PDB1012

Introduction to Oil & Gas Industry

and Sustainable Development

TOPIC 2 : Introduction to Oil & Gas Exploration

Lecture Outline
• Origin of Petroleum
o Rock Cycle
o Sedimentary basins
o Conventional and unconventional reservoirs
• Petroleum System
o Source rock
o Reservoir rock
o Seal Rock
o Overburden rock
• Exploration Techniques
o Magnetic techniques
o Gravimetric survey
o Seismic method
• Exploration and Appraisal Well
Origin of Petroleum
o Rock cycle
o Sedimentary basins
o Conventional and unconventional reservoirs
Origin of Petroleum
ROCK CYCLE

o Source :
http://www.cotf.edu/ete/mod
ules/msese/earthsysflr/rock.h
tml
Origin of Petroleum
ROCK CYCLE

• The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into
metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock.
Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock.
• Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot liquid made of melted
minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they cool. Igneous rock can form underground,
where the magma cools slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools
quickly.
• When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same liquid rock matter that
you see coming out of volcanoes.
Origin of Petroleum
ROCK CYCLE

• On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also carry rock pieces to
another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a
layer. The layer can be buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the sediments
can be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become
sedimentary rock.
• All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside Earth there is heat from
pressure and friction. There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives us nuclear
power plants that make electricity).
Origin of Petroleum
ROCK CYCLE

• So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock.
• Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has crystals already, it forms
larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is called metamorphic. Metamorphosis can occur in
rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.
• When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they collide, they build
mountains and metamorphose the rock.
• The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be broken up and washed
away by streams. New sediments from these mountains can make new sedimentary rock.
• The rock cycle never stops.
Origin of Petroleum
World Sedimentary Basins

Deep water Shallow water - offshore Shallow water - onshore Cratonic areas
Origin of Petroleum
SEDIMENTARY BASINS

• The official definition of a sedimentary basin is: a low area in the Earth’s crust, of tectonic origin,
in which sediments accumulate. Sedimentary basins range in size from as small as hundreds of
meters to large parts of ocean basins. The essential element of the concept is tectonic creation of
relief, to provide both a source of sediment and a relatively low place for the deposition of that
sediment.
• Source : https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/earth-atmospheric-and-planetary-sciences/12-110-sedimentary-geology-
spring-2007/lecture-notes/ch11.pdf

• A depression in the crust of the Earth formed by plate tectonic activity in which sediments
accumulate. Continued deposition can cause further depression or subsidence. Sedimentary
basins, or simply basins, vary from bowl-shaped to elongated troughs. If rich hydrocarbon source
rocks occur in combination with appropriate depth and duration of burial, hydrocarbon
generation can occur within the basin.
• Source : http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/s/sedimentary_basin.aspx
Origin of Petroleum
CONVENTIONAL AND UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS

o Source : https://www.croftsystems.net/oil-gas-blog/conventional-vs.-
unconventional
 Origin of Petroleum
CONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
• Conventional oil and gas is simply known as the
traditional way to drill for raw natural gas, crude
oil, and petroleum. After a well is drilled, oil and
gas is extracted by the natural pressure from the
wells and pumping operations. Over time, the well
may decrease in production. At this time, a
conventional well will use an artificial lift or water
and gas injections to help increase production.
• After production gets to a point where the profits
of oil are not enough to cover expenses, the well
will usually stop production. If methods beyond an
artificial lift or classic methods are used to increase
production, then it would be classified at
unconventional oil.
 Origin of Petroleum
UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS
• Sometimes unconventional drilling methods are
used due to increasing scarcity of retrieving oil and
gas using conventional methods. Not always, is the
oil and gas available to be retrieved by drilling and
pressure naturally allowing the flow of gas.
• In this case, unconventional drilling comes in
handy. Unconventional is a method that allows to
drill down, drill horizontally, and fracking occurs.
• This allows oil and gas to be flowing from tight
sands that we normally could not retrieve with
conventional methods of drilling.
Petroleum System
o Source rock
o Reservoir rock
o Seal rock
o Overburden rock
Petroleum System
SOURCE ROCK

o A rock rich in organic matter which, if heated sufficiently, will generate oil or gas. Typical
source rocks, usually shales or limestones, contain about 1% organic matter and at least
0.5% total organic carbon (TOC), although a rich source rock might have as much as 10%
organic matter.
o Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial source rocks (such as
coal) tend to be gas-prone. Preservation of organic matter without degradation is critical
to creating a good source rock, and necessary for a complete petroleum system.
o Under the right conditions, source rocks may also be reservoir rocks, as in the case of
shale gas reservoirs.
Petroleum System

