methods, the flow field was analysed using CFD codes
effect, when misaligned to the incident flow, on the propeller
in combination with the Department’s propeller analysis
inflow. Hull surface pressure and vibration measurements
codes. The simulations, using a k-e turbulence model,
carried out during sea trials on a small twin screw coastal
specifying zero velocity on the hull surface and employing
the wall-function approach showed that the A-brackets were
contributing significantly to the wake field disturbance and
could be better aligned to the local flow directions [4].
The axial and in-plane wake fields of modern cruise ships in

the ahead operating conditions are normally carefully
considered at the design stage. However, when the ship alters
course, additional flow field components are induced at the
propeller plane. The magnitude and direction of these
components depend on the hull form, principally affected by
the buttock form and skeg design, and are mainly transverse
in nature; possessing both spatial and temporal components.
When experienced, they produce a different system of
hydrodynamically induced loadings acting on the shaft lines
of twin screw ships; the propeller on the outside of the turn
inducing a considerably greater downward loading on the
A-bracket than in the straight ahead condition, while the
Figure 14 forces produced by the propeller on the inside of the turn
Cavitation Erosion on an A-Bracket effectively tend to unload the bearing vertically but also

Manoeuvres to Port
Port Starboard
Measured
parameter
"Transient"
"Steady"
Bearing load vectors

5764/20
Normal ahead – zero helm
Time
Turn to port
Figure 16
Propeller Generated Loads during Normal Ahead and
Turning Conditions Manoeuvres to Starboard
Measured
parameter
induce a significant side load having, in some cases, a strong

transient characteristic. Figure 16 illustrates these changes as
measured on one recent cruise liner. It was found that for this
"Steady"
ship the loadings on the inner shaft during the turn possessed
a transient character in which the load vector rose to a
maximum and then fell to a steady value, whereas, those on
the outer shaft gradually rose to a steady value; Figure 17.
Not all propellers, however, follow this precise loading
characteristic but some general similarities in the loading
pattern are seen to occur. The loadings developed during
turning are difficult to predict because, first it is difficult to
realistically simulate and measure the wake field velocity Time 5764/21
vectors in a model tank and secondly, to properly scale the

model data to full scale. Such propeller induced loading Figure 17
changes, as seen from LR’s measurement database, have the General Loading Characteristics on Port Propeller
potential to significantly alter the relative alignment of the
shaft to the bearings and, consequently, change the effective
Propeller hull surface pressures have been steadily reduced
support points of the shaft.
over the last decade or so, to a point where blade rate pressure
levels measured on cruise ships are frequently of the order
The propulsor-hull interaction problem is intimately related
of 1-2 kPa and occasionally lower. In the case of Ro/Ro ferries
to the representation of the three dimensional inflow field and
this range is generally a little higher; of the order of 2-4 kPa.
to the complex nature of cavitation dynamics on the propulsor.
In many cases the higher harmonics are negligible, although
Both of these aspects are far from completely understood at
a few full scale excitation related problems have been
this time, although TID in co-operation with others is leading
encountered if proper attention is not given to these higher
research initiatives in this field. In terms of analysis, effective
harmonic components where they are indicated by model
wake is a relative concept, since it embodies the induction
tests. The higher harmonic content of the spectrum in well
effects of the propeller model; hence, there are as many effective
behaved cavitation situations should remain less than the
wakes as there are numerical propeller models. In the context
blade rate component and reduce in strength monotonically
of hull pressure the spatial, nominal wake field, normally
as the harmonic number increases. As a rough guide, the
measured at model scale, is the traditional starting point for
twice blade rate harmonic should be around half of the first
the effective propeller inflow. The simplest approach is to scale
with the third being of very small proportions. Harmonics
the nominal velocities in the ratio of the disc mean nominal
beyond the third should generally be negligible and
velocity and the effective velocity obtained from propulsion
significant broadband excitation in the first decade of the
tests. In practice, there is a tendency to use methods such as
blade rate harmonics should be avoided as this has the
the V-shaped Segment Method and the Force Field Method in
potential to excite a range of structural frequencies.
which axi-symmetric contraction and actuator disc induction
effects are applied to the nominal flow field. Within TID
Indeed, full scale hull surface pressures have now become so
adaptations of both methods have been used in the course of
low relative to the broadband background levels, that special
investigation and research activities. Neither method,
attention to the analysis of signals is needed if erroneous
however, has been found to be significantly more accurate than
results are to be avoided. To this end a considerable effort by
the other for all ship types.
TID has been devoted to applying joint time frequency and
wavelet methods to hull surface pressure signal analysis.

These methods are used to distinguish correctly between Κp Pressure amplitude at

true broadband excitation arising from the cavity and flow 1.0 blade frequency
structures, and apparent broadband components resulting
from conventional two dimensional fast Fourier transform θ Skew angle
methods. Figure 18 illustrates a typical example of a hull
∆W Wake difference
surface pressure signal measured on the model of a twin at tip
screw cruise liner when analysed in both a three dimensional
joint time frequency approach and a conventional Fourier [Κp]θ = θ
transform method. From such a comparison the s
∆W = 0.2
intermittency of some of the discrete harmonic components [Κp]θ = 10°
with respect to time is seen to be represented by a broadband
structure in the conventional two dimensional analysis
approach. As such, it is important in analysis to correctly
distinguish between apparent broadband characteristics and ∆W
a true broadband signature arising from the physics of the
∆W
cavitation; most frequently associated with bubble or cloud = 0.
5
activity. It is also important to recognise that half order
components within the discrete harmonic structure of the
0
hull surface pressure signal can arise from propeller blade Skew θb 5764/36
tolerances or, in the case of controllable pitch propellers, from
the hub mechanism tolerances.
Figure 19
Influence of Skew Angle and Wake Non-uniformity on Hull
When considering the acceptable levels of hull surface Excitation Pressure
pressure it must be recognised that some variability will
inevitably exist in the actual pressure signature. This will
result from spacial and temporal variations in the wake field dictates the final solution adopted. In cases where the propeller
including the effects of variable gas content in the water, design incorporates both low skew and low tip off-loading,
biological influences and the motions of the ship and sea. then a redesign incorporating higher skew combined with an
These, among the other factors involved, induce significant appropriate degree of tip unloading is often the safest option.
variations in cavity structure which may result in a wide Figure 19 shows the trends between hull pressure reduction,
variation of induced hull surface pressure. Consequently, skew and wake non-uniformity developed by Yamasaki and
hull surface pressure data should be averaged over at least extended by Johnsson and Fitzsimmons. Skew by itself does
200 revolutions of the propeller in order to produce a realistic not adversely affect propulsive efficiency, however, the
result. Furthermore, synchronous averaging of these data is incorporation of tip unloading tends to decrease the total
also essential if blade to blade differences are suspected. efficiency. In cases where the high excitation is produced by a
highly skewed propeller with tip unloading, then
Propeller-hull excitation problems normally arise from consideration should be given to increased chordal lengths,
cavitation activity in the outer regions of the propeller blade; increased section thicknesses or wake improvement. Within
for example from the blade sheet or vortex activity. The nature TID the effects of varying these parameters are systematically
of the problem, identified in TID investigations usually by hull investigated using our lifting surface methods and wake
surface pressure and vibration measurements or, if possible, scaling procedures prior to making recommendations to
by full scale observation through windows in the hull, largely alleviate the effects of individual excitation problems.
Figure 18
Analysis Model Scale Hull Surface Pressure

