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Christian Constanda

Differential Equations
A Primer for Scientists and Engineers

Second Edition

123
Christian Constanda
The Charles W. Oliphant Professor
of Mathematical Sciences
Department of Mathematics
The University of Tulsa
Tulsa, OK, USA

ISSN 1867-5506 ISSN 1867-5514 (electronic)

Springer Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics and Technology
ISBN 978-3-319-50223-6 ISBN 978-3-319-50224-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50224-3

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016961538

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 34-01

© Springer International Publishing AG 2013, 2017

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
 Preface to the Second Edition

The second edition of this book contains a number of changes, some of substance and
some merely cosmetic. These changes aim to make the book appeal to a wider audience
and enhance its user-friendly features.

• A new chapter (Chap. 10) has been added, which presents some basic numerical
methods (Euler, Euler midpoint, improved Euler, and fourth-order Runge–Kutta)
for approximating the solutions of first-order initial value problems. The exercises
in Sects. 10.1–10.3 and the first ten exercises in Sect. 10.4 are based on the same
problems, so that students can compare the results produced by the different meth-
ods.
• The text of a few sections has been augmented with additional comments, expla-
nations, and examples.
• Appendix B4 has been inserted, to remind users the definition and basic properties
of hyperbolic functions.
• The number of worked examples has been increased from 232 to 246.
• The number of exercises has been increased from 810 to 1010.
• All the misprints/omissions detected in the first edition have been corrected.

In Chap. 10, numerical results are rounded to the fourth decimal place. Also, to
avoid cumbersome notation, and without danger of ambiguity, the approximate equality
symbol has been replaced by the equality sign.
I would like to thank Elizabeth Loew, the executive editor for mathematics at
Springer, New York, for her guidance during the completion of this project and, in
alphabetical order, Kimberly Adams, Peyton Cook, Matteo Dalla Riva, Matthew Don-
ahue, Dale Doty, William Hamill, Shirley Pomeranz, and Dragan Skropanic for con-
structive comments and suggestions and for their help with proofreading parts of the
manuscript.
Finally, my special gratitude goes to my wife, who accepts that for some mathemati-
cians, writing books is an incurable affliction, whose sufferers are in need of constant
support and understanding.

