CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SOIL ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

The soil environment consists of a variety of physical, biological and chemical factors that
affect the abundance and diversity of microbes found in the soil. At its basic level, the soil
environment consists of a solid and porous fraction. Within these fractions, a variety of
chemical and physical factors affect microbes. These include, but are not limited to texture,
temperature, pH, oxygen, cation exchange capacity and redox reactions.

The soil environment directly affects the types of microbes, as well as the rates of processes
they perform. For example, microbial activity increases with temperature, which in turn
affects rates of decomposition. On the other hand, microbial processes directly affect their
environments as well, contributing to the carbon and nitrogen cycles, which are important for
microbial and plant health. At the micro scale, bacteria and other microbes participate in a
variety of reactions that affect nutrient cycling, pH, as well as oxygen and CO 2 content. At
the macro scale, these processes can change the landscape in drastic ways, assisting in
weathering of the soil and development of soil layers.

Solid Fraction
The solid fraction of the soil consists of mineral and organic matter, which is typically about
50% of the soil by volume, and it has a dominant influence on heat, water, and chemical
transport and retention process. Most of the solid particles are derived from mineral sources
such as decomposed rocks or sediments. Soil organic matter (SOM) consists of all of the
organic components of a soil, including living biomass, decomposing tissue, and fully
decomposed tissue called humus. The rate and pathway of carbon decomposition and SOM
formation directly affects the carbon cycle. Texture can also influence chemical properties
such as cation exchange capacity (CEC). Finer textured soils with high clay content will have
great CEC than soils with low clay content.
Figure. Volume composition of the solid and porous fractions of a typical loam surface soil.

Soil Pores
Soil pores consist of the air and water filled fractions of the soil, and together they make up
about 50% of the soil by volume. Pore space is largely determined by size and arrangement
of aggregates and affects the movement of water, air, and organisms in soil. Soil pores are
typically classified based on size: Macropores ( >75µm) Mesopores ( 30-70µm) Micropores (
5-30µm) Ultramicropores (0.1-5µm) Cryptoporus ( <0.1µm).

The air filled pores of the soil typically have a similar distribution of gases as the atmosphere
above the soil, with slightly lower oxygen and slightly more CO2 due to the respiration of
microorganisms. The soil atmosphere consists of about 18-20% oxygen near the surface,
which decreases with depth. CO2 is around 1%, and N2 is about 78% of the soil air filled
pore space. Oxygen content will be lower when available carbon is high (demand for high O2
to utilize carbon). Soil that is high in clay content and/or compacted may have trouble
exchanging gases to the atmosphere. Soil air generally has a very high moisture content when
compared to the atmosphere (~100% unless the soil is very dry). The amount and
composition of air in a soil is largely determined by the water content in the soil.

The main source of soil water is rainfall and overland flow. The amount of water that enters
the soil is a function of soil structure and texture. Water moves in soil through mass flow and
capillary action. The water in soil is often called the soil solution, which can move nutrients
from the surface through the soil column. The water fraction of the pores is typically between
20% to 30% but can vary depending on precipitation, soil texture, and soil structure. The
water content of a soil influences gas exchange, nutrient movement and concentrations of
nutrients, and buffers the temperature of the soil.
Soil Aggregates & Structure
Soil aggregates are groups of soil particles that bind to each other more strongly than to
adjacent particles. The space between the aggregates provide pore space for retention and
exchange of air and water. Aggregation affects erosion, movement of water, and plant root
growth. Polysaccharides produced by soil bacteria, and humic substances and hyphae
produced by fungi improve aggregation.

Soil structure is the arrangement of primary soil particles into aggregates which describes the
arrangement of the solid parts of the soil and the pore spaces between them. Soil structure has
a major influence on water movement, SOM leaching, and gas exchanges of the soils. The
water movement, affected by structure can bring SOM in the surface to deep inside the soil.
Soil with high clay content and/or poor structure, may have reduced infiltration and will
cause runoff, erosion and surface crusting. This can cause nutrient loss and increase the
potential of desertification.

