1) Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules

a) Lipids are the one class of large biological molecules that does not include true polymers,
and they are generally not big enough to be considered macromolecules. The compounds
called lipids are grouped with each other because they share one important trait: They are
hydrophobic: They mix poorly, if at all, with water. This behavior of lipids is based on their
molecular structure. Although they may have some polar bonds associated with oxygen,
lipids consist mostly of hydro-carbon regions with relatively non-polar C—H bonds. Lipids
are varied in form and function.

b) Lipids can be divided into two broad categories.

• Fats are solid at room temperature. Most fats are derived from animal sources.
• Oils are liquid at room temperature. Most plant lipids are oils.
We will focus on the types of lipids that are most important biologically: fats, phospholipids,
and steroids.

c) Fatty Acids

Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are long chains of carbon atoms bound to hydrogens, with
a carboxyl (–COOH) or “acid” group at one end of the chain.

Palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
H3C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbons, so they

are “saturated” with hydrogens. The more saturated a fatty acid is, the
more likely it is to be solid at room temperature.

Oleic acid, a monounsaturated fatty acid

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
H3C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

Monounsaturated fatty acids have one double bond between two of

the carbons in the chain. For each double bond, the molecule has two
fewer hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon chain.

Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated fatty acid

H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
H3C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
OH
H H H H H H H H H H

Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double bonds between

carbons in the chain.
d) How are Lipids or fats formed?

Formation of Lipids Although fats are not polymers, they are large molecules
CH2OH Glycerol is a simple 3-carbon molecule assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions,
that makes up the backbone of most like the dehydration reaction. A fat consists of a glycerol
HO CH lipids.
molecule joined to three fatty acids .
CH2OH Glycerol + Fatty acid

Glycerol plus one

GLYCEROL
fatty acid produces Monoglyceride
a monoglyceride.

Fatty acid

Glycerol plus two

fatty acids produces Diglyceride
GLYCEROL
a diglyceride. Fatty acid

Fatty acid

Glycerol plus three Triglyceride

GLYCEROL

fatty acids produces

a triglyceride Fatty acid
(triacylglycerol). Fatty acid
More than 90% of
lipids are in the form Fatty acid
of triglycerides.

. Figure 5.9 The synthesis and structure of a fat, or

triacylglycerol. The molecular building blocks of a fat are one
molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. The Ester linkage
carbons of the fatty acids are arranged zigzag to suggest the actual
orientations of the four single bonds extending from each carbon H O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
(see Figures 4.3a and 4.6b). H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C OH C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C O H H H H H H
HO H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H C O C C C C C C C H
H C OH C C C C C C C
H H H H H H
H2O Fatty acid H H H H H H H
H C OH
(in this case, palmitic acid)
O H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H
H
H C O C C C C C C C C H
C C C C C C C C
Glycerol H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
(a) One of three dehydration reactions in the synthesis of a fat.
One water molecule is removed for each fatty acid joined to (b) A fat molecule (triacylglycerol) with three fatty acid units.
the glycerol. In this example, two of the fatty acid units are identical.
 e) Saturated and unsaturated fats and fatty acids. (b) Unsaturated fat

(a) Saturated fat At room temperature, the molecules of

an unsaturated fat such as olive oil
At room temperature, the molecules of cannot pack together closely enough to
a saturated fat, such as the fat in solidify because of the kinks in some of
butter, are packed closely together, their fatty acid hydrocarbon chains.
forming a solid.

Structural formula of a H O
saturated fat molecule H C O C
(Each hydrocarbon chain O H O
is represented as a zigzag H C O C
line, where each bend H C O C
O
represents a carbon atom; Structural formula of an
O
hydrogens are not H C O C
unsaturated fat molecule H C O C
shown.) H O
H C O C
H
Space-filling model of
stearic acid, a saturated
fatty acid (red = oxygen, Space-filling model of oleic
black = carbon, gray = acid, an unsaturated fatty
hydrogen) acid

Cis double bond

causes bending.