Figure 20
Effects of Strong Tip Vortices on Rudder
Propeller tip vortex cavitation is, in the majority of cases, the

first type of cavitation to appear with conventionally skewed
propellers. This, however, is not always the case with highly
skewed propellers. The tip vortex, although contributing to
the blade harmonic excitation spectrum, has a particularly
strong influence on the continuous part of the spectrum.
Much has yet still to be learnt about tip vortex inception both
at model and full scale and, most importantly, the correlation
between the two. The results of strong tip vortices are most
commonly seen on the rudders where a region of paint
removal at the top-dead-centre position behind and
sometimes just inside the projection of the propeller tips
occurs, Figure 20. In extreme cases, erosion on the rudder
sometimes occurs; if serious enough this would warrant a
modification to the profile of either the rudder leading edge
or the propeller tip region.
Figure 21
The effect of the tip vortex as a means of exciting the ship’s
Propeller Root Cavitation
structure should never be overlooked. In one notable case of a
liner having a cruiser stern, after a mid-life refit including prime
mover replacement and the fitting of a novel propulsor
are to be found in the archives of TID. In the above twin screw
arrangement including a controllable pitch propeller,
liner example the redesign of the propellers, in terms of the
considerable hull excitation occurred from the collapse of the
radial and chordal loading distributions, reduced the tip vortex
tip vortex mid-way between the propeller station and the stern.
excitation to acceptable proportions but left a difficult residual
This required the redesign of the propeller in order to ease the
root loading problem. The loading, coupled with the wide
blade loading conditions and, therefore, reduce the strength of
variation in incident velocities caused by the propeller bossing
the tip vortex structure. While this presents a relatively extreme
and the thick root sections required by the controllable pitch
case, due to the type of hull design, the modern transom form
propeller design, induced both face and back cavitation on the
is not immune and, furthermore, tip vortex excitation of the
root sections. Figure 21 shows this cavitation taken from video
rudder structures is not unknown.
records made at full scale. This cavitation was erosive but while
stabilising with time during its high speed liner trade routes,
Propeller root cavitation problems can be among the most
as shown in Figure 22(a), reduced the blade thickness to a level
complex to solve and, as with tip vortex problems, many cases

Non – dimensional erosion depth (mm)
7.00 12
Erosion limit for blade strength considerations
6.00 10
5.00 Dry – dock In – water
Erosion depth (mm)

8
average values maximum values
4.00
6
3.00 Dry – dock
maximum values
4
2.00 Dry – dock
maximum
1.00 2 values
In – water Dry – dock
0.00 average values average values
0
03-Apr-91 03-Apr-91 05-Apr-91 07-Apr-91 09-Apr-91 03-Apr-92 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time 5764/17 Running hours above 1340 rev/min 5764/18
Figure 22(a) Figure 22(b)

Typical Erosion Behaviour in the Roots of Propeller Blades Propeller Erosion Depths
which was too close to the blade strength limits considered occurred, the second example, Figure 22(b), relates to a complex
desirable for the ship. The problem was resolved by using a erosion problem experienced on a high speed patrol boat. High
series of cavitation tunnel model experiments in which the speed craft frequently suffer with root erosion problems and if
afterbody, shaft bossings and wake field were simulated with section redesign is either not possible or does not hold
the propellers working at their equivalent thrust coefficient significant potential for a solution, then recourse is normally
values in order to develop a set of bossing fins to control the made to air injection or to the inclusion of root ventilation holes
flow into the root sections of the propeller blades. These fins into the blades.
have now been working for some eight years without further
significant erosion occurring. In the case of a small chase and escort boat, erosion completely
through the blades roots of the three bladed propellers occurred
Cavitation erosion occurs due to a combination of the micro- after 48 hours. Comparative trials between the port and
jet mechanisms and pressure pulses caused by the sudden starboard propellers showed that with the inclusion of a single
collapse of the cavity structure [5]. Consequently, the further air pipe delivering air to the starboard propeller, Figure 23, that
away the material surface is from the cavitation collapse after 20 minutes of trials at full speed the erosion on that
process, the less likely this process will result in erosion. This propeller had been suppressed, while on the port propeller
is because although microjets frequently have initial velocities significant orange peeling had occurred. In this case the use of
of around 1000 m/s, these speeds fairly rapidly decay with air injection was completely successful although care is needed
distance and the pressure pulse magnitude is dependent on an not to deliver too much air so that the propulsion efficiency
inverse law. As such, stabilisation may, although not becomes impaired.
necessarily will, occur as indicated in Figure 22(a). Figure 22
shows two examples where stabilisation of root cavitation has
Figure 23
Air Injection Pipe near Leading Edge at Root

Figure 24
Root Erosion in way of Ventilation Holes
Figure 25
Throttle Plate fitted to a Ventilation Hole

Table 1
Principal Effects of the Various Propeller Tolerances
Propeller Geometric Primary effect Secondary effect
Parameter
Diameter Power absorption –
Mean Pitch Power absorption Cavitation extent
Local section pitch Cavitation inception Power absorption

and extent
Section thickness Cavitation inception Power absorption
General section form Power absorption, Blade strength

(camber) cavitation inception
Section chord length Cavitation inception Blade strength,

power absorption
Blade form and relative Generally small effects on –

location (excluding the cavitation inception and shaft
leading edge) vibratory forces at frequencies
dependent on wake harmonics
and blade irregularities
Leading edge form Critical to cavitation inception –
Rake and axial position Minor mechanical vibratory forms –
Surface finish Blade section drag and hence –

power absorption
Static balance Shaft vibratory loads
Table 2
Typical Tolerances for Certain Ship Types
ISO Tolerance Typical ships where tolerance might apply
Better than S Class Naval vessels (e.g. frigates, destroyers, submarines, etc.).
Patrol craft and some research ships.
S High-speed craft with a speed greater than 25 knots;

research vessels; certain special purpose merchant vessels
where noise or vibration is of paramount importance
(e.g. cruise vessels, high-grade ferries).
1 General merchant vessels; deep sea trawlers; tugs, ferries

naval auxiliaries.
2 Low-power, low-speed craft, typically inshore fishing vessels,

work boats, etc.
3 As for class 2.
For an earlier case involving a twin screw 38 knot hydrofoil For general propeller design work the ISO specifications [6]
passenger ferry, blade root ventilation holes were introduced; and [7] for propeller diameters greater than 2.5m and between
these had the effect of reducing the erosion attack to an 0.80m and 2.5m respectively, usually serve as a criterion for
acceptable level that could be repaired during normal slipping assessment. In certain particular cases, such as naval or
intervals, Figure 24. specialist cruise ship applications, the purchasers of the
propeller may impose their own particular tolerance
In a more recent case, where relatively scant attention had been specifications and methods: for example, the US Navy
paid to the propeller design environment for a patrol boat, both standard drawing method or an ISO Plus standard. Within
air injection and root ventilation holes were required to solve propeller tolerance specifications several geometric variables
the problem. Interestingly, in this case, because of the severity are controlled to a greater or lesser extent. The relative
of the problem, the air was injected into the root sections over importance of the variables requires particular consideration
an arc in the propeller disc and the root ventilation holes for each ship design but certain general effects of the geometric
required the introduction of throttle plates, see Figure 25. While parameters are apparent. Table 1 endeavours to distinguish
not completely curing, but severely limiting, the cavitation between the primary and secondary effects of the various
attack these measures were sufficient to stabilise the erosion to geometric variables.
acceptable levels as seen in Figure 22(b). The reason for the
scatter in this latter figure is because some of the readings were
taken by divers and some while in dry-dock.

