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THA 213: DRAMATIC THEORY AND CRITICISM

Unit 1 – General Introduction to Drama

1. Elements of Drama:

 Plot
 Thematic Preoccupation
 Setting
 Language and Diction
 Character/Characterisation

Unit 2 – Dramatic Forms

 Tragedy
 Comedy
 Tragicomedy
 Farce
 Melodrama
 Satire
 Historical Drama

Unit 3 – Dramatic Structure

1. The Structure of Plot:

1. Exposition
2. Rising Action
3. Climax
4. Falling Action
5. Resolution (Denouement)
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Unit 4 – Dramatic Styles

 Realism
 Naturalism
 Symbolism
 Expressionism
 Theatre of the Absurd
 Epic Theatre
 Classicism and Romanticism

Unit 5 – Dramatic Theories

1. The Classical Theories

2. The Medieval Styles
3. The Renaissance Styles
4. The Sociological Theories
5. The Psychological Theories
6. Formalism
7. The Modern Drama Styles (isms)
8. Brecht’s Epic Theatre

Unit 6 – Dramatic Criticism

1. Concept of Criticism
2. Who is a critique?
3. Critiquing a dramatic work with theories
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Unit 1 – General Introduction to Drama

Drama is a literary genre that includes a broad variety of works meant for stage performance.

Through it, playwrights examine intricate themes, characters, and conflicts, frequently capturing

the emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic interest of audiences. Drama, in the words of Martin

Esslin, is a mirror of society, reflecting its contradictions, values, and beliefs. Drama offers a

distinctive storytelling style that can shed light on the human condition and elicit reflection about

the world we live in through dialogue, action, and spectacle. A rich and immersive theatrical

experience is often created through the collaboration of multiple artists, including directors,

actors, designers, technicians, and playwrights, in dramatic works. Drama, as observed by Robert

J. Ball and Oscar G. Brockett, is fundamentally a performative art form that depends on live

interaction between actors and viewers.

The live element of theatre enhances the storytelling process with spontaneity and

immediateness, making the audience feel as though they are sharing a common experience. The

capacity of drama to communicate meaning through both text and performance is one of its

distinguishing characteristics. Drama, in Aristotle's view, is defined by its imitation of human

action, and its central components are spectacle, plot, and characters. Through imitation, viewers

can relate to characters, go through their hardships, and learn about the complexity of human

nature. Drama has developed over time in response to shifting social, political, and cultural

environments, giving rise to a wide range of forms, styles, and genres. From the classical

tragedies of antiquity to the avant-garde experiments of the 20th century, drama has always

adapted and innovated, pushing the limits of artistic expression and challenging norms.
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2. Elements of Drama:

 Plot: The series of incidents that make up a play's narrative. Exposition, rising action,

climax, falling action, and resolution are all included.

 Themes: The primary concepts, ideas, or messages that are explored in a play, generally

pertaining to larger issues in philosophy, culture, or society.

 Setting: The period, location, and atmosphere in which a play's action is taking place.

The story's setting aids in creating its context and ambiance.

 Language and Diction: The vocabulary and expressions that play characters employ,

together with the manner and intonation of their speaking. The use of language and

diction affects mood and characterisation.

 Character/Characterization: The individuals that exist in a play's universe and the

methods utilised to create and depict them. Aspects like relationships, ambitions, and

personality are all part of character development.

Unit 2 – Dramatic Forms

1. Tragedy

Dramatic forms such as tragedy, which originated in Greek theatre, are still widely used in plays

and other literary works today. Tragedies usually show the fall from grace or demise of a noble

protagonist, either due to a fatal defect in themselves or a mix of fate and unfavourable external

events. The genre is distinguished by its dull tone, examination of deep issues, and arousal of

strong feelings including terror, catharsis, and sympathy. In the work "Poetics," Aristotle

established the fundamental components of tragedy, among them the notion of hamartia, or the

tragic defect that ultimately brings about the demise of the protagonist. Aristotle also recognised
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additional elements of the tragic experience, such as catharsis (purging of emotions), anagnorisis

(realisation or recognition), and peripeteia (reversal of fortune). Greek tragedies from antiquity,

including those by Aeschylus, Euripides, and Sophocles, frequently featured mythological

themes and legendary characters. These plays served as platforms for social and political

criticism while also addressing age-old queries about morality, human nature, and the existence

of gods.

