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 Galois Theory

Since 1973, Galois theory has been educating undergraduate students on Galois
groups and classical Galois theory. In Galois Theory, Fifth Edition, mathemati-
cian and popular science author Ian Stewart updates this well-established text-
book for today’s algebra students.

New to the Fifth Edition

• Reorganised and revised Chapters 7 and 13

• New exercises and examples
• Expanded, updated references
• Further historical material on figures besides Galois: Omar Khayyam,
Vandermonde, Ruffini, and Abel
• A new final chapter discussing other directions in which Galois theory has
developed: the inverse Galois problem, differential Galois theory, and a (very)
brief introduction to p-adic Galois representations
This bestseller continues to deliver a rigorous, yet engaging, treatment of the
subject while keeping pace with current educational requirements. More than
200 exercises and a wealth of historical notes augment the proofs, formulas, and
theorems.

Ian Stewart is an emeritus professor of mathematics at the University of War-

wick and a fellow of the Royal Society. Dr. Stewart has been a recipient of many
honors, including the Royal Society’s Faraday Medal, the IMA Gold Medal, the
AAAS Public Understanding of Science and Technology Award, and the LMS/
IMA Zeeman Medal. He has published more than 210 scientific papers and nu-
merous books, including several bestsellers co-authored with Terry Pratchett and
Jack Cohen that combine fantasy with nonfiction.
Galois Theory
Fifth Edition

Ian Stewart
University of Warwick, UK
Fifth edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

© 2023 Ian Nicolas Stewart

First edition published by CRC Press 1973

Second edition published by CRC Press 1989
Third edition published by CRC Press 2004
Fourth edition published by CRC Press 2015

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and pub-
lisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced
in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not
been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so
we may rectify it in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information stor-
age or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers.

For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.copyright.com
or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-10159-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-10158-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-21394-9 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003213949

Typeset in CMR10 font

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.

Publisher’s note: This book has been prepared from camera-ready copy provided by the author.

Access the Support Material: www.Routledge.com/9781032101590

 Portrait of Évariste Galois, age 15.

ISTUDY
 Contents

Acknowledgements xiii

Preface to the Fifth Edition xv

Historical Introduction xix

1 Classical Algebra 1

1.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Subfields and Subrings of the Complex Numbers . . . . . . 3
1.3 Solving Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Solution by Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 The Fundamental Theorem

of Algebra 19

2.1 Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 Factorisation of Polynomials 31

3.1 The Euclidean Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3.2 Irreducibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3 Gauss’s Lemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Eisenstein’s Criterion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5 Reduction Modulo p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6 Zeros of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

4 Field Extensions 49

4.1 Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.2 Rational Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Simple Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

vii

ISTUDY
 viii Contents

5 Simple Extensions 59

5.1 Algebraic and Transcendental Extensions . . . . . . . . . . 59

5.2 The Minimal Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.3 Simple Algebraic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4 Classifying Simple Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

6 The Degree of an Extension 69

6.1 Definition of the Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

6.2 The Tower Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6.3 Primitive Element Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7 Ruler-and-Compass Constructions 79

7.1 Approximate Constructions and More General

Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
7.2 Constructions in C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.3 Specific Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.4 Impossibility Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
7.5 Construction from a Given Set of Points . . . . . . . . . . . 94

8 The Idea behind Galois Theory 101

8.1 A First Look at Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

8.2 Galois Groups According to Galois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.3 How to Use the Galois Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.4 The Abstract Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
8.5 Polynomials and Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
8.6 The Galois Correspondence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.7 Diet Galois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.8 Natural Irrationalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

9 Normality and Separability 123

9.1 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

9.2 Normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.3 Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

10 Counting Principles 131

10.1 Linear Independence of Monomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . 131

ISTUDY
 Contents ix

11 Field Automorphisms 139

11.1 K-Monomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139

11.2 Normal Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

12 The Galois Correspondence 145

12.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . 145

13 Worked Examples 149

13.1 Examples of Galois Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

13.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

14 Solubility and Simplicity 161

14.1 Soluble Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

14.2 Simple Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
14.3 Cauchy’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

15 Solution by Radicals 171

15.1 Radical Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

15.2 An Insoluble Quintic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
15.3 Other Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

16 Abstract Rings and Fields 181

16.1 Rings and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

16.2 General Properties of Rings and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
16.3 Polynomials Over General Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
16.4 The Characteristic of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
16.5 Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