Physical & Chemical Factors that Control Biological Activity in the Soil

Texture
Soil texture is defined as the distribution of sand (0.05-2.0 mm), silt (0.002-0.05mm), and
clay ( < 0.002mm) in soil. Soil texture indirectly influences properties such as: water holding
capacity, porosity, aeration and nutrient availability. Clay particles have a very high surface
to volume ratio, which makes them very chemically active and have high nutrient
availability. Due to the adhesion of water, soils high in clay will also have a high water
holding capacity. Soils with a high clay content will often have a very active microbial
community, especially in areas of the rhizosphere.

One study by Hamarshid found that CO2 production rates were greatest in fine textured soil
compared to coarse textured soil. This was due to finer textured soils’ greater ability to hold
nutrients and water, allowing microbial populations to thrive. However, this is not always the
case, as other chemical or physical properties may affect the ability of microbes to perform
processes such as carbon decomposition. (e.g. temperature, pH and quality of substrate).

Temperature
Soil temperature changes with depth: the surface soil (~0-20cm) is highly affected by the
solar radiation. Moving deeper (~below 27cm) temperatures are very stable over time (see
figure 5). This is because heat moves in soil mainly by conduction, which does not allow
much heat to reach deep in the soil profile. Soil temperature is also affected by the soil color,
soil cover, and the water content of the soil. A darker soil can absorb more heat compared to
lighter color soil. A dry soil is more easily heated than a wet one due to the higher heat
capacity of water. Heat moving in soil is analogous to the movement of water. Generally, the
higher the temperature, the more active microbes are, with microbial activity typically
doubling with a 10° rise in temperature. However, some bacteria thrive at very low
temperatures (psychrophiles) and very high temperatures (extremophiles).

pH
pH change in soils is due to both biotic and abiotic processes. Microbes consume and release
H+ through redox reactions and fermentation. Abiotic processes such as rainfall can also
affect the pH of the soil. In areas of high rainfall, acidic soils can be created through leaching
of bases from the soil, while more basic soils are typically located in arid environments. pH
affects microbial diversity because many microbial species cannot tolerate extreme levels of
pH (high or low). Alterations in pH can render essential microbe enzymes inactive and/or
denature proteins within the cells and prevent microbial activity from occurring. However,
there are microbes that can withstand extreme pH environments. At pH below 5, fungi and
acidophilic bacteria have a competitive advantage over other bacteria that thrive at a more
neutral pH.

pH can also affect the availability of nutrients in this soil. Below a pH of 5, essential plant
nutrients such as phosphorous, calcium and magnesium are not available. Low pH can also
cause aluminum (Al3+) to be released from soil minerals. Al3+ in soil solution is not only
toxic to plants and microbes, it can combine with OH- ions causing the free H+ ions to lower
the pH further.

Oxygen
Oxygen (O2) is a very important component of the productivity of both microbes and plant
roots. Oxygen has a very high electrical potential (Eh), meaning that it has a lot of potential
to produce energy when used as an electron acceptor in an oxidation-reduction reaction. An
example oxidation-reduction reaction can be seen in equation 1, where glucose is being
oxidized, and oxygen is being reduced.

Equation 1: 6O2+C6H12O6→6CO2+6H2O

The amount of oxygen available in a soil depends on a number of factors, including soil
porosity, water content, and consumption by respiring organisms. If soil pores are large and
interconnected, oxygen can flow easily. In areas where oxygen is not present, soil microbes
may use alternative electron acceptors such as nitrate, manganese, iron, sulfate, and carbon
dioxide. An example of the result of the use of an alternative electron acceptor can be seen in
figure 7.

Cation Exchange Capacity

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the ability of a soil to hold and exchange cations. The
amount of CEC in soil is highly dependent on the texture and organic matter of the soil. The
high surface area and negative charge of clay allows it to bind and exchange with soil
solution, which contains cations that are important for plant and microbial health.