Shakespeare's tragedies, such as "Hamlet," "Macbeth," and "Othello," are characterised by

complicated characters who are pulled between opposing passions and moral quandaries.

Shakespeare's tragedies delve deeply into the human condition by examining themes of ambition,

envy, retaliation, and the corrupting effect of power. Tragedies from the modern era, including

works by authors like Tennessee Williams, Eugene O'Neill, and Arthur Miller, continue to

address existential issues and moral dilemmas, albeit in diverse historical and cultural situations.

Tragedies, whether they are set in modern America, Elizabethan England, or ancient Greece, are

everlasting reminders of the frailty and complexity of human existence.

2. Comedy

Comedy is a type of drama distinguished by its emphasis on wit, humour, and the depiction of

ridiculous or humorous circumstances. Comedy tries to amuse and uplift audiences through

laughter and a sense of joyful closure, in contrast to tragedy, which frequently deals with heavy

issues and ends in misery or death. Comedy has a long and rich history that includes a variety of

forms, such as satire, romantic comedy, farce, and slapstick. Aristophanes' and other ancient

Greek plays frequently parodied political personalities, cultural institutions, and social

conventions by employing exaggerated characters and lewd humour to elicit amusement and
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social commentary. Shakespeare's comedies, such "A Midsummer Night's Dream," "Twelfth

Night," and "As You Like It," focus on romantic entanglements, mistaken identity, and the

victory of love over hardship. These plays create a joyful mood of celebration and reconciliation

with their colourful characters, ingenious story twists, and brilliant wordplay.

Playwrights such as Oscar Wilde, George Bernard Shaw, and Neil Simon, who embody modern

comedy, persistently employ humour and wisdom to tackle ageless themes of love, marriage,

social status, and human frailties. Comedy provides a much-needed break from the hardships of

daily life and serves as a reminder of the ability of laughter to unite people, whether via scathing

satire, bizarre circumstances, or touching moments of togetherness.

3. Tragicomedy

Tragicomedy is a theatrical genre that blends comedy and tragedy components, combining

serious and lighthearted themes to produce a distinctive and sometimes confusing tone but with a

happy ending irrespective of the misfortunes within the drama itself. Tragicomedies can include

terrible circumstances and characters struggling with important existential issues, but they can

also have lighthearted and humorous moments to break the tension. Tragicomedy's examination

of the complexity of life and human nature is one of its distinguishing features. Tragicomic

works frequently straddle the borderline between comedy and tragedy, humour and tears, and

conventional ideas of genre and narrative structure. By combining disparate materials, a complex

and multi-layered experience may be created for audiences, inspiring them to consider the

paradoxes and absurdities of life.

Shakespeare's "The Tempest," Tom Stoppard's "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead," and

Samuel Beckett's "Waiting for Godot" are a few examples of tragicomedies. These pieces
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demonstrate the richness and adaptability of tragicomedy as a dramatic genre, providing viewers

with an engrossing investigation of the complexity of the human condition.

4. Farce

Farce is a type of humorous dramatic art that is distinguished by oversized figures, unbelievable

circumstances, and physical humour. With its roots in the French term "farce," which means

"stuffing" or "forcemeat," farce is frequently associated with frantic, disorderly behaviour,

misidentifications, and ridiculous misinterpretations. In farces, the humour usually stems from

how quickly things happen and how the characters' exaggerated responses contrast with how

ridiculous their situations are. One of the key features of farce is its reliance on stock characters

and comedic archetypes, such as the bumbling fool, the overbearing authority figure, and the

seductive temptress. These people frequently find themselves in a succession of absurd scenarios

that result in hilarious mayhem and comedy. A lengthy history of farces may be found in both

theatre and literature. Notable examples include the plays of Molière, such as "The Misanthrope"

and "Tartuffe," as well as contemporary farces like "Noises Off" by Michael Frayn and "Run for

Your Wife" by Ray Cooney. These pieces demonstrate the continued appeal of farce and its

capacity to amuse audiences with its fast-paced humour and outrageous actions.

5. Melodrama

Exaggerated emotions, moral polarisation, and sensationalised plotlines are characteristics of the

theatrical form known as melisma. Melodrama, which dates back to the 18th century, became

more and more popular in the 19th century as industry and urbanisation increased. It provided

spectators with an escape from reality by tackling issues of virtue, sin, and atonement.