As a consequence of these various effects, the designer and Azimuthing propulsion systems have recently been developed
purchaser of the propeller need to determine what level of to a state where they are being successfully deployed on large
tolerance is required to enable the propeller to be fit for the cruise ships, Figure 26. LR has long been associated with the
purpose. Where the wrong tolerances are selected, generic development of these systems for a variety of ships.
investigations have frequently shown power imbalances of Currently, this body of knowledge is being extended into the
2 to 3% between shafts on twin screw ships and unnecessarily interaction of podded systems with cruise ship hull forms, pod
lengthy periods required to make high speed propellers give design constraints, propulsor loadings and the internal and
a satisfactory cavitation performance – if, indeed, this can be external systems of forces and moments generated by
achieved. The ISO specification defines four levels of manoeuvring and course keeping corrections. With regard to
tolerance; Classes S, 1, 2 and 3, these being in descending noise and vibration, particular attention is being paid to
order of stringency. As a rough guide Table 2 has been propeller blade cavitation changes caused by variations in the
prepared to give guidance on possible suitable tolerance angle of pod incidence during course keeping.
levels for different ship types.
It should be remembered that cavitation inception speeds can

easily be influenced by 4 to 5 knots if the wrong choice of blade
tolerance level is made. Where cavitation inception is critical,
experience shows that the use of leading edge templates is
necessary and for certain high speed craft root fillet templates
are also essential. Furthermore, the purchasers of the propeller
should always assure themselves of the capability of the
manufacturer to deliver the required class of propeller.
Figure 26
Typical Podded Propulsion Unit

4 Structural Considerations frames, cracked and bent leafs and incorrectly adjusted door
mechanisms were found. As part of the investigation into the
cause of these problems, strain gauges were attached to an
apparently undamaged A0 rated fire door. Two 45 degree
rosettes were fitted at the upper corners of the frame and a
third was placed at the leaf corner on the hinge side of the
Structural problems come in a variety of forms, sometimes
door. Measurements were taken under various door closing
these are whole ship body problems while in other cases they
conditions and it was concluded that the stress levels
relate to local regions of the structure. In cruise ships the main
measured at the leaf corner were high enough to initiate
inter-deck access ways are normally arranged forward, mid-
cracks even under the door’s normal operating condition.
ships and aft in the superstructure. When viewed in the
Most of the cracked leaves were located in the laundry, galley
context of the ship’s static and dynamic bending moment
and stairway areas where heavy through traffic could be
distributions it becomes apparent that the detail of design in
expected.
these regions requires particular attention. The supporting
structure associated with fire doors is a particular case where
A related investigation to these two fire door cases, but
care is needed with both the detailed design and also the
undertaken some years earlier, involved cracking, again at
fabrication so that potential stress concentrations are
approximately 45 degrees, at the corners of passenger
avoided. Figure 27 shows a crack in the upper part of a fire
observation windows located on the sides of the aluminium
door opening in a longitudinal bulkhead, extending at 45
superstructure. The cracking only affected the windows in
degrees to the longitudinal axis of the ship. The opening had
the forward and after regions of the superstructure. In this
been made at a block joint, where two bulkhead sections had
instance strain gauge rosette measurements in the corners of
been welded together, resulting in a corner with no radius.
the windows together with measurements of residual stress
Several other doors were also affected and although it was
in the material using the centre hole drilling technique,
considered unlikely that the damage would compromise the
Figure 29, confirmed that cyclic loadings generated while the
overall structural integrity of the ship, repairs were effected
ship was working through poor weather superimposed on
by welding insert plates or doubler plates, as seen in Figure
mean and residual loadings were sufficient to induce fatigue
28.
cracking. Again the problem was alleviated by better
attention to the detailed design in these regions of the
In another case, nearly 500 fire doors were inspected on two
superstructure.
ships and a series of defects involving cracked and distorted
Figure 27
45˚ Crack in a Fire Door Opening in a Longitudinal Bulkhead

Figure 28 Figure 29
Use of a Doubler Plate to Repair Crack in Fire Door Opening Residual Strain Measurement on the Superstructure of a
Cruise Ship – View shows the optical sighting equipment prior
to centre hole boring through strain gauge rosette attached to
the ends of the wires

Figure 30
Transverse Ripple in the Upper Deck of a Cruise Ship
The lines of the hull of a modern twin screw passenger ship,

combined with a relatively uniform weight distribution,
result in high still water bending moments. Care is needed
to ensure that Rule stresses are not exceeeded for the
combination of Rule hogging wave bending moment and the
maximum hogging still water bending moment. Conversely,
combining the minimum hogging still water bending
moment with the Rule sagging bending moment may result
in an overall sagging moment and thus introduce
compressive stresses into the hull. Such stresses can produce
elastic buckling of deck plating and other structures but any
observed damage should be assessed carefully to determine
if it is due to extreme in-service conditions or due to the
introduction of residual stresses during construction. Figure
30 illustrates the identification of a transverse ‘ripple’ in an
external deck by wetting the deck surface and observing the
areas that dry first.

5 Vibration moments. As the design process continues, detailed studies

may encompass analysis of the hull girder and
superstructure using finite element methods; the calculation
of local panel natural frequencies; the calculation of propeller
excitation forces from model tests; torsional, axial and lateral
vibration characteristics of shafting. By way of example,
The costs of solving vibration and noise problems when a
Figure 31 shows finite element models of a large passenger
ship is in service can be many times the costs associated with
ship and high speed craft used to calculate hull girder natural
predicting and resolving such problems during the design
frequencies and analyse stresses.
and construction stages. Appropriate design and analysis
techniques should be applied with the following primary
Where calculated natural frequencies are coincident or near
objectives:
to the expected excitation frequencies, then modifications
either to the structure or the source of excitation can be
• Avoiding excitation of structural resonances within the
assessed and implemented. Before undertaking such work
service speed range.
it is prudent to validate any analytical models
• Minimising the propulsion machinery and propeller
experimentally, for example by using modal analysis. In
excitation forces.
order to achieve this, the structure under test is divided into
• Reducing the response amplitudes by adequately
a grid that may, for convenience, coincide with the nodes in
stiffening structures.
a finite element model. The structure is excited at each grid
point by a known forcing function and the response
During the conceptual design stage, empirically based
measured at a fixed reference location. The resulting
methods, manufacturer’s data and historical data can be
frequency response functions allow the computation of
used to give estimates of global natural frequencies of the
mode shapes and natural frequencies. Instrumented impact
hull girder and superstructure; axial wake flow analysis,
hammers are used to excite local structures such as deck
propeller excitation frequencies, hull surface pressures and
panels and electrically driven rotating mass or electro-
forces; and main engine excitation frequencies, forces and
magnetic exciters for larger structures.
Figure 31
Finite Element Models of a Large Passenger Ship and a High Speed Craft

Figures 32 and 33 show respectively an impact hammer and

an exciter being used as part of an investigation to examine
the response of deck structures on a twin screw motor yacht.
In this example, a simple model of a deck was prepared using
finite element software and the measured vibration response
was input to modal analysis software while the tests were
proceeding; see Figure 34. The principal, lowest three
vibration modes are shown in Figure 35. The fundamental
mode of vibration occurs at 6.7 Hz and comprises a cantilever
type movement of the whole deck, symmetrical about the
ship’s centreline. The second mode occurs at approximately
14.6 Hz and is again symmetrical about the centreline, with
the aftermost edge of the deck moving out of phase with the
main area of deck closer to the superstructure. The third
mode occurs at 19.6 Hz and is an antisymmetric mode about
the centreline with the aft corners of the deck exhibiting the
greatest movement, in antiphase with each other. Correlation
of the measured natural frequencies with those calculated
using the finite element model was good, with the
fundamental mode showing the greatest deviation due to the
dominant effect of the assumed theoretical boundary
conditions. Due to the coincidence of the fundamental
vibration mode frequency with a source of excitation,
temporary pillars were fitted to evaluate their effect. Tests
indicated an increase in the fundamental frequency by
approximately 50%, thus demonstrating the beneficial effect
of stiffening. The finite element model enabled the theoretical
assessment of alternative pillar arrangements or other
measures such as underdeck stiffening.
Figure 32
Use of an Instrumented Impact Hammer
Figure 33
Use of an Electromagnetic Exciter

