3 MS & M PR Manual 2020 - 2021

MATERIAL SCIENCE & METALLURGY
HINDI SEVA MANDAL’S (ESTD.-1950)

SHRI SANT GADGE BABA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY,
BHUSAWAL – 425203 (M.S.)
Approved By A.I.C.T.E. New Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra,

Affiliated to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere, Raigad
An I.S.O. 9001-2000 Certified Institute
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. / Miss

__________________________________________________________________
Roll No. ____________ of ________________ class has satisfactorily carried out the
practical work in the subject _______________________________________________ as
per laid down in the syllabus, in this Laboratory and that journal represents his / her
bonafide work in the year 2021 - 2022
Lecturer– in– charge Head of the Department
Principal
1
INDEX
Exp
Name of Experiment Date Page No. Remark
No.
1 Brinell Hardness Test
2 Rockwell Hardness Test
3 Erichson Cupping Test
4 Magnaflux Test
5 Dye Penetrant Test
Specimen Preparation For

6
Microscopy.
7 Sulphur Print Test.
Study And Drawing of

8 Microstructures of Plain Carbon Steels
of Varying Carbon Percentage.
Jominy End Quench Test.

9
Study And Drawing of Microstructure

10
of Cast Irons.
2
EXPERIMENT NO. 01
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
3
EXPERIEMENT NO. 01
AIM:
Brinell hardness test (On mild steel, brass, copper and aluminum test pieces.)
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the hardness of mild Steel, Brass, Copper and Aluminum test pieces using
Brinell and tester.
APPARATUS:
a) Brinell hardness tester
b) Test specimens of above mentioned materials.( mild Steel, Brass, Copper and
Aluminum)
INTRODUCTION:
Standard Brinell hardness test is conducted as per the ASTM (American Society for
Testing Materials) specifications. For testing of iron and steel, a load of 3000 kg is applied on
a 10 mm diameter ball indenter for at least 10 sec, and for non ferrous metals and alloys, a
load of 500 Kg is applied by means of a hydraulic mechanism.
The ball indenters are made of either high carbon steel or tungsten carbide. After full
application of load for the above times, load is slowly removed. The indenters taken out and
the diameter of circular impression are measured by special microscope which magnifies the
image and measurement of diameter is done with an accuracy of 0.01mm.
Brinell hardness number is given by
B.H.N = Load applied in Kg

Area of indentation in square mm
PROCEDURE:
1) Polish the rough surface of test piece.
2) A test specimen to be tested is placed on the anvil and adjusting the height of anvil
focus the test piece surface by observing image on graduated screen.
3) Selected load is applied on the ball indenter for a specified time (30 to 60 sec.) using
Brinell hardness tester
4) After full application of load for specified time, load is slowly removed.
5) The indenter is taken out and diameter of circular impression is measured by
microscope.
6) Calculate the B.H.N by using given formula.
PRECAUTIONS:
4
1. Thickness of test piece – The thickness of the specimen should be at least ten times the
depth of indentation.
2. Test surface – Test surface should be flat and parallel to base. Surface of the work piece
should be milled, ground or polished.
3. Spacing of indentation- indentation must not be made near the edge of the specimen as it
may result in abnormally large, unsymmetrical indentations. Brinell indentations must not be
made too close to one another.
Figure - Principle of a non standard Brinell hardness test
OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Load applied Dia. of indentation on

Sr.no. Types of Material B.H.N.
(Kg) specimen d (mm)
1 Mild Steel 10 1.8 39.79
2 Brass 5 2 15.15
3 Aluminum 5 2.6 9.09
4 Copper 5 2.2 13.26
5
FORMULA: 2P
Brinell hardness number = πD [ D - √(D2-dsp2) ]
D = Diameter of steel ball indenter in mm.

d = Diameter of indentation mark on specimen in mm.
P = Load in kg.
CALCULATIONS:-
Diameter of the indenter ball (D) = 10 mm
Type of 2P
Sr. No. BHN =
material
πD [ D - √(D2-dsp2) ]
1 Mild Steel BHN= 2*10 = 40