Melodrama's staple characters—the noble hero, the evil villain, and the virtuous heroine—as

well as its theatrical staging and intensely evocative vocabulary are essential components.
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Melodramatic stories usually feature battles between good and evil, with the forces of

righteousness coming out on top in the end.

6. Satire

Satire is a theatrical genre that makes fun of society conventions, establishments, and people by

utilising irony, sarcasm, and humour. Satire, which derives from the Latin word "satura," which

means "medley" or "mixture," frequently uses parody and exaggeration to draw attention to

social injustices and absurdities. Satire's ability to stir thinking and question the status quo

through humour and deft wordplay is one of its main characteristics. Satirical works use humour

as a tool for social commentary and critique, often aimed at political personalities, cultural

trends, or societal customs.

7. Historical Drama

Historical drama is a genre of theatre and literature that examines and conveys circumstances,

figures, and themes from the past. With the use of this genre, audience may interact with history

in a dynamic and immersive manner, bringing historical figures, battles, and cultural settings to

life. In order to produce gripping stories that appeal to modern viewers, historical drama

frequently blends reality with fiction, drawing inspiration from real-life events and individuals.

The emphasis on authenticity and accuracy in presenting historical settings, clothing, and

language is one of the main characteristics of historical theatre. In order to guarantee that their

depictions of the historical era are accurate, playwrights and filmmakers frequently undertake in-

depth study. They base their creative judgements on original sources, scholarly publications, and

archive data.

Historical drama may take many different forms, from personal character studies to grandiose

period plays. Historical dramas can explore the lives of historical characters as well as the social
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and cultural dynamics of certain eras, while some concentrate on major historical events like

wars, revolutions, and political upheavals. Historical drama has always been a tool for thinking

back on the past, challenging the present, and envisioning different futures. Playwrights and

filmmakers may question conventional narratives, bring attention to present challenges, and

encourage critical reflection among their viewers by revisiting significant historical episodes and

individuals. Shakespeare's historical plays, like "Henry V" and "Richard III," which dramatise

the lives of English monarchs, are notable examples of historical drama. Other contemporary

works that are noteworthy examples of historical drama include Arthur Miller's "The Crucible,"

which examines the Salem witch trials, and Steven Spielberg's film "Schindler's List," which

portrays the Holocaust.

Unit 3 – Dramatic Structure

The Structure of Plot:

1. Exposition

The exposition introduces the audience to the plot and provides them with pertinent background

information. This include presenting the people, the environment, and any opening situations or

conflicts. The exposition creates the framework for the story and the environment in which the

action will take place.

2. Rising Action

This is the main part of the story, where things start to get complicated and the struggle gets

more intense. Here, when the characters face challenges, make decisions, and perform acts that
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advance the plot, the tension and suspense grow. The viewer is drawn further into the story and

the stakes are raised by the increasing action.

3. Conflict

Conflict moves the story along and adds suspense and drama. It is an essential component of the

growing action. Generally, there are two primary categories of conflict:

External Conflict: Characters engaged in external conflict fight against other characters, the

outside world, or the elements.

Internal conflict: This refers to mental or ethical challenges that a character has, such as

opposing impulses or moral dilemmas.

4. Climax

The story's pivotal moment occurs at the climax, when the conflict reaches its height and the

resolution is uncertain. When the protagonist must make a crucial choice or face a confrontation

that will ultimately influence the course of the story, it is the most tense and dramatic moment.

For the characters as well as the viewers, the climax is frequently a cathartic and very emotional

time.

5. Catastrophe

In certain dramatic works, especially tragedies, the culmination may bring about a disastrous

catastrophe or an irrevocable shift that affects the characters and the plot profoundly. This

disaster often signifies the climax of the main conflict and establishes the framework for the

story's denouement.
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6. Falling Action

As the tension starts to release and the climax's effects start to materialise, the falling action takes

place after the climax and any ensuing disaster. At this point in the tale, all unresolved problems

must be resolved, loose ends must be tied, and the story must be ready for its climax. The story's

tensions may be gradually resolved because of the dropping action, which also offers closure.