Figure 34
Use of Model Analysis Software during Tests
Vibration levels on ships are rarely of sufficient magnitude to Mode 1 Symmetric First 6.7 Hz
contribute to major structural failure although fatigue cracks
can occur in areas such as after peak tanks that are close to
excitation sources.
One such investigation related to the cracking of sea water

ballast wing tanks in an inter-island supply boat. In this case
high propeller excitation forces were caused by a standard
design of propeller working in an extremely poor wake field.
This was due to both a restricted hull design, resulting from
the ship’s duty constraints, and poorly designed A-brackets
producing an unacceptably high forced response of the tanks, Mode 2 Symmetric Second 14.6 Hz
with some panels also having a resonant response. Local

stiffening and a reduction in the excitation source by propeller
redesign brought about a satisfactory solution.
Other examples include the excitation of local deck or bulkhead

panels and the cracking of pipe support brackets and engine
support stays in machinery spaces. Additionally, the design
and positioning of radar masts make them susceptible to
vibration excitation and problems can be experienced with the
equipment that is mounted on them, such as radar antennae Mode 3 Anti-Symmetric First 19.6 Hz
and satellite communication systems.
A fast patrol craft with a Z drive propulsion arrangement

suffered cracking of structures and piping in the vicinity of a
transverse bulkhead due to high vibration levels.
Measurements indicated that the vibration was at a frequency
5764/41
corresponding to twice the speed of the centre engine. This
engine was positioned in the aft machinery space and was
connected at its forward end to an intermediate shaft
supported by two split roller bearings, one pedestal mounted Figure 35
and the other fitted in the transverse bulkhead. The Typical Estimated Mode Shapes from Measurements

intermediate shaft was connected to a gearbox by an inclined, shaft bearings indicated low levels of excitation and the
splined shaft fitted with two universal joints and the ability superstructure vibration was attributed to coupled excitation
for limited axial movement (Cardan shaft). Due to their between the external hydrodynamic environment and the
geometry, such inclined shafts generate fluctuating axial propeller-hull interaction forces. Other, less complex cases
forces at twice the speed of rotation. The axial stiffness of the have been experienced with passenger ferries having large
bulkhead bearing support was insufficient to resist these superstructures well forward with restaurants and other
forces and resulted in the high vibration levels measured. recreation areas above the forecastle. In these cases, wave
Remedial measures included replacing the bulkhead bearing interaction with the hull chine near the bow causes
with a new shaft bearing supported by a newly constructed unwelcome transitory vibrations of sufficient magnitude to
pedestal. Axial forces were now reacted through the engine disturb passengers.
room bottom structure and subsequent measurements
confirmed significant reductions in vibration at all locations. Torsional modes of hull vibration may be excited on twin screw
vessels if the port and starboard propellers do not rotate in
A cruise ship operator reported noticeable levels of upper phase. Excitation of the hull by the hydrodynamic pressure
deck transverse vibration that were occasionally experienced fluctuations on each side of the ship centreline may occur at
when the ship was running near its maximum speed. This different instants in time. This can result in a vibration mode
vibratory motion was found to be particularly disturbing to where each side of the ship vibrates in antiphase in the vertical
passengers since this area of the ship housed many of the direction. This kind of motion is illustrated in Figure 36, which
better class accommodation cabins. Measurements by TID shows the results of vibration measurements on a Ro/Ro ferry.
surveyors indicated vibration amplitudes of up to 5.5 mm/s During shaft speed increase trials it was demonstrated that the
peak, due to a finely tuned resonant response at a frequency vibration amplitudes increased with increasing shaft power,
of 2.2 Hz, corresponding to the rotational speed of 132 rpm indicating a forced response. The vibration was dominated by
of the propulsion shafts. The response was intermittent and the blade order component, reaching average peak amplitudes
appeared to depend upon environmental factors such as sea of 19 mm/s and maximum peak values of 40 mm/s. Inspection
state, heading relative to the sea and also on the ship’s loading of the spaces above the propeller revealed numerous
condition. The results of the investigation together with a long propagating fatigue cracks. This particular ferry had a pram
term remote instrumentation monitoring exercise, indicated after body design with the shaft lines being suspended in
a one node ‘X’ mode of vibration, with the forward and after gondolas. Examination of the model wake fields at the time of
ends of the ship vibrating in anti-phase. The mode shape was the investigation showed that an extremely high axial wake
similar to one of the fundamental hull girder modes predicted peak was apparent in the top dead centre position such that the
by the shipbuilders. Measurements at the drive motor and nominal model velocity ratios in this area were of the order of
0.45; outside of this finely tuned wake peak the axial velocity
ratios generally recovered to between 0.9 and unity. Such a
E deck
nominal wake field clearly identified, along with the full scale
hull surface pressure and vibration measurements, that the
source of the problem lay in the cavitation activity over the
propeller blades. A series of propellers were therefore designed
and model tested in order to select the best option, in terms of
Car deck
the hull surface pressure harmonic spectrum. The resulting new
3 6 5 2 1
1.3 m 2.0 m
4 blades from this exercise had a modest amount of skew, 17.9

8 9 degrees, and an improved pitch distribution. Measurements
indicated that the maximum blade rate pressure and vibration
Port Starboard of the hull in the vicinity of the pressure transducers had been
7
reduced by approximately 50%.
Frame 0
A further example of the importance of the phase relationship

between propellers occurred on a twin screw passenger ship
which experienced high levels of structural and accommodation
space vibration. It was determined during controlled tests that
) the vibration was dominated by the blade order component and
e (t
Tim that the levels were dependent on the relative phase relationship
between the two propellers. In the worst case, a peak transverse
5764/10 vibration amplitude of 9.5 mm/s was measured in a lounge on
the upper decks and these levels had generated complaints from
passengers. Beating of the vibration, another phenomenon
t + 6∆t, t
t + 5∆t associated with twin screw propulsion, was also evident due to
Port
t + 4∆t operation of the propellers at slightly different speeds. The
e
elin t + 3∆t optimum phase condition was found to be when both propellers
ntr
Ce t + 2∆t were in phase, at which time the transverse vibration reduced
Starboard t + ∆t
to 4.0 mm/s peak. It was concluded, that when the propellers
t
were operating in phase, transverse forces generated by one
propeller were neutralised by the corresponding forces from the
Figure 36
other propeller.
Vibration due to Excitation of the Hull by Hydrodynamic
Pressure Fluctuations

6 Noise values. This was attributed to an over estimation of the

airborne and stuctureborne contributions from the main
engine and propellers.
Since the mid 1980s, advances in computer hardware and

software systems have made the accurate prediction of
In terms of noise and vibration levels, the expectations of
acoustics at reasonable cost possible, using numerical
passengers have increased significantly over recent years.
methods such as finite element analysis. These methods are
Noise levels in passenger cabins of less than 45 dB(A) and
very effective for low frequency problems but can involve
vibration levels less than 1.5 mm/s peak have been shown
excessive computational time for higher frequency
to be achievable on modern vessels. Coupled with passenger
calculations on large complex structures such as ships. For
expectations has been a wish by operators to demonstrate
an individual structure, one cannot exactly define the ‘high’
the standards of comfort that have been achieved. In
frequency range but a useful rule of thumb is to consider the
recognition of this, LR has introduced Provisional Rules
ratio of the vibrational wavelength to the overall structural
which give noise and vibration criteria for the assessment of
dimensions. Plunt [9] states that in the case of ships, there
passenger and crew accommodation comfort. The
are 103 to 104 bending wave modes present in the 50 Hz
Provisional Rules acknowledge existing national and
octave band, rising to 105 to 106 in the 1000 Hz octave band.
international standards and specify noise and vibration
levels currently achievable using good engineering practice.
The technique known as Statistical Energy Analysis is
The criteria are based on experience from full-scale
particularly suited to higher frequency problems. It uses a
measurements and comments from owners and shipyards.
statistically-based model in which it is assumed that the flow
Values of noise and vibration have to be verified by
of acoustical energy between two subsystems is proportional
measurements following completion of the ship. Clearly,
to the difference in energy levels between the subsystems.
calculations should be undertaken by the shipbuilder early
Because it is computationally efficient, it is ideally suited for
in the design process in order to have the maximum chance
feasibility studies, sensitivity analyses and design
of meeting the criteria presented in the Provisional Rules.
optimisation during the early stages of a ship design. Figure
Furthermore, TID is able to assist in both the noise and
37 shows part of a model of the after end of a ship with the
vibration computations. Some aspects of vibration
different spaces and boundaries represented as connected
prediction have been presented in earlier sections of this
blocks. The response in a cabin to airborne and structure
paper and the following paragraphs consider noise aspects.
borne noise from the main engine is shown in Figure 38.
The calculation of noise levels at an early stage is a