At typical soil pH values (5-8), microbes and clay particles are both negatively charged, but
microbes still bind to clay. This binding could be due to van der waals, hydrogen bonding,
sharing electrons and ion exchange.

Redox Reactions
Reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions are chemical reactions in which reactants experience a
change in oxidation number (which means these reactants either gain or lose electrons) .
Many reactions in the soil involve the gain or loss of electrons, obtaining or releasing energy.
Redox reactions are important in the soil, because microbes obtain energy through redox
reactions for their metabolism, and the redox state can also determine the microbial processes
that will occur.

Redox reactions include anabolism and catabolism process, both of which play important
roles in microbial metabolism. Anabolism is the biosynthesis of cellular components, linked
to energy requirements, while catabolism is the the biochemical processes leading to
breakdown of organic substances, linked to energy production. For example, the
photosynthesis and respiration processes are the coupled reactions in the soil, where plants
required energy from light and reduce carbon dioxide to glucose, which then be used by
microbes in the soil as the energy for their metabolism.

The tendency of compounds to accept or donate electrons is expressed as “redox potential”.

Redox potential (Eh), determined from the concentration of oxidants and reductants in the
environment, is to measure the oxidation-reduction status and electron availability within this
system. Electrons are essential to all inorganic and organic chemical reactions. Redox
potential measurements allow for rapid characterization of the degree of reduction and for
predicting stability of various compounds that regulate nutrients and metal availability in soil
and sediment. The inorganic oxidants include oxygen, nitrate, nitrite, manganese, sulfate, and
CO2, while the reductants include various organic substrates and reduced inorganic
compounds (NH4+, Fe2+, Mn2+, S2-, CH4, and H2).

The redox potential of a substance depends on Affinity of molecules for electrons and
Concentration of reductants and oxidants (referred to as redox pair) Anaerobic environments
such as wetland soils and flooded soils are usually limited by electron acceptors and have an
abundant supply of electron donors. In this case, most microbes’ activity is limited, and
facultative and obligate microbes reduce the minerals following the electron tower. Aerated
soils are usually limited by electron donors and have an abundant supply of electron
acceptors (primarily O2).

Salinity
Soil salinity refers to the salt content in the soil. The concentrations and types of ions in
solution in the soil can cause modifications in the dispersion of the clay fraction, degrading
the original soil fraction. The sodium ion, being monovalent, increases the width of the
diffuse double layer on the surface of the clays, reducing the attractive forces between them
with a consequent increase in particle dispersion. The consequence of this dispersion of the
clay is also shown by a reduction in stability of the soil aggregates, which are thus easily
transported by rain or irrigation.

Soil salinization is a big problem for soils in arid or semi-arid regions and agricultural soils
throughout the world. Salts can adversely affect plant and microbial growth, due to
destruction of the soil structure and its consequent compacting. The stress of high salt
concentration can be detrimental for sensitive microorganisms and decrease the activity of
surviving cells, due to the metabolic load imposed by the need for stress tolerance
mechanisms.

Bioavailability
Bioavailability assesses what proportion of a contaminant present at a contaminated site is
available for uptake by organisms. Bioavailability processes are the biological, chemical and
physical processes that result in an organism being exposed to a contaminant present in the
soil. These processes are: release of the contaminant from the solid phase, transport of the
contaminant to and across a biological membrane and, incorporation into a living organism.

Bioavailable molecules must cross a biological membrane, which means the molecules have
to interact with the aqueous phase. Therefore, soil properties which control partitioning
between the solid phase in soil and the pore water, such as pH, organic matter content, Eh,
cation exchange capacity (CEC), and the concentration of clay minerals, have a significant
impact on bioavailability. Increasing exchange sites aids the retention of molecules in the
pore water in a bioavailable form, but molecules sorbed strongly to surfaces or in solid form
are generally not bioavailable.