Tulsa, OK, USA Christian Constanda

January 2017
 Preface to the First Edition

Arguably, one of the principles underpinning classroom success is that the instructor
always knows best. Whether this mildly dictatorial premise is correct or not, it seems
logical that performance can only improve if the said instructor also pays attention to
customer feedback. Students’ opinion sometimes contains valuable points and, properly
canvassed and interpreted, may exercise a positive influence on the quality of a course
and the manner of its teaching.
When I polled my students about what they wanted from a textbook, their answers
clustered around five main issues.
The book should be easy to follow without being excessively verbose. A crisp, con-
cise, and to-the-point style is much preferred to long-winded explanations that tend to
obscure the topic and make the reader lose the thread of the argument.
The book should not talk down to the readers. Students feel slighted when they are
treated as if they have no basic knowledge of mathematics, and many regard the multi-
colored, heavily illustrated texts as better suited for inexperienced high schoolers than
for second-year university undergraduates.
The book should keep the theory to a minimum. Lengthy and convoluted proofs should
be dropped in favor of a wide variety of illustrative examples and practice exercises.
The book should not embed computational devices in the instruction process. Although
born in the age of the computer, a majority of students candidly admit that they do
not learn much from electronic number crunching.
The book should be “slim.” The size and weight of a 500-page volume tend to dis-
courage potential readers and bode ill for its selling price.
In my view, a book that tries to be “all things to all men” often ends up disappoint-
ing its intended audience, who might derive greater profit from a less ambitious but
more focused text composed with a twist of pragmatism. The textbooks on differential
equations currently on the market, while professionally written and very comprehen-
sive, fail, I believe, on at least one of the above criteria; by contrast, this book attempts
to comply with the entire set. To what extent it has succeeded is for the end user to
decide. All I can say at this stage is that students in my institution and elsewhere, hav-
ing adopted an earlier draft as prescribed text, declared themselves fully satisfied by it
and agreed that every one of the goals on the above wish list had been met. The final
version incorporates several additions and changes that answer some of their comments
and a number of suggestions received from other colleagues involved in the teaching of
the subject.
In earlier times, mathematical analysis was tackled from the outset with what is called
the ε–δ methodology. Those times are now long gone. Today, with a few exceptions, all
science and engineering students, including mathematics majors, start by going through
calculus I, II, and III, where they learn the mechanics of differentiation and integration
but are not shown the proofs of some of the statements in which the formal techniques
are rooted, because they have not been exposed yet to the –δ language. Those who
want to see these proofs enroll in advanced calculus. Consequently, the natural continu-
ation of the primary calculus sequence for all students is a differential equations course
that teaches them solution techniques without the proofs of a number of fundamental
theorems. The missing proofs are discussed later in an advanced differential equations
sequel (compulsory for mathematics majors and optional for the interested engineering
students), where they are developed with the help of advanced calculus concepts. This
book is intended for use with the first—elementary—differential equations course, taken
by mathematics, physics, and engineering students alike.
Omitted proofs aside, every building block of every method described in this textbook
is assembled with total rigor and accuracy.
The book is written in a style that uses words (sparingly) as a bonding agent between
consecutive mathematical passages, keeping the author’s presence in the background
and allowing the mathematics to be the dominant voice. This should help the readers
navigate the material quite comfortably on their own. After the first examples in each
section or subsection are solved with full details, the solutions to the rest of them
are presented more succinctly: every intermediate stage is explained, but incidental
computation (integration by parts or by substitution, finding the roots of polynomial
equations, etc.) is entrusted to the students, who have learned the basics of calculus
and algebra and should thus be able to perform it routinely.
The contents, somewhat in excess of what can be covered during one semester, include
all the classical topics expected to be found in a first course on ordinary differential
equations. Numerical methods are off the ingredient list since, in my view, they fall
under the jurisdiction of numerical analysis. Besides, students are already acquainted
with such approximating procedures from calculus II, where they are introduced to
Euler’s method. Graphs are used only occasionally, to offer help with less intuitive
concepts (for instance, the stability of an equilibrium solution) and not to present a
visual image of the solution of every example. If the students are interested in the
latter, they can generate it themselves in the computer lab, where qualified guidance is
normally provided.
The book formally splits the “pure” and “applied” sides of the subject by placing
the investigation of selected mathematical models in separate chapters. Boundary value
problems are touched upon briefly (for the benefit of the undergraduates who intend to
go on to study partial differential equations), but without reference to Sturm–Liouville
analysis.
Although only about 260 pages long, the book contains 232 worked examples and 810
exercises. There is no duplication among the examples: no two of them are of exactly
the same kind, as they are intended to make the user understand how the methods are
applied in a variety of circumstances. The exercises aim to cement this knowledge and
are all suitable as homework; indeed, each and every one of them is part of my students’
assignments.
Computer algebra software—specifically, Mathematica  R
—is employed in the book
for only one purpose: to show how to verify quickly that the solutions obtained are
correct. Since, in spite of its name, this package has not been created by mathematicians,
it does not always do what a mathematician wants. In many other respects, it is a
perfectly good instrument, which, it is hoped, will keep on improving so that when,
say, version 54 is released, all existing deficiencies will have been eliminated. I take
the view that to learn mathematics properly, one must use pencil and paper and solve
problems by brain and hand alone. To encourage and facilitate this process, almost all
the examples and exercises in the book have been constructed with integers and a few
easily managed fractions as coefficients and constant terms.
Truth be told, it often seems that the aim of the average student in any course
these days is to do just enough to pass it and earn the credits. This book provides
such students with everything they need to reach their goal. The gifted ones, who are
interested not only in the how but also in the why of mathematical methods and try
hard to improve from a routinely achieved 95% on their tests to a full 100%, can use
the book as a springboard for progress to more specialized sources (see the list under
Further Reading) or for joining an advanced course where the theoretical aspects left
out of the basic one are thoroughly investigated and explained.
And now, two side issues related to mathematics, though not necessarily to differen-
tial equations.
Scientists, and especially mathematicians, need in their work more symbols than the
Latin alphabet has to offer. This forces them to borrow from other scripts, among which
Greek is the runaway favorite. However, academics—even English speaking ones—
cannot agree on a common pronunciation of the Greek letters. My choice is to go to
the source, so to speak, and simply follow the way of the Greeks themselves. If anyone
else is tempted to try my solution, they can find details in Appendix D.
Many instructors would probably agree that one of the reasons why some students do
not get the high grades they aspire to is a cocktail of annoying bad habits and incorrect
algebra and calculus manipulation “techniques” acquired (along with the misuse of
the word “like”) in elementary school. My book Dude, Can You Count? (Copernicus,
Springer, 2009) systematically collects the most common of these bloopers and shows
how any number of absurdities can be “proved” if such errors are accepted as legitimate
mathematical handling. Dude is a recommended reading for my classroom attendees,
who, I am pleased to report, now commit far fewer errors in their written presentations
than they used to. Alas, the cure for the “like” affliction continues to elude me.
This book would not have seen the light of day without the special assistance that
I received from Elizabeth Loew, my mathematics editor at Springer–New York. She
monitored the evolution of the manuscript at every stage, offered advice and encourage-
ment, and was particularly understanding over deadlines. I wish to express my gratitude
to her for all the help she gave me during the completion of this project.
I am also indebted to my colleagues Peyton Cook and Kimberly Adams, who trawled
the text for errors and misprints and made very useful remarks, to Geoffrey Price for
useful discussions, and to Dale Doty, our departmental Mathematica  R
guru. (Readers
interested in finding out more about this software are directed to the website http://
www.wolfram.com/mathematica/.)
Finally, I want to acknowledge my students for their interest in working through all
the examples and exercises and for flagging up anything that caught their attention as
being inaccurate or incomplete.
My wife, of course, receives the highest accolade for her inspiring professionalism,
patience, and steadfast support.