f) Phospholipids
Phospholipids have 2 fatty acids
and a phosphate group (–H2PO4).
Cholesterol and phospholipids are
important components of animal
cell membranes.
GLYCEROL
Cells as we know them could not exist without another type
of lipid, called phospholipids. Phospholipids are essential
for cells because they are major constituents of cell mem-
branes. Their structure provides a classic example of how
form fits function at the molecular level. A phospholipid is
similar to a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids

attached to glycerol rather than three. The third hydroxyl

Fatty acid
group of glycerol is joined to a phosphate group, which has a
negative electrical charge in the cell. Typically, an additional
Fatty acid
P small charged or polar mol-ecule is also linked to the
phosphate group. Choline is one such molecule, but there
Phosphate are many others as well, allowing formation of a variety of
group phospholipids that differ from each other.

hydrophilic
head

Figure 11–5 Cell membranes are packed

hydrophobic
tails
with phospholipids. A typical membrane
phospholipid molecule has a hydrophilic
head and two hydrophobic tails.
 g) Fats vs phospholipids

(a) Fats form via dehydration reactions. (b) Phospholipids include a hydrophilic head.
Glycerol CH3
H H H H H H Choline
H3C N+ CH3
H C C C H H C C C H H2C CH2
OH OH OH O O O O
Ester Phosphate
linkages C O C O C O Charged or –O P O
HO O polar head
H2O (hydrophilic) O
C Glycerol
Dehydration
reaction H

H2C C CH2
Free fatty acid
O O

O C C O

Nonpolar tail
(hydrophobic)

Figure 6.4 Fats and Phospholipids Differ in the Presence of

a Hydrophilic Region. (a) Fats form when dehydration reactions
connect glycerol to three fatty acids and produce ester linkages.
(b) Most phospholipids consist of glycerol linked to only two fatty
acid or isoprenoid chains. Unlike fats, the third hydroxyl in glycerol
is attached to a phosphate group and a small polar or charged
organic molecule (in this example, choline).

Schematic Space-filling
h) Example Phosphatidylcholine Structure
CH2 N+(CH3)3
CHOLINE
polar CH2
(hydrophilic) O
head PHOSPHATE _
O P O

O
GLYCEROL CH2 CH CH2
O O
C O C O
1 2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
HYDROCARBON TAIL

CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH2
nonpolar double
(hydrophobic) CH2 CH
bond
tails CH2 CH
CH2 CH2
HY

CH2
CH2
DR

CH2
OC

CH2
CH2
AR

CH2 CH2
BO

CH2 CH2
N
TA

CH2 CH2
I L

CH3
CH2
CH3

(A) (B)

Figure 11–6 Phosphatidylcholine is the most common phospholipid in cell membranes. It is represented
schematically in (A), as a chemical formula in (B). This particular phospholipid is built from five parts: the hydrophilic
head, which consists of choline linked to a phosphate group; two hydrocarbon chains, which form the hydrophobic
tails; and a molecule of glycerol, which links the head to the tails. Each of the hydrophobic tails is a fatty acid—a
hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl (–COOH) group at one end; glycerol attaches via this carboxyl group, as shown in
(B). A kink in one of the hydrocarbon chains occurs where there is a double bond between two carbon atoms. (The
“phosphatidyl” part of the name of a phospholipid refers to the phosphate–glycerol–fatty acid portion of the
molecule.)

i) Steroids
Steroids are lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton con- . Figure 5.12 Cholesterol, a steroid. Cholesterol is the molecule
from which other steroids, including the sex hormones, are
sisting of four fused rings. Different steroids are distinguished
synthesized. Steroids vary in the chemical groups attached to their
by the particular chemical groups attached to this ensemble four interconnected rings (shown in gold).
of rings. Cholesterol, a type of steroid, is a crucial molecule
H 3C CH3
in animals (Figure 5.12). It is a common component of ani-
mal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which CH3
CH3
other steroids, such as the vertebrate sex hormones, are syn-
thesized. In vertebrates, cholesterol is synthesized in the liver CH3
and is also obtained from the diet. A high level of cholesterol
in the blood may contribute to atherosclerosis, although
some researchers are questioning the roles of cholesterol and
HO
saturated fats in the development of this condition.