7. Resolution (Denouement)

The denouement, often referred to as the resolution, is the point in the tale where all of the

conflicts are fully resolved and the effects of the characters' decisions are made clear. At this

point, the audience feels as though their questions have been answered and their concerns are

resolved. Insights or thoughts on the story's larger themes and lessons could also be provided by

the resolution.

Unit 4 – Dramatic Styles

1. Realism

Realism is a dramatic style that emerged in the 19th century, aiming to depict ordinary life and

characters with accuracy and truthfulness. Rooted in the belief that art should reflect the realities

of the human experience, realism seeks to portray characters and situations as they exist in the

real world, without idealization or romanticization.

Key characteristics of realism include:

o Everyday life: Realistic works strive to capture the complexity of everyday life, from

everyday conversations to ordinary settings.

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o Character Depth: Characters in realistic dramas are often multi-dimensional, with

complex motivations, flaws, and desires.

o Plausible Dialogue: Realistic dialogue reflects the way people actually speak, with

colloquial language and natural rhythms.

o Social Review: Realism often addresses social issues and concerns, shedding light on the

struggles and injustices faced by ordinary people.

Prominent playwrights associated with realism include Henrik Ibsen, Anton Chekhov, and

August Strindberg. Their works, such as Ibsen's "A Doll's House," Chekhov's "The Cherry

Orchard," and Strindberg's "Miss Julie," exemplify the principles of realism and its enduring

influence on modern drama.

2. Naturalism

Naturalism is an offshoot of realism, characterized by an even greater emphasis on depicting life

with scientific objectivity and determinism. Developed in the late 19th century, naturalism

sought to explore the impact of environmental and societal forces on individual behaviour and

destiny.

Key characteristics of naturalism include:

o Determinism: Naturalistic works often suggest that human behaviour is determined by

external factors such as heredity, environment, and social conditions.

o Detailed Settings: Naturalistic plays typically feature detailed and accurate depictions of

the physical environment, which serves as a reflection of the characters' lives and

circumstances.
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o Extreme Realism: Naturalism does not shy away from depicting the darker aspects of

human existence, including poverty, violence, and social injustice.

o Psychological Depth: Characters in naturalistic dramas are often driven by instinctual

desires and impulses, with little control over their fate.

Prominent naturalist playwrights include Émile Zola, whose novels inspired the naturalist

movement, as well as playwrights like Gerhart Hauptmann and Maxim Gorky. Their works, such

as Hauptmann's "The Weavers" and Gorky's "The Lower Depths," delve into the lives of the

marginalized and dispossessed, offering a stark portrayal of the human condition.

3. Symbolism

Symbolism is a dramatic style that emerged in the late 19th century, characterized by its use of

symbolic imagery, metaphorical language, and allegorical themes. Rejecting the realism of the

natural world, symbolist drama seeks to convey deeper truths and spiritual realities through

evocative and enigmatic symbols.

Key characteristics of symbolism include:

o Dreamlike Atmosphere: Symbolist plays often create an otherworldly or dreamlike

atmosphere, blurring the lines between reality and imagination.

o Symbolic Imagery: Symbolist works employ symbolic objects, actions, and characters to

represent abstract concepts and universal truths.

o Emotional Resonance: Symbolism aims to evoke strong emotional responses and provoke

introspection and reflection in the audience.

o Exploration of the Subconscious: Symbolist dramas delve into the realm of the

subconscious mind, exploring themes of mysticism, spirituality, and the unconscious.

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Prominent symbolist playwrights include Maurice Maeterlinck, whose play "The Blue Bird" is a

classic example of symbolist drama, as well as August Strindberg, whose later works, such as "A

Dream Play," exhibit elements of symbolism. These playwrights pushed the boundaries of

theatrical expression, exploring the mysteries of the human soul and the transcendent power of

art.

4. Expressionism

Expressionism is a dramatic style that emerged in the early 20th century, characterized by its

emphasis on subjective experience, distorted imagery, and heightened emotional intensity.

Rooted in the expressionist art movement, expressionist drama seeks to convey the inner turmoil

and psychological states of characters through stylized language, imagery, and performance.

Key characteristics of expressionism include:

o Subjective Reality: Expressionist works often depict the world through the lens of the

characters' emotions and perceptions, rather than objective reality.

o Distorted Forms: Expressionist dramas feature exaggerated and distorted forms, both in

terms of physical appearance and narrative structure, to convey the characters' inner

turmoil.

o Symbolism and Allegory: Expressionist plays frequently use symbolic imagery and

allegorical themes to explore existential questions and societal critiques.