The acoustic power of a machine is expressed by the sound
particularly important element of the ship design process.
power level, which describes the rate at which energy is
TID has developed a semi-empirical method for this type of
radiated from the sound source. The energy produced results
analysis which combines the practical experience of trial
in sound pressure within the space and this is the parameter
measurements by surveyors with established empirical
which is commonly used when describing an acoustic
formulae. The method has been applied to numerous ships
environment. It is important to note that sound power is
and correlation between predicted and measured values of
independent of the surrounding environment but sound
noise levels is normally in the range 3 to 5 dB. Table 3 presents
pressure is dependent on the acoustic properties of the
the results for a 70 metre motor yacht, taken from [8]. In this
particular space considered.
particular example, some of the calculated noise levels for
the underway condition were higher than the measured
Table 3
Comparison of predicted and measured noise levels (70m yacht)
Noise level, dB(A)
Deck Space Alongside Underway
Predicted Measured Predicted Measured

Lower Engine control room 56 57 76 *55-60
Engine room 96 93-98 101 98-103
Crew cabin (IV L2) 46 50 63 *50
Guest cabin, P fore 45 43 53 *46
Guest cabin, P aft 45 42 52 50
Main Crew mess 45 46 48 49

Dining room 45 44 49 47
Main saloon 45 43 55 *48
Upper Owner’s suite 45 43 47 44
Top VIP suite 45 46 46 45

Outside sitting area 57 59 72 67
*More than 5dB(A) deviation

Funnel 4
Sup. fan noise
Port gen.
room source
Funnel 3
Stbd. gen.
room
Funnel 2
Up. deck
Funnel
Port side
Engine hull
Curt. Upper room
Gen.
Bhd. 17 wall room eng. flat airborne
Engine source
room
Fwd. curt.
wall
Gen. DG flat Low.

room Bhd. 59
eng.
flat
Main
4 generators floor
Engine
struct.
Aft engine
room hull
5764/40
Hull
bottom
Stbd. hull
side
Figure 37
Statistical Energy Analysis Model of Part of the Aft end of a ship
110
100
For noise prediction calculations, it is necessary to determine 90
the sound power of sources such as engines. The traditional 80
70
approach is to measure the sound pressure level directly and
dB (Lin)
60
derive the sound power by making empirical corrections for 50
40
background noise and reverberation conditions. Errors are 30
possible, as demonstrated in the example given above of the 20
10
prediction of noise levels for a yacht. An alternative method 0
is to measure the intensity of sound directly. Sound intensity
31.5
63
125
250
500
1000
2000
4000
8000
may be defined as the rate at which energy flows in a particular

direction through a particular volumetric space. Lloyd’s Octave Band Centre Frequency (Hz)
Register has been assisting CIMAC with the development of
standard methods for taking sound intensity measurements
and calculating sound power levels. These methods have
recently been tested by taking measurements on a ship’s main Figure 38
Response to Airborne and Structure borne noise

engine; Figure 39. The results of these trials showed very good common bulkhead. It is clear from the graph that the sound
consistency when engine conditions were stable. reduction through one of the bulkheads did not achieve the
required specification and, in fact, it had a characteristic
Unless cabins or recreational areas are placed close to similar to the ‘Panel No. 2’ material. Subsequent examination
trunking or machinery spaces, the levels of ambient noise on confirmed that the incorrect panel had been fitted.
cruise ships are unlikely to cause discomfort to passengers.
However, the nature of some noise can be annoying in a It is important that emergency alarms can wake up sleeping
subjective manner. For example, the rattles caused by passengers or crew and that emergency announcements can
vibration of fixtures and fittings or creaking noises due to be clearly heard and understood. Statutory requirements
relative movement of decorative panels and sub-assemblies have been described in previous LRTA Papers [10] and [11]
as the ship flexes in a seaway. Cabins in modern passenger and the International Life Saving Code [12] includes the
ships often have very low levels of background noise but this following performance requirements:
can highlight any deficiencies in sound insulation.
Complaints arise concerning the noise from televisions, The minimum sound pressure levels for the emergency alarm
telephones, conversation or even snoring from adjacent tone in interior and exterior spaces shall be 80 dB(A) and at
cabins. least 10 dB(A) above ambient noise levels existing during
normal equipment operation with the ship underway in
Recently, on one ship where such complaints were received, moderate weather. In cabins without a loudspeaker
investigatory measurements indicated a background noise installation, an electronic alarm transducer shall be installed
level of only 36 dB(A). Tests were conducted to determine e.g. a buzzer or similar.
the mean transmission loss of the bulkheads between sets of
adjacent cabins. This involved TID surveyors placing a The sound pressure levels at the sleeping positions in cabins
source of broadband, or white noise, in one cabin and and in cabin bathrooms shall be at least 75 dB(A) and at least
measuring the sound level pressure at a number of locations 10 dB(A) above ambient noise levels.
in the adjacent cabin. The mean sound transmission loss is
an average value which disguises the fact that the insulation TID surveyors have undertaken measurements on a number
performance varies with frequency and at low frequencies of ships to assess compliance with the Statutory requirements.
the performance is reduced. Figure 40 shows the frequency On vessels where the general alarm bells are located in
characteristics of two panels with different mean corridors, it is often found that the minimum sound pressure
transmission losses. Superimposed on the graph are the levels specified for cabins are not achieved and in these cases
results of measurements taken in two sets of adjacent cabins, the alarm system should be routed into each cabin.
in which the ‘Panel No. 1’ material had been specified for the
Figure 39
Sound Intensity Measurements near a Turbo-charger

60
50
40
Transmission loads (dB)
30
Design data, Panel No 1
20 Measured results, Bulkhead A

(mean TL = 41dB)
Measured results, Bulkhead B

(mean TL = 32dB)
10 Design data panel No 2
0
100 1000 5764/42 10000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 40
Frequency Characteristics of Cabin Bulkhead Panels
The International Life Saving Code [12] also gives If octave band sound pressure level measurements cannot be
performance requirements for public address systems, carried out, LSIL can be approximated by subtracting a value
including the following: of 8 dB from LN,A,L.
With the ship underway in normal conditions, the minimum LSIL = LN,A,L- 8 dB ……………………………………………(2)
sound pressure levels for broadcasting emergency
announcements shall be: where LN,A,L is the equivalent continuous A-weighted sound
pressure level or A-weighted sound pressure level with time
1. In interior spaces 75 dB(A) and at least 20 dB(A) above response ‘slow’ in decibels of the ambient noise at the listener’s
the speech interference level; and position and LN,oct,i is the equivalent continuous sound
pressure level in octave band ‘i’ with time response ‘slow’ in
2. In exterior spaces 80 dB(A) and at least 15 dB(A) above decibels of the ambient noise at the listener’s position.
the speech interference level.
Future legislation may also consider the intelligibility of
The speech interference level is not defined in [12] but BS emergency instructions. The Rapid Speech Transmission
ISO 9921 [13] contains the following definition: Index (RASTI) technique has been developed and provides
a fast method of evaluating the overall intelligibility of
announcements and of detecting areas of the ship with poor
The speech interference level LSIL is calculated as the intelligibility with low resistance against background noise.
arithmetic mean of the sound pressure levels of the ambient A description of this technique is given in [14].
noise in the four octave bands with the central frequencies
500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 2000 Hz and 4000 Hz. Equation (1) Noise emissions from ships manoeuvring into port or whilst
defines this relation. alongside can be considered as a potential source of
environmental pollution. Residents living near a cruise ship
LSIL = 1/4∑ LN,oct,i ……………………………………………(1) terminal located on a small island complained that the noise
emanating from one particular ship while moored alongside
was disturbing. Noise measurements were taken at a number
of locations in the residential area, both with the ship at berth