Tulsa, OK, USA Christian Constanda

April 2013
 Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Calculus Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Differential Equations and Their Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Classification of Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 First-Order Equations 15
2.1 Separable Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Homogeneous Polar Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 Bernoulli Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.5 Riccati Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6 Exact Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.7 Existence and Uniqueness Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.8 Direction Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3 Mathematical Models with First-Order Equations 43

3.1 Models with Separable Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Models with Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Autonomous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4 Linear Second-Order Equations 63

4.1 Mathematical Models with Second-Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2 Algebra Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Homogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.3.1 Initial Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.3.2 Boundary Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.4 Homogeneous Equations with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4.1 Real and Distinct Characteristic Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.4.2 Repeated Characteristic Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.4.3 Complex Conjugate Characteristic Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5 Nonhomogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.5.1 Method of Undetermined Coefficients: Simple Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
 4.5.2 Method of Undetermined Coefficients: General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5.3 Method of Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.6 Cauchy–Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.7 Nonlinear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

5 Mathematical Models with Second-Order Equations 105

5.1 Free Mechanical Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.1.1 Undamped Free Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.1.2 Damped Free Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2 Forced Mechanical Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.1 Undamped Forced Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2.2 Damped Forced Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.3 Electrical Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

6 Higher-Order Linear Equations 119

6.1 Modeling with Higher-Order Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2 Algebra Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.1 Matrices and Determinants of Higher Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2.2 Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2.3 Linear Independence and the Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3 Homogeneous Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.4 Nonhomogeneous Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.1 Method of Undetermined Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.2 Method of Variation of Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

7 Systems of Differential Equations 139

7.1 Modeling with Systems of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
7.2 Algebra Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2.1 Operations with Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.2.2 Linear Independence and the Wronskian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
7.2.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.3 Systems of First-Order Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
7.4 Homogeneous Linear Systems with Constant Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
7.4.1 Real and Distinct Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.4.2 Complex Conjugate Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
7.4.3 Repeated Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.5 Other Features of Homogeneous Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.6 Nonhomogeneous Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

8 The Laplace Transformation 189

8.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8.2 Further Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.3 Solution of IVPs for Single Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3.1 Continuous Forcing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.3.2 Piecewise Continuous Forcing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.3.3 Forcing Terms with the Dirac Delta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
8.3.4 Equations with Variable Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8.4 Solution of IVPs for Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9 Series Solutions 221
9.1 Power Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.2 Series Solution Near an Ordinary Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
9.3 Singular Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.4 Solution Near a Regular Singular Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.4.1 Distinct Roots That Do Not Differ by an Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.4.2 Equal Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
9.4.3 Distinct Roots Differing by an Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