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o Emotional Intensity: Expressionism aims to evoke strong emotional responses from the

audience, often through shocking or confrontational imagery and themes.

o Social Critique: Expressionist theatre often serves as a platform for critiquing social,

political, and cultural norms of the time. Playwrights use symbolic imagery and

allegorical themes to comment on issues such as class inequality, urbanization,

industrialization, and the dehumanizing effects of modern society.

o Visual and Stylistic Innovation: Expressionist theatre is known for its innovative use of

stage design, lighting, and sound to create immersive and atmospheric environments. Sets

are often abstract and symbolic, reflecting the characters' psychological states and the

themes of the play. Lighting effects, such as harsh shadows and stark contrasts, are used

to evoke mood and emotion, while sound design contributes to the overall atmosphere of

the production.

o Subjectivity and Interiority: Expressionist theatre emphasizes the subjective experiences

and inner lives of characters, rather than objective reality. Characters' thoughts, dreams,

and memories are often depicted onstage through stylized movement, non-linear

storytelling, and stream-of-consciousness techniques, blurring the boundaries between the

conscious and unconscious mind.

o Alienation and Dislocation: Expressionist theatre often conveys a sense of alienation and

dislocation, reflecting the characters' sense of estrangement from themselves, others, and

the world around them. This feeling of existential angst is heightened by the use of

distorted forms, fragmented narratives, and surreal imagery, creating a sense of unease

and disorientation for the audience.

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o Experimental Narrative Structures: Expressionist theatre frequently experiments with

non-traditional narrative structures, such as episodic or circular storytelling, to convey the

characters' fractured and fragmented psyches. Time and space are often distorted, with

events unfolding in a nonlinear fashion or occurring simultaneously, challenging the

audience's perceptions and expectations.

Prominent expressionist playwrights include Georg Kaiser, Ernst Toller, and Georg Büchner.

Their works, such as Toller's "The Machine Wreckers" and Büchner's "Woyzeck," exemplify the

principles of expressionism and its focus on the subjective experience of alienation and despair

in the modern world.

5. Theatre of the Absurd

The Theatre of the Absurd is a dramatic movement that emerged in the mid-20th century,

characterized by its exploration of the absurdity and meaninglessness of human existence.

Influenced by existential philosophy and the horrors of World War II, absurdist drama seeks to

challenge conventional notions of plot, character, and language, often through surreal and

nonsensical imagery and dialogue.

Key characteristics of the Theatre of the Absurd include:

o Absurdity and Nihilism: Absurdist works often depict characters trapped in meaningless

or repetitive situations, highlighting the absurdity of human existence.

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o Lack of Plot: Absurdist plays typically lack traditional narrative structures, instead

focusing on episodic or circular narratives that defy linear logic.

o Language and Silence: Absurdist dramas feature fragmented and disjointed dialogue, as

well as moments of silence, to convey the characters' sense of alienation and isolation.

o Existential themes: Existential themes covered by absurdist plays include the

pointlessness of existence, the pointlessness of human endeavour, and the silliness of

societal norms. The existential emptiness at the centre of the characters' life is confronted

as they struggle with emotions of alienation, loneliness, and despair.

o Minimalist Settings: Sparse or abstract stage sets that heighten the audience's sense of

dislocation and alienation are a common aspect of absurdist performances. Extensive sets

and props are not as important as the characters and their interactions.

Prominent playwrights associated with the Theatre of the Absurd include Samuel Beckett,

Eugène Ionesco, and Harold Pinter. Their works, such as Beckett's "Waiting for Godot,"

Ionesco's "The Bald Soprano," and Pinter's "The Birthday Party," challenge audiences to

confront the absurdity of existence and the limitations of language and communication.

6. Epic Theatre

Epic Theatre is a dramatic style developed by German playwright Bertolt Brecht in the early

20th century, characterized by its use of distancing techniques and social and political

commentary. Brecht sought to create a form of theatre that would engage audiences intellectually

and emotionally, encouraging critical thinking and social awareness.