SOIL TEXTURAL TRIANGLE

Soil Texture Triangle Activity

Using the soil texture triangle, scientists have created classes which break the distribution of
particle sizes (soil textures) into 12 categories: clay, sandy clay, silty clay, sandy clay loam,
clay loam, silty clay loam, sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, silt.
The soil texture triangle is one of the tools that soil scientists use to visualize and understand
the meaning of soil texture names. The textural triangle is a diagram which shows how each
of these 12 textures is classified based on the percent of sand, silt, and clay in each.
Note that these percentages are based on the USDA definition of sand and silt only.

How to use the Soil Texture Triangle

Soil classification is typically made based on the relative proportions of silt, sand and clay.
Follow any two component percentages to find the nominal name for the soil type. For
example, 30% sand, 30% clay and 40% silt:

Find 30% along the bottom (sand) line, and follow the slanted line up and to the left. Stop at
the horizontal line for 30% clay, and find the soil type: clay loam.

Soil texture depends on its composition and the relative portions of clay, sand, and silt. In
sedimentology, clay is defined as particles of earth between 1µm and 3.9µm in diameter.
(Not to be confused with the chemical definition of clay, which is a mixture of hydrous
aluminium phyllosilicate particles and water.) Silt is defined as particles between 3.9µm and
62.5µm in diameter, while sand is particles between 62.5µm and 2mm; in diameter.

The USDA classifies soil types according to a soil texture triangle chart which gives names to
various combinations of clay, sand, and silt. The chart can be a little confusing at first glance,
however, it makes sense after seeing a few examples.

First, look at the orientation of the percentages on the sides of the triangle. The numbers are
arranged symmetrically around the perimeter. On the left the numbers correspond to the
percentage of clay, and on the right the numbers correspond to the percentage of silt. At the
bottom of the triangle chart are the percentages of sand.

To classify a soil sample, you find the intersection of the three lines that correspond the three
proportions. On the chart, all of the percents will add up to 100%.

Example: Classify a soil sample that is 30% clay, 15% silt, and 55% sand.First locate
30% on the clay axis, and draw a line horizontally from left to right. Next, locate 15% on the
silt axis, and draw a line going down diagonally to the left. Finally, locate 55% on the sand
axis, and draw a line going up diagonally to the left. The intersection is in a region called
Sandy Clay Loam. See figure below. (Truthfully, you only need to make two lines.)

Apply the same method for other samples of different compositions. As an exercise, try to
identify the following samples:

(1) 60% clay, 20% silt, 20% sand Clay

(2) 15% clay, 40% silt, 45% sand Loam
(3) 30% clay, 60% silt, 10% sand Silty Clay Loam
SOIL MICROFLORA AND FAUNA AND THEIR ACTIVITIES
Introduction
Soil biota (living things in the soil, soil organisms) consists of two broad categories – flora
and fauna. Soil organisms are a major factor in soil formation and their effects determine
many differences between soils. Soil organisms are an integral part of agricultural
ecosystems. The presence of a range of a diverse community of soil organisms is essential for
the maintenance of productive soils.
Soil organisms are responsible for a range of ecological functions and ecosystem services
including:
· nutrient cycling and nitrogen fixation,
· control of pest and diseases,
· organic matter decomposition and carbon sequestration,
· maintenance of a good soil structure for plant growth and rainwater infiltration,
· detoxification of contaminants.
Various soil organisms affect certain soil processes in different ways. An excessive reduction
in soil biodiversity, especially the loss of species with key functions, may result in severe
effects including the long-term degradation of soil and the loss of agricultural productive
capacity.
Through their feeding activities, soil fauna play important roles in ecosystem dynamics as
they influence the decomposition subsystem and cycling of plant nutrients and other elements
that are of environmental importance. Soil fauna as a major group of soil biota are classified
based on their sizes, habitat, and feeding form apart from their taxonomic classification.
Classification of soil fauna based on their feeding form is also termed functional
classification