10 Numerical Methods 247

10.1 The Euler Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.2 The Euler Midpoint Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
10.3 The Improved Euler Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.4 The Runge–Kutta Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256

A Algebra Techniques 259

A.1 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
A.2 Synthetic Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

B Calculus Techniques 263

B.1 Sign of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
B.2 Integration by Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
B.3 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
B.4 Overview of the Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

C Table of Laplace Transforms 267

D The Greek Alphabet 269

Further Reading 271

Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises 273

Index 295
 Acronyms

DE Differential equation
IC Initial condition
BC Boundary condition
IVP Initial value problem
BVP Boundary value problem
GS General solution
PS Particular solution
FSS Fundamental set of solutions
Chapter 1
Introduction

Mathematical modeling is one of the most important and powerful methods for studying
phenomena occurring in our universe. Generally speaking, such a model is made up
of one or several equations from which we aim to determine one or several unknown
quantities of interest in terms of other, prescribed, quantities. The unknown quantities
turn out in many cases to be functions of a set of variables. Since very often the physical
or empirical laws governing evolutionary processes implicate the rates of change of these
functions with respect to their variables, and since rates of change are represented in
mathematics by derivatives, it is important for us to gain knowledge of how to solve
equations where the unknown functions occur together with their derivatives.
Mathematical modeling consists broadly of three stages: the construction of the
model in the form of a collection of equations, the solution of these equations, and the
interpretation of the results from a practical point of view. In what follows we are con-
cerned mostly with the second stage, although at times we briefly touch upon the other
two as well. Furthermore, we restrict our attention to equations where the unknowns
are functions of only one independent (real) variable. We also assume throughout that
every equation we mention and study obeys the principle of physical unit consistency,
and that the quantities involved have been scaled and non-dimensionalized according
to some suitable criteria. Consequently, with very few exceptions, no explicit reference
will be made to any physical units.

1.1 Calculus Prerequisites

Let f be a function of a variable x, defined on an interval J of the real line. We denote

by f (x) the value of f at x.
Leaving full mathematical rigor aside, we recall that f is said to have a limit α at a
point x0 in J if the values f (x) get arbitrarily close to α as x gets arbitrarily close to
x0 from either side of x0 ; in this case, we write

lim f (x) = α.
x→x0

We also say that f is continuous at x0 if

lim f (x) = f (x0 ),

x→x0
2 1 Introduction

and that f is differentiable at x0 if

f (x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f  (x0 ) = lim
h→0 h
exists. If this happens at every point in J, then f is said to be differentiable on J and
the function f  defined by the limit above is called the (first-order) derivative of f . This
process can be generalized to define higher-order derivatives. We denote the derivatives
of f by f  , f  , f  , f (4) , f (5) , and so on; alternatively, sometimes we use the more formal
notation
df d2 f d3 f
, 2
, , ....
dx dx dx3
Since at some points in the book we have brief encounters with functions of several
variables, it is useful to list in advance some of the properties of these functions that
are relevant to their differentiation and integration. For simplicity and without loss of
generality, we confine ourselves to the two-dimensional case.
Let f be a function of two variables x and y, defined in a region S (called the domain
of f ) in the Cartesian (x, y)-plane. We denote the value of f at a point P (x, y) in S by
f (x, y) or f (P ).

(i) The function f is said to have a limit α at a point P0 in its domain S if

lim f (P ) = α,
P →P0

with P approaching P0 on any path lying in S. The function f is called continuous

at P0 if
lim f (P ) = f (P0 ).
P →P0

(ii) Suppose that we fix the value of y. Then f becomes a function f1 that depends on
x alone. If f1 is differentiable, we call f1 the partial derivative of f with respect to
x and write
∂f
f1 = fx = .
∂x
The other way around, when x is fixed, f becomes a function f2 of y alone, which,
if differentiable, defines the partial derivative of f with respect to y, denoted by
∂f
f2 = fy = .
∂y
Formally, the definitions of these first-order partial derivatives are

f (x + h, y) − f (x, y) f (x, y + h) − f (x, y)

fx (x, y) = lim , fy (x, y) = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

(iii) We can repeat the above process starting with fx and then fy , and define the
second-order partial derivatives of f , namely
   