17 Abstract Field Extensions and Galois Groups 195

17.1 Minimal Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195

17.2 Simple Algebraic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
17.3 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
17.4 Normality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
17.5 Separability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
17.6 Galois Theory for Abstract Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
17.7 Conjugates and Minimal Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
17.8 The Primitive Element Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
17.9 Algebraic Closure of a Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209

ISTUDY
 x Contents

18 The General Polynomial Equation 215

18.1 Transcendence Degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

18.2 Elementary Symmetric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
18.3 The General Polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
18.4 Cyclic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
18.5 Solving Equations of Degree Four or Less . . . . . . . . . . 225
18.6 Explicit Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

19 Finite Fields 233

19.1 Structure of Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

19.2 The Multiplicative Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
19.3 Counterexample to the Primitive Element
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
19.4 Application to Solitaire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

20 Regular Polygons 241

20.1 What Euclid Knew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

20.2 Which Constructions are Possible? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
20.3 Regular Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
20.4 Fermat Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
20.5 How to Construct a Regular 17-gon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

21 Circle Division 257

21.1 Genuine Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

21.2 Fifth Roots Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
21.3 Vandermonde Revisited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
21.4 The General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
21.5 Cyclotomic Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
21.6 Galois Group of Q(ζ)/Q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
21.7 Constructions Using a Trisector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274

22 Calculating Galois Groups 283

22.1 Transitive Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

22.2 Bare Hands on the Cubic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
22.3 The Discriminant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
22.4 General Algorithm for the Galois Group . . . . . . . . . . . 288

ISTUDY
 Contents xi

23 Algebraically Closed Fields 293

23.1 Ordered Fields and Their Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293

23.2 Sylow’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
23.3 The Algebraic Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

24 Transcendental Numbers 301

24.1 Irrationality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

24.2 Transcendence of e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
24.3 Transcendence of π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

25 What Did Galois Do or Know? 311

25.1 List of the Relevant Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

25.2 The First Memoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
25.3 What Galois Proved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
25.4 What is Galois up to? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
25.5 Alternating Groups, Especially A5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
25.6 Simple Groups Known to Galois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
25.7 Speculations about Proofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
25.8 A5 is Unique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324

26 Further Directions 327

26.1 Inverse Galois Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

26.2 Differential Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
26.3 p-adic Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

References 337

Index 345

ISTUDY
ISTUDY
 Acknowledgements

The following illustrations are reproduced, with permission, from the sources
listed.
Frontispiece and Figures 4–6, 23 from Robert Bourgne and J.-P. Azra
Écrits et Mémoires Mathématiques d’Évariste Galois, Gauthier-Villars, Paris
1962.
Figure 1 (left) from B.L. van der Waerden, Erwachende Wissenschaft 2:
Die Anfänge der Astronomie, Birkhäuser, Basel 1968.
Figures 1 (right), 2 (right) from David M. Burton, The History of Mathe-
matics: an Introduction, Allyn and Bacon, Boston 1985.
Figure 27 from Carl Friedrich Gauss, Werke, Vol. X, Georg Olms,
Hildesheim and New York 1973.
The quotations in Chapter 25 are reproduced with permission from
Peter M. Neumann, The Mathematical Writings of Évariste Galois, European
Mathematical Society, Zürich 2011.

xiii

ISTUDY
ISTUDY
 Preface to the Fifth Edition

The first edition of Galois Theory appeared in 1973. New editions introduced
various changes, especially the third, which began with a more concrete treat-
ment using subfields of the complex numbers. This change was made so that
students could appreciate the main ideas of Galois theory without becom-
ing involved in a large amount of background material from abstract algebra.
Anyone preferring the abstract treatment could omit this introductory mate-
rial. This decision was a compromise and had a mixed reception. After wide
consultation with mathematicians who have been teaching courses using the
book, I have retained this two-stage structure. Since five prefaces seem ex-
cessive, this one begins with edited extracts from previous prefaces. Then I
summarise the changes made for this edition.