Key characteristics of Epic Theatre include:

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o Verfremdungseffekt (Alienation Effect): Epic Theatre employs distancing techniques,

such as direct address to the audience, projected captions, and episodic structure, to

prevent emotional identification with the characters and encourage critical reflection.

o Social and Political Critique: Epic Theatre often addresses social and political issues,

exposing injustice and inequality in society and advocating for change.

o Didacticism: Epic Theatre aims to educate and enlighten audiences, offering insights into

the causes and consequences of social and political phenomena.

o Collaborative Process: Epic Theatre emphasizes collaboration between playwrights,

directors, actors, and designers, with each contributing to the creation of a politically and

socially engaged theatrical experience.

Brecht's own works, such as "The Threepenny Opera" and "Mother Courage and Her Children,"

exemplify the principles of Epic Theatre and its commitment to challenging the status quo and

inspiring social change.

7. Classicism and Romanticism

Classicism is a dramatic style that emerged in ancient Greece and Rome and experienced a

revival during the Renaissance. It is characterized by a focus on order, reason, balance, and

harmony, drawing inspiration from the artistic and literary traditions of ancient Greece and

Rome.

Key features of classicism include:

o Unity of Time, Place, and Action: Classical dramas typically adhere to the principle of

unity, with the action of the play taking place within a single location and a compressed
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timeframe. This focus on unity allows for a more concentrated and focused narrative,

centered around a single main plotline.

o Clear Moral Lessons: Classicism often emphasizes moral clarity and the portrayal of

virtuous characters who adhere to strict ethical principles. The plays frequently explore

themes of justice, honour, duty, and the consequences of human actions.

o Use of Verse: Classical dramas often employ poetic verse, such as iambic pentameter or

blank verse, to convey dialogue and narrative. The use of elevated language adds a sense

of grandeur and dignity to the proceedings, reinforcing the formal and stylized nature of

the drama.

o Idealized Characters: Classical dramas often feature idealized characters who embody

noble virtues and heroic qualities. These characters are often depicted in larger-than-life

terms, serving as moral exemplars for the audience.

o Catharsis: Classical dramas aim to evoke a sense of catharsis, or emotional purification,

in the audience. Through the portrayal of tragic events and the suffering of virtuous

characters, audiences are meant to experience a release of pent-up emotions and a

heightened sense of moral clarity.

Prominent examples of classical drama include the works of ancient Greek playwrights such as

Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus, as well as the plays of Renaissance writers like William

Shakespeare and Jean Racine. These works exemplify the timeless appeal of classicism and its

enduring influence on Western literature and theatre.

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On the other hand, Romanticism is a dramatic style that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th

centuries as a reaction against the rationalism and restraint of classicism. It is characterized by its

emphasis on emotion, imagination, individualism, and the supernatural, drawing inspiration from

nature, folklore, and the medieval past.

Key features of romanticism include:

o Emotional Intensity: Romantic dramas prioritize emotional authenticity and intensity,

exploring themes of love, passion, longing, and despair. Characters are often depicted as

deeply emotional and prone to extremes of feeling.

o Celebration of Nature: Romanticism celebrates the beauty and power of nature,

portraying the natural world as a source of inspiration, wonder, and spiritual renewal.

Settings often include picturesque landscapes, wild forests, and majestic mountains.

o Interest in the Supernatural: Romantic dramas frequently incorporate elements of the

supernatural, such as ghosts, spirits, and magic. These fantastical elements serve to

heighten the drama and evoke a sense of mystery and wonder.

o Rejection of Convention: Romanticism rejects the formal conventions and rules of

classicism in favour of individual expression and artistic freedom. Plays may feature

unconventional structures, experimental narrative techniques, and non-linear storytelling.

o Focus on the Sublime: Romantic dramas often explore the concept of the sublime, or the

awe-inspiring and transcendent aspects of existence. Characters may experience moments

of epiphany or revelation, confronting the mysteries of the universe and their own place

within it.
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Unit 5 – Dramatic Theories

1. The Sociological Theories

The Sociological Theories of drama emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries, drawing on

sociological perspectives to analyse the role of theatre in society and its impact on individuals

and communities. These theories seek to understand how theatre reflects, critiques, and shapes

social norms, values, and power dynamics.