∂ ∂f ∂2f ∂ ∂f ∂2f
fxx = (fx )x = = , f xy = (f x ) y = = ,
∂x ∂x ∂x2 ∂y ∂x ∂y∂x
   
∂ ∂f ∂2f ∂ ∂f ∂2f
fyx = (fy )x = = , fyy = (fy )y = = .
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂y ∂y ∂y 2
1.2 Differential Equations and Their Solutions 3

If the mixed second-order derivatives fxy and fyx are continuous in a disk (that is,
in a finite region bounded by a circle) inside the domain S of f , then fxy = fyx
at every point in that disk. Since all the functions in our examples satisfy this
continuity condition, we will not verify it explicitly.
(iv) The differential of the function f is

df = fx dx + fy dy.

(v) The chain rule of differentiation is also a logical extension of the same rule for
functions of one variable. Thus, if x = x(r, s), y = y(r, s), and f (x, y) = g(r, s),
then
g r = fx x r + fy yr ,
g s = fx x s + fy ys .

(vi) When we evaluate the indefinite integral of a two-variable function f with respect
to one of its variables, the arbitrary constant of integration is a constant only as
far as that variable is concerned, but may depend on the other variable. If, say, F1
is an antiderivative of f with respect to x, then

f (x, y) dx = F1 (x, y) + C1 (y),

where C1 is an arbitrary function of y. Symmetrically, if F2 is an antiderivative of

f with respect to y, then

f (x, y) dy = F2 (x, y) + C2 (x),

where C2 is an arbitrary function of x.

1.1 Example. For
f (x, y) = 6x2 y − 4xy 3
we have
fx = 12xy − 4y 3 , fy = 6x2 − 12xy 2 ,
fxx = 12y, fxy = fyx = 12x − 12y 2 , fyy = −24xy,
 
f (x, y) dx = (6x2 y − 4xy 3 ) dx = 2x3 y − 2x2 y 3 + C1 (y),
 
f (x, y) dy = (6x2 y − 4xy 3 ) dy = 3x2 y 2 − xy 4 + C2 (x).

1.2 Remark. We use a number of different symbols for functions and their variables.
Usually—but not always—a generic unknown function (to be determined) is denoted
by y and its variable by t or x.

1.2 Differential Equations and Their Solutions

To avoid cumbersome language and notation, unless specific restrictions are mentioned,
all mathematical expressions and relationships in what follows will be understood to
be defined for the largest set of ‘admissible’ values of their variables and function
4 1 Introduction

components—in other words, at all the points on the real line where they can be eval-
uated according to context.
1.3 Definition. Roughly speaking, a differential equation (DE, for short) is an equation
that contains an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives.
Here are a few examples of DEs that occur in some simple mathematical models.
1.4 Example. (Population growth) If P (t) is the size of a population at time t > 0 and
β(t) and δ(t) are the birth and death rates within the population, then
 
P  = β(t) − δ(t) P.

1.5 Example. (Radioactive decay) The number N (t) of atoms of a radioactive isotope
present at time t > 0 satisfies the equation

N  = −κN,

where κ = const > 0 is the constant rate of decay of the isotope.

1.6 Example. (Free fall in gravity) If v(t) is the velocity at time t > 0 of a material
particle falling in a gravitational field, then

mv  = mg − γv,

where the positive constants m, g, and γ are, respectively, the particle mass, the accel-
eration of gravity, and a coefficient characterizing the resistance of the ambient medium
to motion.
1.7 Example. (Newton’s law of cooling) Let T (t) be the temperature at time t > 0 of
an object immersed in an outside medium of temperature θ. Then

T  = −k(T − θ),

where k = const > 0 is the heat transfer coefficient of the object material.
1.8 Example. (RC electric circuit) Consider an electric circuit with a source, a resistor,
and a capacitor connected in series. We denote by V (t) and Q(t) the voltage generated
by the source and the electric charge at time t > 0, and by R and C the (constant)
resistance and capacitance. Then
1
RQ + Q = V (t).
C
1.9 Example. (Compound interest) If S(t) is the sum of money present at time t > 0
in a savings account that pays interest (compounded continuously) at a rate of r, then

S  = rS.