Soil fauna classification based on sizes

soil fauna are classified on the basis of their sizes as microfauna, mesofauna and macrofauna.
The classification could be based on the body width or body length.
A taxonomic class of soil organisms may also be grouped based on the their sizes. For
example,
members of the phylum Arthropoda are classified based on their sizes as either
microathropods,
mesoarthropods or macroarthropods
Different size-groups of soil fauna may also be classified on the basis of their habitat or life
form. The habitat and life form of soil fauna are closely related to their ecosystem function.
Classification of soil fauna based on their feeding form is also termed functional
classification.
The free living components of soil biota are bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi, algae as well as
the
micro and macrofauna. Additionally, there is viruses which grow only within the living cells
of
other organisms.

Viruses
Viruses consist of RNA and DNA molecules within protein coats. Viral particles are
metabolically inert and do not carry out respiratory or biosynthetic functions. They multiply
only within the host and induce a living host cell to produce the necessary viral components,
after assembly, the replicated viruses escape from the cell with the capability of attacking
new cells.

Importance of viruses
1. Their ability to interact with host genetic material can make viruses very difficult to
control.
2. This is also the reason why they are useful as genetic transfer agents in genetic
engineering because they can serve as transfer agents a wide diversity of cells.
3. Viruses are distinguished by their ability to pass through filters capable of holding all
known bacterial types.
4. They have capability for self-reproduction and ability to cause many plant and animal
diseases. Viruses infect all categories of animals and plants from humans to microbes.
5. Viruses that infect soil organisms can persist in soil as dormant units that retain parasitic
capability.
6. The ability of viral particles pathogenic to plants and animals to survive in soil and move
into the water table is a major concern.
7. Viruses have promising prospect in biological control of weeds and obnoxious insects.

Bacteria
Bacteria are the most numerous in of the microorganisms in soil. Indeed they are the most
common of all the living organisms on the face of the earth.
They lack nuclear membranes therefore they are termed prokaryotic cells. Their cell walls are
composed principally of peptidoglycans and reproduction is by binary fission. Genetic
transfer is
accomplished by conjugation and transduction.
Energy source and carbon source are useful for describing physiological differences among
bacteria and other organisms.
The majority of known bacterial species is chemoorganotrophic and is commonly referred to
as
heterotrophs and a few species are chemolitotrophs.
The obligate chemolitotrophs used the same physiological pathway i.e Calvin cycle. Their
inability use any known external source of organic carbon is linked to lack of permeases to
move organic molecules across cell membranes. Therefore organic molecules must be
manufactured within the cell.
The following are some bacteria which are prominently encountered in the soil taking part in
soil processes.

Arthrobacter:
Numbers of the genus are numerically prominent in soil constituting up to 40 % of the total
plate count population. They are reported to utilize 85-180 compounds. They are slow
growing
and poor competitors in the early stages of decomposition when easily decomposable
materials
are rapidly attacked by other genera.

Pseudomonads:
They are aerobic except for denitrifying species that use nitrate as an alternative electron
acceptor. Most species are organotrophs, a few are facultative litothrophs using H2 or CO as
an
energy source. They also occur in marine waters, some species cause plant disease, and many
nonpathogens are closely associated with plants. They attack a wide variety of organic
substrate including sugars, amino acids, alcohol and aldose sugars, hydrocarbons, oils, humic
acids and many of the synthetic pesticides.
Xanthomonas:
This is closely related to Pseudomonas, it embraces similar properties ecept that molecular
oxygen is the only electron acceptor and nitrates are not reduced. They are pathogenic to
many
plants.