Key aspects of the Sociological Theories include:

o Social Realism: Social realism in drama focuses on presenting realistic portrayals of

society and its social issues. It aims to reflect the lives and struggles of ordinary people,

often depicting working-class or marginalized characters. Social realism emphasizes

authenticity, accuracy, and social critique. Plays in this tradition often address themes

such as poverty, inequality, labour rights, and social injustice. They seek to raise

awareness of societal problems and prompt audiences to engage with issues of social

relevance.

o Conflict Theory: Conflict theory examines the role of power dynamics and social conflict

in shaping individual and collective behaviour. In drama, conflict theory explores the

tensions and struggles between different social groups, such as the proletariat and the

bourgeoisie, or oppressed and oppressor. Plays informed by conflict theory often depict

characters engaged in power struggles, resistance movements, or revolutionary activities.

They highlight the inequities and injustices inherent in social hierarchies and systems of

oppression, challenging audiences to confront issues of class, race, gender, and privilege.
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o Feminist Theory: Feminist theory examines the ways in which gender shapes identity,

power dynamics, and social relations. In drama, feminist theory explores representations

of women, their experiences, and their roles within patriarchal societies. Feminist plays

often foreground women's voices, perspectives, and agency, challenging traditional

gender roles and stereotypes. They address issues such as gender discrimination, sexual

violence, reproductive rights, and the struggle for gender equality. Feminist theatre seeks

to empower women and amplify their stories, contributing to broader social movements

for gender justice and liberation.

o Postcolonial Theory: Postcolonial theory examines the legacies of colonialism and

imperialism and their impact on culture, identity, and power relations. In drama,

postcolonial theory explores representations of colonial encounters, cultural hybridity,

and resistance to colonial oppression. Postcolonial plays often critique colonial

ideologies, Eurocentric narratives, and the exploitation of colonized peoples and lands.

They give voice to marginalized and indigenous perspectives, challenging colonial

hierarchies and offering alternative narratives of history and identity. Postcolonial theatre

seeks to decolonize the stage and promote cultural diversity, equity, and solidarity.

2. The Psychological Theories

Psychological theories of drama examine the inner workings of the human mind and emotions,

exploring how psychological factors influence character development, motivation, and behaviour
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in theatrical works. These theories draw on insights from psychology to analyse the motivations,

conflicts, and mental states of characters, as well as the emotional responses of audiences.

Major Psychological Theories:

o Psychoanalytic Theory: Developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory explores

the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and the role of repressed desires and

traumas in shaping behaviour. In drama, psychoanalytic theory examines how characters'

psychological conflicts and motivations drive the action of the play, often manifesting in

complex relationships, neurotic behaviours, and symbolic imagery.

o Behavioural Theory: Behavioural theory focuses on observable behaviours and the

influence of environmental stimuli and conditioning on human actions. In drama,

behavioural theory examines how characters' behaviours are shaped by their social and

cultural contexts, as well as their past experiences and interactions with others. It

explores themes such as reinforcement, punishment, and learned patterns of behaviour.

o Cognitive Theory: Cognitive theory explores the role of cognition, perception, and

information processing in shaping human thought and behaviour. In drama, cognitive

theory examines how characters' beliefs, attitudes, and interpretations of events influence

their actions and decisions. It explores themes such as perception, memory, problem-

solving, and decision-making.

3. Formalism

Formalism is a critical approach to literature and drama that focuses on the formal elements of

the text, such as structure, language, imagery, and style, rather than its historical or social
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context. Formalist critics analyse how these formal elements contribute to the overall aesthetic

effect of the work and shape the reader's or viewer's experience.

Outline of Formalism:

o Focus on Form: Formalism emphasizes the importance of form in shaping the meaning

and impact of a literary or dramatic work. Formalist critics pay close attention to the

structure, language, and stylistic devices used by the author or playwright, examining

how these formal elements contribute to the work's artistic unity and coherence.

o Close Reading: Formalist analysis involves close, detailed examination of the text itself,

rather than extrinsic factors such as the author's biography or historical context. Critics

analyze the specific language, imagery, symbolism, and narrative techniques employed in

the work, identifying patterns, motifs, and literary devices that contribute to its overall

aesthetic effect.

o Autotelic Nature: Formalist critics view literary and dramatic works as self-contained,

autonomous entities with their own intrinsic value and meaning. They argue that the

meaning of a text is derived from its formal properties and artistic techniques, rather than

external factors or authorial intention.

o Aesthetic Experience: Formalism emphasizes the importance of the reader's or viewer's

aesthetic experience of the text. Critics explore how formal elements such as rhythm,

tone, and imagery evoke emotional responses, stimulate the imagination, and engage the

senses, contributing to the overall enjoyment and appreciation of the work.