1.10 Example. (Loan repayment) Suppose that a sum of money is borrowed from a
bank at a (constant) interest rate of r. If m is the (constant) repayment per unit time,
then the outstanding loan amount A(t) at time t > 0 satisfies the differential equation

A = rA − m

for 0 < t < n, where n is the number of time units over which the loan is taken.
1.2 Differential Equations and Their Solutions 5

1.11 Example. (Equilibrium temperature in a rod ) The equilibrium distribution of

temperature u(x) in a heat-conducting rod of length l with an insulated lateral surface
and an internal heat source proportional to the temperature is the solution of the DE

u + qu = 0

for 0 < x < l, where q is a physical constant of the rod material.

Informally, we say that a function is a solution of a DE if, when replaced in the
equation, satisfies it identically (that is, for all admissible values of the variable). A more
rigorous definition of this concept will be given at the end of the chapter.
1.12 Example. Consider the equation

y  − 3y  + 2y = 0.

If y1 (t) = et , then y1 (t) = et and y1 (t) = et , so, for all real values of t,

y1 − 3y1 + 2y1 = et − 3et + 2et = 0,

which means that y1 is a solution of the given DE. Also, for y2 (t) = e2t we have
y2 (t) = 2e2t and y2 (t) = 4e2t , so

y2 − 3y2 + 2y2 = 4e2t − 6e2t + 2e2t = 0;

hence, y2 is another solution of the equation.

1.13 Example. The functions defined by

y1 (t) = 2t2 + ln t, y2 (t) = −t−1 + ln t

are solutions of the equation

t2 y  − 2y = −1 − 2 ln t

for t > 0 since

y1 (t) = 4t + t−1 , y1 (t) = 4 − t−2 ,
y2 (t) = t−2 + t−1 , y2 (t) = −2t−3 − t−2
and so, for all t > 0,

t2 y1 − 2y1 = t2 (4 − t−2 ) − 2(2t2 + ln t) = −1 − 2 ln t,

t2 y2 − 2y2 = t2 (−2t−3 − t−2 ) − 2(−t−1 + ln t) = −1 − 2 ln t.

1.14 Remark. Every solution y = y(t) is represented graphically by a curve in the

(t, y)-plane, which is called a solution curve.

Exercises

Verify that the function y is a solution of the given DE.

1 y(t) = 5e−3t + 2, y  + 3y = 6.
2 y(t) = −2tet/2 , 2y  − y = −4et/2 .
6 1 Introduction

3 y(t) = −4e2t cos(3t) + t2 − 2, y  − 4y  + 13y = 13t2 − 8t − 24.

4 y(t) = (2t − 1)e−3t/2 − 4e2t , 2y  − y  − 6y = −14e−3t/2 .
5 y(t) = 2e−2t − e−3t + 8e−t/2 , y  + 4y  + y  − 6y = −45e−t/2 .
6 y(t) = cos(2t) − 3 sin(2t) + 2t, y  + y  + 4y  + 4y = 8(t + 1).
7 y(t) = 2t2 + 3t−3/2 − 2et/2 , 2t2 y  + ty  − 6y = (12 − t − t2 )et/2 .
8 y(t) = 1 − 2t−1 + t−2 (2 ln t − 1), t2 y  + 5ty  + 4y = 4 − 2t−1 .

1.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions

Examples 1.12 and 1.13 show that a DE may have more than one solution. This seems
to contradict our expectation that one set of physical data should produce one and
only one effect. We therefore conclude that, to yield a unique solution, a DE must be
accompanied by some additional restrictions.
To further clarify what was said in Remark 1.2, we normally denote the indepen-
dent variable by t in DE problems where the solution—and, if necessary, some of its
derivatives—are required to assume prescribed values at an admissible point t0 . Re-
strictions of this type are called initial conditions (ICs). They are appropriate for the
models mentioned in Examples 1.4–1.9 with t0 = 0.
The independent variable is denoted by x mostly when the DE is to be satisfied on
a finite interval a < x < b, as in Example 1.11 with a = 0 and b = l, and the solution
and/or some of its derivatives must assume prescribed values at the two end-points
x = a and x = b. These restrictions are called boundary conditions (BCs).