Source : http://spe-sc.ft.ugm.ac.id/w/source-rock-and-kerogen/
Petroleum System
RESERVOIR ROCK

o A reservoir rock is a place that oil migrates to and is held underground. A sandstone has
plenty of room inside itself to trap oil, just like a sponge has room inside of itself to soak
up spills in your kitchen.
o It is for this reason that sandstones are the most common reservoir rocks. Limestones
and dolostones, some of which are the skeletal remains of ancient coral reefs, are other
examples of reservoir rocks.
Petroleum System
RESERVOIR ROCK

o Here we see what a reservoir rock would

look like through a magnifying lens. The
yellow objects represent sand grains that
are packed together.
o Notice, however, the purple areas between
the sand grains. These areas (also known
as "pore spaces") are where the oil fits into
the rock. In a very "porous" rock (one with
many pore spaces), oil can move freely
through these spaces.
o Source :
https://www.priweb.org/ed/pgws/systems
/reservoir/reservoir.html
Petroleum System
SEAL ROCK

o Also known as cap rock

o A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or
cap above and around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the
reservoir. A seal is a critical component of a complete petroleum system. The
permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8
darcies.
o Source : http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/s/seal.aspx
Petroleum System
SEAL ROCK

o Source :
https://wattsupwiththat.com/2017/0
2/18/oil-where-did-it-come-from/
Petroleum System
OVERBURDEN ROCK

o Overburden rock is the total stratigraphic section above the source rock. The thickness
and age of overburden rock provides a history of the rate of burial of a source rock
toward and through the increasing temperature domains of the basin. This includes the
range of temperatures necessary for cracking kerogens into hydrocarbons.
o Source : http://wiki.aapg.org/East_Breaks_overburden_rock
Petroleum System
OVERBURDEN ROCK

o Source :
https://www.slideshare.net/vinayv
arghese/introduction-to-ep
Exploration Techniques
o Magnetic techniques
o Gravimetric survey
o Seismic method
Exploration Techniques
MAGNETIC TECHNIQUES

o The magnetic method is the study of the distribution of magnetic minerals in the upper
20-30km of the earth's crust. The magnetic method may also be used to estimate the
thickness of the crust or to constrain temperatures in the crust using the Curie isotherm
(the temperatures at which minerals lose their strong magnetic properties), whichever is
shallower.
o Magnetic measurements in geophysical exploration record variations in the magnetic
field due to lateral variability in the magnetization of the crust.
o The lateral variation may produce anomalous regions which are indicative of structural
or lithological contrasts in the subsurface.
o These data can be collected at the earth's surface, from the air, the sea or in a borehole
environment.
o Source : http://en.openei.org/wiki/Magnetic_Techniques
Exploration Techniques
MAGNETIC TECHNIQUES

o Magnetic anomalies from 2006

airborne magnetic survey over the
Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand.
o Source :
http://en.openei.org/wiki/Magnetic_
Techniques
Exploration Techniques
GRAVIMETRIC SURVEY

o Gravimetry was one of the first geophysical methods to be used in exploring for oil and
gas. As the name suggest, this method uses accurate measurements of the Earth's
gravitational field to locate horizontal and vertical variations in the density of subsurface
rocks.
o The precondition is that the geological structures have to be distinguishable through
clear differences in density.
o Gravimetric surveys are carried out using extremely sensitive instruments capable of
measuring tiny variations in the gravitational field.
o Geophysical surveys are performed with gravimeters and are always accompanied by a
high-precision topographic survey.
o Source : https://www.dea-group.com/en/technology/exploration/gravimetry-magnetics-
and-electromagnetics
Exploration Techniques
• Gravimetry applications include:
• Regional geological mapping;
• Detection of karsts and voids;
• The determination or improvement of terrestrial
geoid;
• The oil and gas exploration
• Mineral exploration;
• Measurements of sediment thickness;
• The archaeological surveys.