Analytical Methods in Formalism

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o Structural Analysis: Formalist critics look at the text's organisation, flow of events, plot

development, and storytelling devices. They point out recurring themes, patterns, and

structural elements that support the cohesiveness and coherence of the piece.

o Linguistic Analysis: Formalism closely examines the text's language and style, examining

how it employs metaphor, imagery, symbolism, rhythm, and sound. Critics investigate

the ways in which language sculpts meaning, arouses feelings, and produces aesthetic

effects.

o Thematic Analysis: Formalism looks at the text's thematic issues and motifs, spotting

reoccurring concepts, symbols, and topics. The way these thematic components are

developed and incorporated into the work's overall structure is examined by critics.

o Stylistic Analysis: Formalist critics focus on the author's stylistic choices and techniques,

such as point of view, tone, diction, and syntax. They investigate how the tone, ambiance,

and mood of the work are influenced by these stylistic elements.

Application of Formalism to Drama

o Formalist Analysis of Dramatic Structure: Critics examine the structure of the play,

including its acts, scenes, dialogues, and stage directions. They examine the ways in

which story, character, and topic are developed through the playwright's use of structure.

o Formalist Analysis of Language and discourse: Formalism examines the play's language

and discourse, focusing on how it employs dramatic irony, rhetoric, and dialogue.

Language's ability to portray relationships, conflicts, and character attributes is examined

by critics.

o Formalist Critique of Stage Directions and Performance: Formalist critics study the

staging and performance guidelines provided by the author, evaluating the ways in which
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gestures, motions, and stage directions enhance the overall theatrical impression. They

investigate how the performance's visual and aural components improve viewers'

interaction with the text.

Unit 6 – Dramatic Criticism

1. Concept of Criticism

Within the field of literature and drama, criticism encompasses the critical examination,

assessment, and understanding of literary and theatrical works. It entails analysing the formal

components, thematic issues, and stylistic devices used by writers and playwrights in addition to

evaluating their artistic value and place in larger theoretical, historical, and cultural contexts.

o Analysis: Criticism is a detailed examination and analysis of the text with an emphasis on

its language, imagery, symbolism, structure, and thematic issues. Critics examine the

ways in which these formal components support the work's overall meaning, aesthetic

impact, and emotional resonance.

o Evaluation: Criticism entails evaluating the text's value, originality, and quality as well as

its applicability to current problems and concerns. Critics assess the work's merits and

faults, noting its accomplishments and deficiencies in light of aesthetic, intellectual, and

cultural standards.

o Interpretation: Interpreting a text entails delving into its underlying themes, motifs, and

symbols in order to understand its meaning and message. In addition to providing

alternate interpretations and points of view that might improve the reader's

comprehension and appreciation of the work, critics can provide light on the author's

objectives.
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o Contextualization: By considering the social, political, and intellectual forces that

influenced the text's creation and reception, criticism places the work within its historical,

cultural, and theoretical settings. Scholars scrutinise the ways in which the literature

alludes to, interprets, or reacts to particular historical occurrences, cultural shifts, and

ideological arguments.

2. Who is a critique?

A critic is an individual who specialises in the field of criticism, providing literary and theatrical

text analysis, assessment, and interpretation. Critics can be drawn from a wide range of academic

fields, such as sociology, philosophy, theatre, literature, and cultural studies. Depending on their

backgrounds, areas of interest, and level of experience, they approach the text using a variety of

approaches and theoretical frameworks.

The functions and responsibilities of a critic

o Expertise: A critic possesses specialized knowledge and expertise in the field of

literature, drama, or a specific genre or period. They are qualified to provide thoughtful

analyses and assessments of the text since they are conversant with the norms, customs,

and theoretical discussions within their subject.

o Objectivity: A critic aims to be objective in their analysis by avoiding any personal

prejudices or assumptions that can skew their findings and by keeping a critical distance

from the text. They read the material with an open mind, considering several viewpoints

and interpretations before making their decisions.

o Clarity: A critic uses language that is understandable to their target audience to present

their points of view and arguments in a clear, compelling manner. They show a thorough
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and methodical approach to analysis by offering instances and proof from the text to back

up their assertions.