First and Second Editions

Galois theory is a showpiece of mathematical unification, bringing together
several different branches of the subject and creating a powerful machine for
the study of problems of considerable historical and mathematical importance.
The central theme is the application of the Galois group to the quintic equa-
tion. As well as the traditional approach by way of the ‘general’ polynomial
equation, I have included a direct approach that demonstrates the insolubility
by radicals of a specific quintic polynomial with integer coefficients, a more
convincing result. Other topics include the impossibility of duplicating the
cube, trisecting the angle, and squaring the circle; the construction of regular
polygons; the solution of cubic and quartic equations; the structure of finite
fields; and the ‘Fundamental Theorem of Algebra’.
In order to make the treatment as self-contained as possible, and to bring
together all the relevant material in a single volume, I have included several
digressions. The most important of these is a proof of the transcendence of
π, which all mathematicians should see at least once in their lives. There is
a discussion of Fermat numbers, to emphasise that the problem of regular
polygons, although reduced to a simple-looking question in number theory,
is by no means completely solved. A construction for the regular 17-gon is

xv

ISTUDY
 xvi Preface to the Fifth Edition

given, on the grounds that such an unintuitive result requires more than just
an existence proof.
Much of the motivation for the subject is historical, and I have taken the
opportunity to weave historical comments into the body of the book where
appropriate. There are two sections of purely historical matter: a short sketch
of the history of polynomials, and a biography of Évariste Galois. The latter
is culled from several sources, listed in the references.
The text includes many examples that illustrate the general theory, and
there are around two hundred exercises, with twenty harder ones for the more
advanced or more ambitious student.

Third and Fourth Editions

The first two editions of Galois Theory followed the fashion of the time,
which favoured generality and abstraction. But educational fashions change,
and at many institutions, the presentation of mathematics veered back towards
specific examples and a preference for more concrete presentations.
Since both approaches are valuable, the story in these editions starts with
polynomials over the complex numbers, and the central quest is to understand
when such polynomials have solutions that can be expressed by radicals—
algebraic expressions involving nothing more sophisticated than nth roots.
Only after this tale is complete is any serious attempt made to generalise the
theory to arbitrary fields, and to exploit the language and thought-patterns
of rings, ideals, and modules.

Fifth Edition
The main issue was whether to reverse the decision made in the third edi-
tion: to begin with a concrete treatment before introducing a slicker abstract
version. After widespread consultation—eleven expert reviewers, sometimes
with differing opinions—I decided not to make any significant changes to the
overall structure. However, I have tried, as far as possible, to follow their
advice on almost everything else.
I have brought the notation up to date, the main changes being L/K
rather than L:K for a field extension, and Fq rather than GF(q) for the finite
field with q elements. The references have been updated, known typos have
been corrected, and all mathematical figures have been redrawn. Chapter 7

ISTUDY
 xxviii Historical Introduction

FIGURE 4: Portrait of Évariste Galois drawn from memory by his brother

Alfred, 1848.

Galois (Figure 4) was born at Bourg-la-Reine near Paris on 25 October

1811. His father Nicolas-Gabriel Galois was a Republican (Kollros 1949)—
that is, he favoured the abolition of the monarchy. He was head of the village
liberal party, and after Louis XVIII returned to the throne in 1814, Nicolas
became town mayor. For the first twelve years of his life Galois was educated
by his mother Adelaide-Marie (née Demante), a fluent reader of Latin, and
his childhood appears to have been a happy one. In October 1823 he entered
a preparatory school, the College de Louis-le-Grand. There he got his first
taste of revolutionary politics: during his first term the students rebelled and
refused to chant in chapel. He also witnessed heavy-handed retribution, for a
hundred of the students were expelled for their disobedience.
Galois performed well during his first two years at school, obtaining first
prize in Latin, but then boredom set in. As refuge from the tedium, he began
to take a serious interest in mathematics. He came across a copy of Legendre’s
Éléments de Géométrie, a classic text which broke with the Euclidean tradition
of school geometry. He read the original memoirs of Lagrange and Abel, and
by the age of fifteen he was reading material intended only for professional
mathematicians. But his classwork remained uninspired, and he seemed to

ISTUDY
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 ERICA Pattersonia.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris aristatis, inclusis; foliis quaternis, floribus axillaribus, e foliis

emergentibus, cylindricis, luteis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus, basi ramosus, dein simplicissimus,