Source : https://www.dea-
group.com/en/technology/exploration/gravime
try-magnetics-and-electromagnetics
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD

o Seismic ground geophysical methods are techniques based on the study of the
propagation of seismic waves. The techniques outlined below involve variations in
data acquisition and processing, the choice of which will depend on the project
goal. Each technique can yield new insights into the subsurface.
o Refraction
o Reflection
o Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)
o Resonance
o Borehole

Source : http://ground.geophysicsgpr.com/en/ground-geophysics-techniques/seismic-ground-geophysics-methods
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD : Refraction

• The seismic refraction method involves

measuring the shortest time required for an
induced seismic pulse to travel from the
source location to a series of receivers.
• From this travel time data, seismic velocities
and layer depths can be calculated.
• Seismic refraction remains the preferred
method for accurately mapping the depth to
competent bedrock under most conditions.
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD : Reflection

• The seismic reflection method involves inducing

a seismic wave into the earth and recording the
waves that are reflected from sub-surface
layers. Seismic reflection is ideal for mapping
geology at depths exceeding 50 m.
• Deep seismic reflection surveying is the most
advanced technique in geophysics today, thanks
to its application on a huge scale for oil and gas
exploration.
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD : Multi-channel
Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW)

• The Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves

(MASW) is a seismic method used to evaluate
the shear-wave velocities of subsurface
materials through the analysis of the dispersion
properties of Rayleigh surface waves ("ground
roll").
• The data are collected on the surface without
the need of borehole. MASW data collection
may be extended to 2D or 3D profiling/imaging.
• The MASW seismic method allows to obtain the
shear wave velocity (Vs) distribution in the
ground and bedrock. It can be applied as a 1D
sounding or as 2D profiles.
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD : Resonance

• The seismic resonance, or TISAR (Testing &

Imaging using Seismic Acoustic Resonance)
method is a new technique based on the
frequency analysis of seismic records for high
resolution seismic investigation. It considers the
seismic resonance within the signal.
• The method was originally developed for
geological sub-surface profiling (1 to 15 m
deep); however it has been shown to be
effective for ranges smaller than 0.1 m for
testing of concrete/asphalt structures, as well
as for 100 m deep geological investigations.
Exploration Techniques
SEISMIC METHOD : Borehole

• Borehole seismic surveys can be carried out in several

different ways. The Down-hole technique consists of
measuring the arrival of seismic waves emitted from the
surface in increments down the borehole.
• The Cross-hole technique uses a seismic source located in
an adjacent borehole. The receiver in both cases is a
tri-axial geophone. This enables profiles of seismic
velocities from compressional (P) waves as well as shear
(S) waves to be obtained.
• Accurate 2-D maps of seismic velocity variations between
boreholes can be produced by processing the data using
specialised software.
• Borehole seismic techniques include down-hole, cross-
hole and seismic tomography methodologies.
Exploration Techniques

SEISMIC TECHNOLOGY VALUE CHAIN

Exploration and Appraisal Well
EXPLORATION WELL

• An exploration well is a deep hole that is drilled into the Earth’s surface with the aim of
locating a new source of hydrocarbons such as oil and natural gas.
• Drilling of an exploration well poses a risk to the company, as it is uncertain how much the
company will reap from the new source. Every new oil well was an exploration well at some
point.
• Exploration depends on the technology that is used to detect and determine the amount of
these deposits using exploration geophysics.
• Source : https://www.petropedia.com/definition/6014/exploration-well
Exploration and Appraisal Well
APPRAISAL WELL

• An appraisal well is a vertical or deviated well that is drilled so as to understand the potential
of a hydrocarbon reservoir before commercial production of oil from a well can commence.
• The drilling of this well is an important part of the exploration and production activities of an
organization. In the chronology of asset development program, appraisal drilling is performed
before starting the commercial production.
• During field appraisal programs, appraisal wells are drilled in order to ensure that the
discoveries made during exploration field have enough hydrocarbons that can last long and
give an economic appreciation to the organization findings.
• Once the appraisal wells are drilled they provide information such as physical extent of
hydrocarbons, likely production rate from the field, flow of fluids and volume of fluids, etc.
• Source : https://www.petropedia.com/definition/4584/appraisal-well
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