and with the berth unoccupied. Overall A-weighted sound occurring at 134 rpm, see Figure 41. The propeller shaft speed
pressure levels were considered acceptable but analysis of at which the maximum noise levels were measured
the noise signals when the ship was berthed showed a corresponded to the operating conditions at which crew
distinct peak at 37.5 Hz, in the 40 Hz 1/3 octave band. This complaints had been received. The narrow band noise
gave the noise a tonal characteristic which the residents spectrum at a propeller shaft speed of 134 rpm, additionally
found annoying. The source of the tonal noise was identified detailed in Figure 41, clearly shows the maximum level
as exhaust gas pulses exiting the funnel from the ship’s four occurring at 237 Hz, which corresponded to the fundamental
diesel generators. The frequency of the pulses corresponded geartooth meshing frequency. The spectrum also exhibits
to the firing frequency of the six cylinder, 4 stroke diesel strong tonal components whose frequencies equate to the
engines. Furthermore, pressure measurements on the inlet integer harmonics of the geartooth meshing frequency. As in
and outlet sides of the installed exhaust gas silencers showed the previous example, it was the existence of the dominant
that frequency components less than 50 Hz were not tonal frequency components that was especially disturbing
attenuated effectively by the silencers. An assessment of the in relation to human sensitivity.
generator exhaust gas system dynamic behaviour was made
using LR’s MERLIN diesel engine simulation suite of Metrology data indicated that the main gearwheel had been
programs. This capability was developed for the analysis of manufactured with insufficient tooth tip profile relief. Such
complex thermo-fluid systems such as reciprocating internal a defect results in impulsive forces being generated during
combustion engines. As such, it allows the thermo-fluid the gear meshing sequence with the consequential noise and
dynamics of a particular system in operation to be simulated vibration occurring at frequencies corresponding to the
against time, leading to a functional analysis of the design fundamental and integer harmonics of the tooth passing
details. The predicted results showed good correlation with frequency.
measurements and further simulations were run to
investigate the effect of fitting an additional plenum This investigation, additionally, employed the technique of
downstream of the existing silencer to act as a buffer to synchronous averaging to review the vibration data in the
dampen the pressure pulses. These calculations time domain. This can be particularly valuable in the analysis
demonstrated that such a solution would be effective. The of gearing defects as it enables the vibration signature for any
measurement and calculation results were used by a silencer gear to be extracted accurately from the total vibration signal.
manufacturer to design a secondary silencer which was Figure 42 shows typical results for the pinion at the critical
subsequently fitted in each of the four exhaust trunkings. shaft speed with the vibration data measured in the three
Follow-up measurements confirmed a significant reduction orthogonal planes. A number of salient features are shown
in low frequency noise components and, in particular, the by this analysis which also confirm the observations from the
tonal component. Local residents were reported as being noise measurements:
satisfied with the result.
• The uniformity of the excitation generated by each
The following example outlines an aspect of an investigation successive tooth mesh, indicating a degree of
concerning noise in the accommodation spaces which, at consistency in the gear cutting.
certain operating conditions, had resulted in complaints • The harmonic components at higher orders of the
from the crew. Each propulsion shaftline on this twin screw tooth meshing frequency which indicate that the
vessel comprises a medium speed diesel engine driving a excitation forces are impulsive.
five bladed fixed pitch propeller through a single reduction, • A small 5th order torque fluctuation imposed on
single helical gearbox and develops 6,750 kW at a propeller the gears.
shaft speed of 172 revolutions per minute. During the run-
up trials, in which measurements were taken at propeller
shaft speed increments of between 1 and 2 rpm, the overall
unweighted linear noise levels emanating from the
gearboxes ranged from 94 to 110 dB, with the maximum
Run – up Trial Narrow Band Noise Spectrum at 134 rev/min

120
115
Linear LLeq 110

110
'A' weighted – LAeq
100
105
Sound pressure level (dB)
Sound pressure level (dB)
90
100
80
95
70
90 60
5764/02
57674/33
50
85
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1500 2000
Propeller shaft speed (r/min) Frequency (HZ)
Figure 41
Measured Gearbox Sound Pressure Levels

6
Propeller noise comprises a series of periodic components,
4
or tones, at blade rate and its multiples together with a
spectrum of high-frequency noise due to cavitation and blade
2 boundary layer effects. Within this noise spectrum the blade
Velocity(mm/s)
rate noise is commonly below the audible threshold,

0
although not below sensor detection limits: typically in the
-2
case of a four-bladed propeller operating at 250 rpm, this
gives a blade rate frequency of 16.7 Hz which is just below
-4 the human audible range of about 20-20,000 Hz.
-6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 The propeller in its non-cavitating state, in keeping with other
Angle (degrees)
forms of turbo-machinery, produces a noise signature
comprising distinct tones associated with the blade frequencies
10 together with a broad-band noise at higher frequencies: Figure
43. The broad-band noise comprises components derived from
5 inflow turbulence into the propeller and various edge effects
such as vortex shedding and trailing edge noise.
Velocity(mm/s)
-5
Discrete
-10 tones
Sound pressure level
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Angle (degrees)
Broadband
2 noise
Velocity(mm/s)
5764/07
0
Frequency
-2
-4 Figure 43
Noise Spectrum from a Propeller
5764/03
-6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Angle (degrees)
With regard to the blade rate noise, the propeller is normally
operating behind a vessel and so works in a circumferentially
Figure 42 varying wake field. This causes a fluctuating angle of incidence
Pinion synchronous Averaged Vibration Data to occur on the blade sections, which can be represented as
gust normal to the blade when considered relative to the
propeller blade. From this gust model an expression can be
The propeller is another major potential noise source. There
generated for the far-field radiated source pressure.
are four principal mechanisms by which a propeller can
generate pressure waves in water and hence give rise to a
The analysis of the broad-band components is different. In
noise signature. These are:
the blade rate problem, the unsteadiness is caused by the
circumferential variation in the wake field; however, in the
• The displacement of the water by the propeller
inlet turbulence case we need to consider the level of
blade profile;
turbulence in the incident flow. This implies that the wake
• The pressure difference between the suction and
harmonics associated with this feature become a function of
pressure surfaces of the propeller blade when they
time and not necessarily just the analysis position in the
are rotating;
propeller disc. To accommodate this feature, the turbulence
• The periodic fluctuation of the cavity volumes
velocity spectrum has to be incorporated into the analysis
caused by operation of the blades in the variable
procedure to describe the flow and derive an expression for
wake field behind the vessel;
the radiated pressure due to this component. Trailing edge
• The sudden collapse process associated with the
noise is perhaps the least well understood of the broad-band
life of a cavitation bubble or vortex.
noise mechanisms, since it involves a detailed knowledge of
the flow around the trailing edge of the sections. The role of
The first two causes are associated with the propeller in either
viscosity within the boundary layer is a crucial parameter in
its cavitating or non-cavitating state but, nevertheless, are
estimating the levels of radiated noise produced, and is an
non-cavitating effects only. The latter two causes are
effect which is at present the subject of much research. Blake
cavitation dependent phenomena. Propeller noise can,
[15], however, gives an appreciation of the relative levels of
therefore, be considered as comprising two principal
trailing edge and inlet turbulence noise which is reproduced
constituents: a non-cavitating and a cavitating component.
in Figure 44.