1.15 Definition. The solution obtained without supplementary conditions is termed

the general solution (GS) of the given DE. Clearly, the GS includes all possible solutions
of the equation and, therefore, contains a certain degree of arbitrariness. When ICs or
BCs are applied to the GS, we arrive at a particular solution (PS).

1.16 Definition. A DE and its attending ICs (BCs) form an initial value problem
(IVP) (boundary value problem (BVP)).

1.17 Example. For the simple DE

y  = 5 − 6t

we have, by direct integration,


y(t) = (5 − 6t) dt = 5t − 3t2 + C,

where C is an arbitrary constant. This is the GS of the equation, valid for all real values
of t. However, if we turn the DE into an IVP by adjoining, say, the IC y(0) = −1, then
the GS yields y(0) = C = −1, and we get the PS

y(t) = 5t − 3t2 − 1.

1.18 Example. To obtain the GS of the DE

y  = 6t + 8,
1.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions 7

we need to integrate both sides twice; thus, in the first instance we have

y (t) = (6t + 8) dt = 3t2 + 8t + C1 , C1 = const,


from which

y(t) = (3t2 + 8t + C1 ) dt = t3 + 4t2 + C1 t + C2 , C2 = const,

for all real values of t. Since the GS here contains two arbitrary constants, we will need
two ICs to identify a PS. Suppose that

y(0) = 1, y  (0) = −2;

then, replacing t by 0 in the expressions for y and y  , we find that C1 = −2 and C2 = 1,

so the PS corresponding to our choice of ICs is

y(t) = t3 + 4t2 − 2t + 1.

1.19 Example. Let us rewrite the DE in Example 1.18 as

y  = 6x + 8

and restrict it to the finite interval 0 < x < 1. Obviously, the GS remains the same
(with t replaced by x), but this time we determine the constants by prescribing BCs.
If we assume that
y(0) = −3, y(1) = 6,
we set x = 0 and then x = 1 in the GS and use these conditions to find that C1 and C2
satisfy
C2 = −3, C1 + C2 = 1;
hence, C1 = 4, which means that the solution of our BVP is

y(x) = x3 + 4x2 + 4x − 3.

1.20 Example. A material particle moves without friction along a straight line, and
its acceleration at time t > 0 is a(t) = e−t . If the particle starts moving from the point 1
with initial velocity 2, then its subsequent position s(t) can be computed very easily by
recalling that acceleration is the derivative of velocity, which, in turn, is the derivative
of the function that indicates the position of the particle; that is,

v  = a, s = v.

Hence, we need to solve two simple IVPs: one to compute v and the other to compute s.
In view of the additional information given in the problem, the first IVP is

v  = e−t , v(0) = 2.

Here, the DE has the GS


v(t) = e−t dt = −e−t + C.

Using the IC, we find that C = 3, so

v(t) = 3 − e−t .
20 2 First-Order Equations

2.2 Linear Equations

The standard form of this type of DE is

y  + p(t)y = q(t), (2.3)

where p and q are prescribed functions. To solve the equation, we first multiply it by an
unknown nonzero function μ(t), called an integrating factor. Omitting, for simplicity,
the explicit mention of the variable t, we have

μy  + μpy = μq. (2.4)

We now choose μ so that the left-hand side in (2.4) is the derivative of the product μy;
that is,
μy  + μpy = (μy) = μy  + μ y.
Clearly, this occurs if
μ = μp.
The above separable equation yields, in the usual way,
 
dμ
= p dt.
μ
Integrating, we arrive at 
ln |μ| = p dt,

so, as in Example 2.4,

 
μ = C exp p dt , C = const = 0.

Since we need just one such function, we may take C = 1 and thus consider the inte-
grating factor
 
μ(t) = exp p(t) dt . (2.5)

With this choice of μ, equation (2.4) becomes

(μy) = μq; (2.6)

hence,

μy = μq dt + C,
or  
1
y(t) = μ(t)q(t) dt + C , C = const. (2.7)
μ(t)

2.7 Remarks. (i) Technically speaking, C does not need to be inserted explicitly in
(2.7) since the indefinite integral on the right-hand side produces an arbitrary
constant, but it is good practice to have it in the formula for emphasis, and to
prevent its accidental omission when the integration is performed.

(ii) It should be obvious that the factor 1/μ cannot be moved inside the integral to be
canceled with the factor μ already there.
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