pyramidatus, ramulis brevissimis vestitus.
Folia quaterna, linearia, incurvata, acuta, glabra, subtus sulcata, petiolis
brevissimis, adpressis.
Flores plures, axillares, in medio cauli e foliis recti emergentes,
pedunculis fere nullis.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, exterius triphyllum, foliolis ovatis,
acuminatis, interius tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, apice recurvatis.
Corolla cylindrica, subpollicaria, glabra, lutea, ore arctato, quadrisido
limbo reflexo.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, corollæ subæqualia, receptaculo
inserta. Antheris aristatis.
Pistillum. Germen campanulatum. Stylus filiformis, tortuosus, exsertus.
Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a Martio ad Augustum.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Calyx lente auctus.
3. Stamina et Pistillum.
 4. Stamina a Pistillo diducta anthera una lente aucta.
5. Stylus et Stigma lente aucta.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with bearded tips, within the blossom; leaves growing by fours, the
flowers grow close to the stem, peeping out from amongst the leaves, are
cylindrical, and yellow.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, two feet high, upright, branching out at the base, then
forming a simple, pyramidal spike, covered by very short branches.
Leaves grow by fours, linear, curved, sharp-pointed, and smooth,
furrowed underneath, having short leaf-stems pressed to the branches.
Flowers are numerous, growing close to, and about the middle of the
stem, peeping straight out from amongst the leaves, with scarce any
footstalks.
Empalement. Cup, double the outer three-leaved, which are oval, and
pointed, the inner four-leaved, being awl-shaped, and bent back at the point.
Blossom cylindrical, near an inch long, smooth, yellow, and narrow at
the mouth, having a four-lobed, reflexed border.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads, nearly the length of the blossom, fixed
into the receptacle. Tips bearded.
Pointal. Seed-vessel bell-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, twisted, and
without the blossom. Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from March till August.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Empalement magnified.
3. The Chives and Pointal.
4. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
5. The Shaft and its Summit magnified.
 ERICA Petiveriana.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, exsertis, longissimis; corollis clavatis, pollicaribus,

luteis; calyce imbricato, foliis ternis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis strictissimus, rigidus, parum ramosus; ramulis brevibus,

frequentissimis.
Folia terna, linearia, obtusa, in apicibus ramulorum fasciculata, petiolis
adpressis.
Flores in medio ramorum, ramulis ultimis terminales, bini, vel terni,
recurvi; pedunculi brevissimi, bracteis tribus calyciformibus.
Calyx. Perianthium duplex, imbricatum, interius tetraphyllum, exterius
triphyllum, foliolis ovatis, acuminatis, concavis, luteis, glabris.
Corolla clavata, curvata, lutea, pollicaris, glabra, ad basin grossa,
quadrifida; oris laciniis incurvis, adpressis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, receptaculo inserta; antheræ muticæ,
exsertæ, longissimæ.
Pistillum. Germen ovatum. Stylus filiformis. Stigma tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Aprili in Junium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Calyx et Corolla.
2. Corolla.
3. Calyx lente auctus.
4. Stamina et Pistillum.
 5. Stamina a Pistillo diduct; antherâ unâ lente auctâ.
6. Stylus et Stigma lente aucti.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with beardless tips, without the blossom, and very long; the blossom
is club-shaped, an inch long, and yellow; the cup is tiled; the leaves grow by
threes.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem very upright, harsh, very little branched; the smaller branches are
short, and numerous.
Leaves grow by threes, are linear, blunt, and are bundled together at the
end of the small branches; the foot-stalks grow close to the branches.
Flowers terminate the smaller branches about the middle of the larger
ones, by twos and threes, and are bent inwards; the foot-stalks are very short,
having three floral leaves, which seem to form part of the cup.
Empalement. Cup double, and tiled, the inner four-leaved, the outer
three-leaved, which are oval, pointed, hollow, smooth, and yellow.
Blossom club-shaped, curved, yellow, smooth, an inch long, swelled at
the base, which is divided into four; the segments of the mouth are bent
inwards, and pressed to the filaments.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads fixed into the receptacle; tips beardless,
very long, and without the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-vessel egg-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped. Summit four-
cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from April till June.

REFERENCE.

1. The Empalement and Blossom.

2. The Blossom.
3. The Empalement magnified.
4. The Chives and Pointal.
5. The Chives detached from the Pointal; one tip magnified.
6. The Shaft and Summit magnified.
 ERICA physodes.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris cristatis, inclusis; corollis ovatis, inflatis, glabris, viscosis,

crystallinis, albis; foliis quaternis, marginibus glandulosis, obtusis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis fruticosus, bipedalis, erectus; rami erecti, ramulosi.

Folia quaterna, obtusa, lato-linearia, carinata, curvata, margine
glandulosa, viscosa, patentia.
Flores umbellati, sub-quaterni, cernui, ad apices ramulorum; pedunculi
mediocres, bracteis minutis, distantibus.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis ovatis, brevissimis, adpressis,
viscosis.
Corolla ovata, alba, crystallina, magnitudine pisi; laciniis acuminatis,
erectis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria; antheræ cristatæ, inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen globosum, sulcatum. Stylus sub-inclusus. Stigma
tetragonum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mense Februario in Julium.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium lente auctum.