160
Inlet Properties of sound contributing
Type of cavitation
turbulence to the discrete spectrum
150 0 1
Radiated noise level
Sheet
140
Cloud
130 Tip vortex

Trailing edge
Hub vortex
turbulence
120 Mid – chord
bubble
Root
102 103 104
1 0
Frequency (Hz) 5764/08
Proportion of sound contrbuting
to the continuous spectrum
Figure 44 5764/06
Turbulence Noise Levels
Figure 45
Contribution of Cavitation Types to the Propeller Noise
Spectrum
In addition to the foregoing effects, there are also hydro-

elastic and fouling effects which need consideration in
non-cavitating noise terms. The noise emitted by a cavitating propeller depends on the
type of cavitation present at the particular operating
The collapse of cavitation bubbles creates shock waves and condition. For example, back, face, hub and tip vortex
hence noise. This is essentially white noise covering a cavitation types all have different noise signatures. Figure
frequency band up to around 1 MHz. From the theoretical 45, shows in a schematic way the relative contribution of
viewpoint, the problem of noise radiation by cavitation was different cavitation types to the sound power spectrum, [16].
approached, until recently, from the behaviour of a single Hence an appreciation can be gained of the influence a
cavitation bubble such that the bubble dynamics were particular cavitation type has on either the continuous or
considered in a variable pressure field; for example, along the discrete spectrum.
surface of a propeller blade section. Under these conditions
the bubble will undergo volume fluctuations and as a Propeller blade singing is a troublesome phenomena that
consequence radiate acoustic energy. Using this approach the affects some propellers, and its incidence on a particular
spectral power density of a set of bubbles becomes the product design is unpredictable within the bounds of present analysis
of the number of bubbles per unit time and the spectral energy capabilities. It is quite likely that, and indeed known, that
density due to the growth and collapse of a single bubble; two propellers can be manufactured to the same design and
assuming that the bubbles occur as random events. Such one propeller will sing whilst the other will not. On twin
models, however, only partially predict the real behaviour of screw ships of the type forming the subject of this paper,
cavitating propeller blades and tend to fail in their prediction singing generally produces a high-pitched warbling noise
capability at very high bubble densities. such as might be expected from an incorrectly set machining
operation on a lathe. The noise may be intermittent or may
Most propeller noise prediction is done using model have an apparent period of about once per revolution, most
propellers operating in a cavitation tunnel. At present the frequently the latter. Furthermore, it is unlikely that singing
inability of theoretical methods to take account of the will occur throughout the whole range of propeller loading
detailed boundary layer and cavitation dynamics tend to but will occur only within certain specific revolution ranges.
preclude them from use, notwithstanding their requirement There is the classic example in this respect of some
for large computational facilities. Noise measurements are controllable pitch propellers which, when working at slightly
now a regular feature of many cavitation tunnel test reduced pitch settings will sing for a short period of time.
programmes. The purpose of these tests can be to compare
the noise spectra derived from different load conditions for Singing is caused by a vortex shedding mechanism in the
the same propeller or comparisons between different turbulent and separated part of the boundary layer on the
propellers, or the full-scale prediction of the noise spectra blade surface exciting the higher-mode frequencies of the
under different characteristic load conditions for any blade and particularly those associated with blade edge
particular design. However, when a noise study is modes. The cure is to introduce a chamfer to the trailing edge
undertaken in a cavitation tunnel the presence of the walls of the blade and to ensure that the knuckle of the chamfer
of the tunnel influence the results to an extent that the results and trailing edge wedge are sharp [17]. The purpose of this
are not, without correction, representative of the free field edge form is to deliberately disrupt the boundary layer
conditions. As a consequence of this a correction factor has growth in the trailing edge region and hence alleviate the
to be developed by substituting a calibrated noise source in effects of the vortex shedding mechanism. The anti-singing
place of the propeller. edge is normally defined between the geometric tip of the
propeller and a radial location of around 0.4R on the trailing

edge, where it is then faired into the normal edge detail. The
anti-singing edge is applied to the suction surface of the
blade; there are, however, some anti-singing edge forms
which are applied to both sides of the blade at the trailing
edge. These latter forms are used less frequently since the
flow on the suction face of the blade, as it separates earlier,
is the most likely cause of the singing problem. It has been
found that on occasions with highly skewed propellers it is
necessary to extend the anti-singing edge forward by a small
amount from the geometric tip onto the leading edge of the
blade in order to cure a singing problem. This extension,
however, should be done with caution so as not to introduce
unwanted cavitation problems which result due to a
sharpened leading edge. When this extension of the anti-
singing edge has been found necessary the cure of the singing
problem has been completely satisfactory. Furthermore, in
the case of highly skewed fixed pitch propellers the anti-
singing edge should not be extended too far down the trailing
edge of the blade since the trailing edge often experiences
the highest blade stresses in both the ahead and astern
operating conditions. As such, any anti-singing edge design
needs to be undertaken in the context of the computed
general blade stress distributions for both these conditions.

7 Condition Monitoring On one ship it was noticed that the overall vibration of the
turbine bearings at maximum power had increased after
seven years of stable readings, see Figure 46. On inspection
it was found that some of the holding down bolts securing
the turbine had slackened off. There was also some concern
about the effectiveness of the turbine’s sliding feet so after
Lloyd’s Register’s primary interest in machinery condition
re-tightening the bolts, the relative movement of the feet was
monitoring is in using the techniques to enhance survey
measured, together with bearing vibration. A significant
procedures, so that the required levels of safety are obtained
reduction in vibration was achieved, see Figure 46.
in the most cost effective way to ship operators. Providing
Expansion of the sliding feet was shown to be uniform as the
that there is an effective alternative system in place that gives
propeller shaft speed was increased, Figure 47, and the total
an equivalent level of safety, the dismantling of machinery
movement after stable operating temperatures had been
purely to satisfy a prescriptive and rigid survey regime can
achieved was 4.5mm and 5.3 mm for the two main turbines.
be avoided. For example, condition assessment based on
periodic vibration monitoring, limited visual inspection and
On another ship, the danger of introducing a problem by
a performance trial, has been accepted as an alternative to
disturbing a machine that is operating satisfactorily was
opening up steam turbines for many years. In many cases
illustrated. In this case it was decided to remove a turbine
TID have been asked to undertake the required bearing
rotor for inspection and cleaning despite there being no
vibration measurements. Vibration is not only measured
indications from vibration and performance data of any
during maximum operating conditions but also during a
deterioration. Unfortunately, vigorous cleaning resulted in a
controlled speed increase trial. In this way, resonant
large change in rotor balance and subsequent problems in
responses of the machinery can be identified and used as an
the balancing procedure resulted in a delay to the ship.
additional indicator of changes in condition.
Vibration velocity (mm/s RMS)
Vertical
20
15 Unsatisfactory zone
10
0
Dec 85
Dec 86
Dec 87
Dec 88
Dec 89
Dec 90
Dec 91
Dec 92
Dec 93
Dec 94
Date
Overall
20
Transverse
10
0
Dec 85
Dec 86
Dec 87
Dec 88
Dec 89
Dec 90
Dec 91
Dec 92
Dec 93
Dec 94
Date
Overall
Longitudinal
20
10
0
Dec 85
Dec 86
Dec 87
Dec 88
Dec 89
Dec 90
Dec 91
Dec 92
Dec 93
Dec 94
5764/05
Date
Figure 46
Port Turbine Forward Bearing – Overall Vibration Trends at 114 r.p.m.