Sporulating Bacilli:
These members of the genus Bacillus produce heat resistant endospores and sporulation is not
repressed by exposure to air. They are mostly vigorous organotrophs and their metabolism is
strictly respiratory, strictly fermentative or both. There is great diversity within the genus as
shown by the array of products formed by different species during the course of glucose
fermentation, products include; glycerol, 2,3-butanediol, ethanol, hydrogen, acetone and
formic, acetic, lactic and succinic acids. Some species are facultative litotrophs that use H 2 as
an
energy source in the absence of organic carbon. Bacillus polymyxa is able to fix nitrogen.
Several species produce lytic enzymes and antibiotic that are destructive to other bacteria eg
Bacillus thuringiensis produce toxin which is pathogenic to insect lavae. Bacillus mercerans
is
used for retting flax, Bacillus anthracis is a highly animal pathogen.

Clostridium:
This is a sporogenic genus, most are strict anaerobes. The genus is of economic importance
used commercially for the production of alcohols and commercial solvents. Several species
such
as C butyrichum and C pasterianum fix nitrogen. They are widely distributed in soils, marine
and
freshwater sediments, manures and animal intestinal tract. Some species are pathogenic to
animals, eg C tetani and C butilinum.

Azotobacter:
This is an aerobic organotrophic bacterium capable of fixing nitrogen asymbiotically. Other
genera fixing nitrogen asymbiotically are Azomonas, Beijerinkia, Dexia and Azospirillum.
And
Rhizobium are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. A related genus Agrobacterium induces
galls on hairy root but does not fix nitrogen. Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter are
chemolithotrophic genera. Nitrosomonas convert NH4+ to NO2 - and Nitrobacter convert
NO2 - to NO3-.
Lactobacillus:
This is a fermentative organotrophic bacterium; it is commonly associated with plant
herbage.
Its lactic acid production is exploited in silages, butter, milk and local dairy products.
Enterobacter is also fermentative found in animal feces and sewage; some species are widely
distributed in soil.

ACTINOMYCETES
About 90 % of the actinomycetes isolated from soil belong to the genus Streptomyces. Its
members produce a well-developed, compact branched mycelium and compact colonies on
agar plates. Reproduction is by production of aerial spores and by mycelial fragmentation.
They are intolerant of waterlogged soil, less tolerant of dessication than fungi and generally
intolerant of acidity. Thus causal organism of potato scab S scabis is controlled in poorly
buffered soils such as sand by sulphur and ammonium amendment which result in lowered
soil pH. Many Streptomyces produce antibiotics, antibacterial, antifungi, antialgal, antiviral,
antiprotozoal, or antitumor. Streptomyces also produce geosmin which is responsible for the
musty smell of freshly plowed soil and partly responsible for the musty smell of earthen
cellersand old straw piles. It appears that Streptomyces is mainly responsible for the
maintenance of soil biological balance.

FUNGI
These are the eukaryotic organisms variously referred to as mold, mildews, rusts, smuts,
yeasts, mushrooms and puffballs. Fungi are the organotrophs primarily responsible for
decomposition of organic residues even though they are always outnumbered by bacteria.
Important classes encountered in soil include;

Aerasiomycetes:
These are unicellular; the unit of structure is the uninucleate amoeba that feeds by engulfing
bacteria. Single cells characteristically aggregate into pseudoplasmodium in which the cell
does not fuse but behave as a mobile communal unit, this later change into a fruiting structure
called sporocarp which bears the asexual spores.

Myxomycetes:
These are true slime forming asexual creeping plasmodium, they are animal like in their
feeding but fungus like in their reproductive structure and spore formation. They are widely
distributed especially in association with decaying vegetation in cool moist locations.

Oomycetes:
They are found in water and soil, they are highly destructive to plant, and they produce
biflagellate asexual motile spores called zoospores. Pythium and Phythophthora are
commonly encountered in soil.

Chytridiomycetes:
They are prevalent in aquatic habitat, but also commonly encountered in soil, some members
are parasitic on algae, higher plants or insect lavae.

Zygomycetes:
They ferment different carbohydrate substrates. They are mostly saprobic, but some are
phytopathogenic, some parasite on other fungi, some produce animal trapping mechanisms.
The mucorales which are the largest order are important economically as they are used for
commercial production of alcohol and organic acids.