2. Calyx et Corolla.
3. Calyx lente auctus.
4. Stamina et Pistillum.
5. Stamen lente auctum.
 6. Pistillum lente auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath, with crested tips within the blossoms, which are egg-shaped, swelled
out, smooth, clammy, like crystal, and white; leaves grow by fours, have
glandular edges, and are blunt-ended.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem shrubby, grows two feet high, upright; the branches grow upright,
and have numerous little branches.
Leaves grow by fours, are blunt, broadly linear, keeled, curved, the edges
glandular, clammy, and spreading.
Flowers grow in umbels of mostly four together, hanging down from the
ends of the smaller branches; the footstalks of the length of the blossoms,
with floral leaves that are very small, and placed at a distance from the
blossom.
Empalement. Cup of four leaves, which are egg-shaped, very short,
pressed to the blossom, and clammy.
Blossom egg-shaped, white, and like crystal, the size of a pea; segments
of the border tapering and upright.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads; tips crested, and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud globular, and furrowed. Shaft just within the blossom.
Summit four-cornered.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from February till July.

REFERENCE.

1. A Leaf magnified.
2. The Empalement and Blossom.
3. The Empalement magnified.
4. The Chives and Pointal.
5. A Chive magnified.
6. The Pointal magnified.
 ERICA pinea.

CHARACTER SPECIFICUS.

Erica, antheris muticis, inclusis; corollis tubuloso-clavatis, sub-albidis;

floribus axillaribus, verticillatis, pollicaribus; foliis, sub-senis, linearibus
glabris, rigidis, longis.

DESCRIPTIO.

Caulis erectus, plus quam bipedalis, robustus; rami verticillati, erecto-

patentes, raro ramulosi, cauli similes.
Folia sena, linearia, glabra, patentia, longissima, petiolis adpressis.
Flores in medio ramorum verticillati, horizontales, pollicares; pedunculi
brevissimi, bracteis tribus instructi.
Calyx. Perianthium tetraphyllum, foliolis subulatis, ad basin latioribus,
glabris, adpressis.
Corolla tubuloso-clavata, obtusa, sub-albida; laciniis reflexis.
Stamina. Filamenta octo capillaria, corolla breviora. Antheræ muticæ,
inclusæ.
Pistillum. Germen turbinatum, sulcatum; apice pilosum, ad basin
glandulosum. Stylus filiformis, exsertus. Stigma peltatum.
Habitat ad Caput Bonæ Spei.
Floret a mensi Augusti, in Decembrem.

REFERENTIA.

1. Folium, lente auctum.

2. Calyx et Corolla.
3. Calyx, auctus.
4. Stamina, et Pistillum.
 5. Stamina a Pistillo diducta, anthera una lente aucta.
6. Pistillum, stigma auctum.
7. Germen, auctum.

SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Heath with beardless tips, within the blossoms, which are tubularly club-
shaped, and nearly white; flowers grow from the lower part of the leaves
close to the stem in whorls, are an inch long; leaves grow mostly by sixes,
are linear and smooth, stiff, and long.

DESCRIPTION.

Stem upright, grows more than two feet high and very stout; the branches
grow in whorls, spreading and upright, seldom breaking into smaller
branches, and like the stem.
Leaves grow by sixes, are linear, smooth, spread outward, and very long,
the foot-stalks pressed to the stem.
Flowers grow in whorls about the middle of the branches, horizontal,
and an inch in length; the foot-stalks very short, with three floral leaves on
them.
Empalement. Cup four-leaved, the leaflets are awl-shaped, broadest at the
base, smooth, and pressed to the blossom.
Blossom tubularly club-shaped, blunt ended, and nearly white; the
segments of the border are reflexed.
Chives. Eight hair-like threads shorter than the blossom. Tips beardless
and within the blossom.
Pointal. Seed-bud turban-shaped and furrowed; hairy on the upper part,
and glandular at the base. Shaft thread-shaped, and without the blossom.
Summit shield-shaped.
Native of the Cape of Good Hope.
Flowers from August, till December,

REFERENCE.
1. A Leaf, magnified.
2. The Empalement, and Blossom.
3. The Empalement, magnified.
4. The Chives, and Pointal, magnified.
5. The Chives detached from the Pointal, a Tip magnified.
6. The Pointal, the Summit magnified.
7. The Seed-bud, magnified.