4
Starboard turbine
Movement of sliding feet (mm)
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Propeller shaft speed (rev/min)
4 Port turbine
Movement of sliding feet (mm)
5764/04
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Propeller shaft speed (rev/min)
Note : Expansion of sliding feet 9 hours after completion of run up:
Starboard turbine – 5.3 mm
Port turbine 4.3 mm
Figure 47
Movement of Sliding Feet during a run up of the Main Turbines
TID surveyors have carried out research and development marine community. One of the reasons for this is that the
work into condition monitoring since the early 1980s, benefits claimed, and in practice this means the cost savings,
culminating in the design and development of condition have not been achieved. Many of the technical deficiencies
monitoring systems and in practical experience of the in early systems have been overcome, although the goal of
effectiveness of different monitoring techniques [18]. TID producing a reliable automatic diagnosis system remains. A
surveyors have installed vibration based condition major barrier at present is that condition monitoring data is
monitoring systems on a variety of container ships, gas not always acted upon; for example, by modifying
carriers, oil tankers, Ro/Ro ferries and cruise ships. In one maintenance according to the machine’s condition. The
recent installation, measurements on 271 machines were solution is the better use of all sources of existing condition
made; Figure 48. Faults were found on 15 machines that data and better integration with maintenance management
related to imbalance, looseness, damage to rolling element systems. A typical engine control room may have
bearings, misalignment and gear meshing. The vibration computerised systems for alarm and monitoring, planned
monitoring system comprises operating software and a maintenance, condition monitoring, combustion analysis
portable data collector, which is also used to record process and piston ring monitoring. Further information may be in
parameters such as pressure and load current. The software the form of lubricating oil analysis results, boiler water tests
may also be used to store thermographic images and and classification survey reports; Figure 49. There is also a
lubricating oil analysis data. need to maximise the cost savings from modified survey
requirements, and the classification societies, in conjunction
The use of predictive technology and condition-based with machinery manufacturers, have an opportunity to lead
maintenance have not gained widespread acceptance in the in this area.

Figure 49
Sources of Machinery Information
Figure 48
Condition Monitoring Measurements being taken on a Pump on
board a Cruise Ship

8 Concluding Remarks 9 Acknowledgements
This Paper, forming as it does one of a pair of papers dealing The Authors wish to thank the Committee of Lloyd’s Register
with single and twin screw ships, considers a range of for permission to publish this Paper. Thanks are also due to
problems and some of the technologies associated with twin the Authors’ many colleagues in the Technical Investigation
screw ships. Within the Paper, forty or so examples of failure Department, both past and present, who have contributed to
scenarios have been cited along with the newer technologies work described in the Paper.
which are beginning to be used more widely.
It is to be hoped that the full scale problems experienced will

stimulate ideas for research and that surveyors will, together
with the other similar published papers from TID, find these
experiences of use in their daily work.

10 References 14. Carlton, J.S., Fitzsimmons, P.A. and Holland, C.G.,

“Machinery Induced Vibration and Noise in Ships –
Some Considerations Based on Full Scale
Measurements, Analysis and Research”, 3rd Int. Mar.
Eng. Conference, Shanghai, 1996.
1. “Provisional Rules – Passenger and Crew

15. Blake, W.K., “Aero-Hydroacoustics for Ships”, Vols I
Accommodation Comfort”, Lloyd’s Register,
and II. DTNSRDC Rep. No.84/010, June, 1984.
February, 1999.
16. Baiter, H.J., “Advanced Views of Cavitation Noise”,
2. Quast, D., “Lateral Vibration Analysis of Marine
Int. Symp. on Propulsors and Cavitation, Hamburg,
Propulsion Shaft Systems in the Time Domain”. MSc.
1992.
Thesis, Delft University, 1998.
17. Lammeren, W.P.A. van, in Discussion to Burrill, L.C.,
3. “TID 50 Years of Experience”, Anniversary
“Underwater Propeller Vibration Tests”, Trans.
Presentation Book, Lloyd’s Register, 1997.
NECIES, 1949.
4. Carlton, J.S. and Bantham, I., “The Technical

18. Carlton, J.S., Holland, C.G., Newbury, M.J., Rhoden,
Investigation Department: 50 Years of Operation”,
D. and Triner, D.A., “Condition Monitoring of Marine
LRTA, Paper No. 1, Session 1997/8.
Machinery – Recent Research and Operational
Experience”, LRTA, Paper No. 6, Session 1994/95.
5. Carlton, J.S., “Marine propellers and Propulsion”,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994.
6. ISO 484/1, “Shipbuilding – Ship Screw Propellers –

Manufacturing Tolerances – Part 1: Propellers of
Diameter Greater than 2.50m”, 1981.
7. ISO 484/2, “Shipbuilding – Ship Screw Propellers –

Manufacturing Tolerances – Part 2: Propellers of
Diameter between 0.80 and 2.50m Inclusive”, 1981.
8. Holland, C.G. and Wong, S.F., “Noise Prediction and

Correlation with Full Scale Measurements in Ships”,
Trans. I.Mar.E., March, 1995.
9. Plunt, J., “Methods For Predicting Noise Levels in

Ships; Experiences From Empirical and SEA
Calculation Methods”, Department of Building
Acoustics, Chalmers University, Gothenburg. Report
80 – 07; 1980.
10. Brown, G.W., “Amendments to Chapter III of SOLAS

and the Introduction of the International Life Saving
Code”, LRTA, Paper No. 5, Session 1995/6.
11. Hawkins, S.W., Magill, C.M. and Polderman, J.,

“Passenger Ship Safety – A Review of Convention
Requirements and LR Survey Procedures”, LRTA,
Paper No. 7, Session 1996/7.
12. The International Life-Saving Appliance (LSA) Code,

adopted by the Maritime Safety Committee by
Resolution MSC 48(66).
13. BS ISO 9921-1:1996, “Ergonomic assessment of speech

communication – Part 1: Speech interference level
and communication distances for persons with
normal hearing capacity in direct communication
(SIL method)”.

Aspects of Twin Screw Technology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aspects of Twin Screw Technology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

LRTA Paper No.

6 (1998 30/9/99 16:07 Page i

Aspects of Twin Screw Ship

by J. S. Carlton and C. G. Holland

The authors of this paper retain the right of subsequent

Written contributions to the discussion of this paper are

© Lloyd’s Register of Shipping 1999. All rights reserved.

Enquiries should be addressed to Lloyd’s Register of

H ONORARY S ECRETARY, LR T ECHNICAL A SSOCIATION

Aspects of Twin Screw

Mr Holland served an engineering design appraisal and the investigation of

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 1

In addition to the results of investigation work, a proportion

A complimentary paper relating to single screw ships will be

2 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

2 Machinery manoeuvring at speed, little effect of these loadings is usually

Figure 1(a) Figure 1(b)

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 3

10 Degree Port Helm

Vertical movement (mm)

Overall 1st order

Vertical movement (mm)

Overall 1st order

4 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

ferry was powered by two high speed diesel engines each

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 5

6 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 7

8 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

Specific Fuel Consumption kg/kW.hr

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 9

Distance along Blade Tip

10 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 11

Flow problems with twin screw ships sometimes manifest

The axial and in-plane wake fields of modern cruise ships in

12 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

Bearing load vectors

induce a significant side load having, in some cases, a strong

vectors in a model tank and secondly, to properly scale the

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 13

These methods are used to distinguish correctly between Κp Pressure amplitude at

14 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

Propeller tip vortex cavitation is, in the majority of cases, the

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 15

Non – dimensional erosion depth (mm)

Erosion depth (mm)

Figure 22(a) Figure 22(b)

16 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99

LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99 17

Mean Pitch Power absorption Cavitation extent

Local section pitch Cavitation inception Power absorption

Section thickness Cavitation inception Power absorption

General section form Power absorption, Blade strength

Section chord length Cavitation inception Blade strength,

Blade form and relative Generally small effects on –

Leading edge form Critical to cavitation inception –

Rake and axial position Minor mechanical vibratory forms –

Surface finish Blade section drag and hence –

Static balance Shaft vibratory loads

S High-speed craft with a speed greater than 25 knots;

1 General merchant vessels; deep sea trawlers; tugs, ferries

2 Low-power, low-speed craft, typically inshore fishing vessels,

18 LR Technical Association: Paper No. 6, Session 1998–99