Ascomycetes:
Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes are called the higher fungi. The ascomycetes are
distinguished by the formations of ascus within which are ascospores following sexual
reproduction. Many of them are saprophytic having a range of impacts e.g., plant
pathogenicity, some are destructive on materials. Others are beneficial eg the fermenting
activities of yeast which has long been exploited in beer, wine and bakeries.

Basidiomycetes:
This include a wide selection of fungi, they differ from other fungi by the production of
specialized structure called basidium. Many of them are plant parasite thus causing heavy
losses of crop and tree plants. Some are beneficial eg mycorrhizal-forming relationship with
plants; mushroom has commercial importance as edible food. They are vigorous decomposers
of woody materials.

Deuteromycetes:
This embraces fungi with septate hyphae but reproduce only by means of conidia, they do not
have a sexual reproductive phase, and they are called fungi imperfecti. They are mostly
saprobic in soil, some may be parasiticon other fungi, higher plants, humans and other
animals eg species of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Fusarium.

ALGAE
Blue green algae
Cyanobacteria are the blue green algae they possess photosystem II and carry out oxygenic
photosynthesis. They contain chlorophyl A and phycobiliprotein pigments such as
phycocyanin. They exist in unicellular, colonial and filamentous forms. They have single
cells, reproductive cells or units and filamentous forms enclosed in rigid sheaths and they
often show gliding motility. They are widely distributed occurring in saline and fresh waters,
in soil, on bare rocks and sand. They also occur within the plant bodies of some liverworts,
water ferns and angiosperms. In some ecosystems cyanobacteria are of great significance
because of their ability to fix nitrogen.

Green algae
These are the eukaryotic algae they are the simplest forms of the chlorophyllus eukaryotes
distinguished from other green plants by sexual characteristics. Some green algae are
unicellular and some are multicellular. The algae are the most widely distributed of all green
plants. They are predominantly aquatic found in fresh, brackish and salt waters. Terrestrial
forms occur on rocks, mud and sand, snowfields and buildings and attached to plants and
animals. Subsurface soil samples kept moist and under illumination commonly develop algae
blooms. Most algal units found below ground are dormant forms some are however known to
be facultative organotrophs.

SOIL MICROFAUNA
These are the microfauna (less than 0.1 mm), mesofauna (0.1-10 mm) and macrofauna
(greater
than 10 mm).

Microfauna
This is typified by the protozoans, they are unicellular most of which are microscopic in size
but
some attain macroscopic dimensions. The group is greatly diverse in morphology and feeding
habit. All require water envelopment for metabolic activity. Five main groups are commonly
recognized; Flagellates, ciliates, naked and testate amoeba and sporozoa. Sporozoans are
wholly parasitic. Free living protozoa in soil feed on dissolved organic substances and other
organism. Many feed by grazing and predation, the soil ciliates depend primarily on bacteria
for food, some feed additionally on yeasts and other protozoa and even on small metazoan
such as rotifers. The soil an effect on the structure and functioning of microbial communities,
the rise in bacteria numbers following addition of fresh residues to soil is always followed by
a rise in protozoan numbers. Selective feesding by protozoa may alter the mix of bacterial
genera. Protozoa may accelerate nutrient cycling and their active motility in the soil water
help to provide bacteria with dissolved oxygen and nutrients.

Meso and Microfauna

These are also called metazoan, they include; the soil dwelling nematodes, millipedes,
centipedes, rotifers, mites, annelids, spiders and insects. The small members exemplified by
nematodes are able to move through existing soil pores without disturbing the soil particles.
The nematodes are also called are the most numerous of the soil metazoan, their numbers
may reach several million per square meter. The free living forms in soil are voracious
feeders on both microflora and other fauna. Earthworms constitute the major portion of the
invertebrate biomass in soil and when present are active in processing litter distributing
organic matter throughout the soil. The importance of the mesofauna in soil lies in its effect
on soil and litters and on the structure of microbial communities.