Π* 10 [ 10 - √(102-(1.8)2 ]
2 Brass BHN = 2*5 = 16

Π* 10 [ 10 - √(102-(2)2 ]
3 Aluminum BHN = 2*5 = 10

Π* 10 [ 10 - √(102-(2.6)2 ]
4 Copper BHN = 2*5 = 14

Π* 10 [ 10 - √(102-(2.2)2 ]
CONCLUSION:
As of testing on Brinell testing machine, reflect the hardness of aluminium is greatly softer
than steel, brass, and copper.
6
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:-
1. What do you mean by Hardness?

Ans. Hardness of a metal is defined as its resistance to plastic deformation, mostly by
indentation. Hardness is not a fundamental property of a metal as it gets easily changed by
various heat treatments and cold working.
2. What is Magnifiscope?
Ans. Magnifiscope is small instrument which magnifies the image to about 10 times and has
a calllibratred grid in its eye piece.
3. Write down the equation of Brinell used for measuring hardness of material?
Ans. B.H.N.sp = 2P_________
πD [ D - √(D2-dsp2) ]
4. Defferantiate between Rockwell and Brinell hardness test.Ans- Rockwell hardness

test – 1. It is more flexible than the Brinell. 2. Hardness can be read directly from the dial
without ant calculations. 3. Less skill is required to operate the Rockwell hardness tester. 4.
Both types of indentor used steel balls and diamond cone.
Brinell hardness test – 1. It is load dependent. 2. Brinell machine is not portable. 3. This
test cannot be done on large components. 4. It requires availability of various loads up to
200-250 kN.
5. What is the principle of Brinell Hardness Test?

Ans. As load is increased indentation is also increased.
6. Why Brinell hardness number is dependent of Load?

Ans. Load is directly proportional to indentation so Brinell hardness number is dependent of
Load.
7
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
8
EXPERIMENT NO. 02
AIM -
Rockwell hardness test.
OBJECTIVE -
To find the hardness of mild steel and cast iron by using Rockwell Hardness Test.
APPARATUS:-
1) Rockwell hardness tester.
2) Test specimens of above mentioned materials.
INTRODUCTION -
In Rockwell Hardness Test, hardness of metal is related with depth of indentation and not
with the area of indentation harder the material, depth of indentation is less, for given load
and vice versa. The dial is calibrated in an inverse fashion so that the hardness n umber
becomes directly proportional to hardness of the material. In this test two types of indenters
are used.
1) Hard steel ball of 1/16”, 1/8”, ¼”, ½” diameters.
2) Brale indenter made of diamond in the form of cone with included angle of 1200.
Loads are applied in two stages.
1) Constant miner load of 10 kg is applied and then major load is applied.
2) The major loads are 60 kg, 100 kg, or 150 kg. This various combinations of indenters
and loads are indicated by letters such as A, B, C etc.
3) ‘A’ letter indicates 60 kg load and Brale Indenter, ‘B’ letter indicate 100 kg load and
1/16” diameter ball indenter , ‘C’ letter indicate 150. kg load and Brale indenter and
so on.
Symbols for various combinations of loads and indenters

Major Load (Kg)
Indenter
60 100 150
Brale indenter A D C
1/16”-ball indenter F B G
1/8”- ball indenter H E K
1/4” - ball indenter L M P
1/2” - ball indenter R S V
Proper scale selection according to component condition is given below,

Thin – low load i.e.60 kg.
Thick – high load i.e. 150 kg.
9
Hard – brale indenter

Soft - 1/16”-ball indenter
Very soft - 1/8” or 1/4”ball indenter
Very very soft - 1/2” - ball indenter
10
STANDARD ROCKWELL HARDNESS SCALES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS -

Scale Major
Indenter Application of Scale/ Remarks
Symbol Load (kg)
11
Hard in materials like Razor blades, Steels &

A Brale 60
Cemented Carbides
1/16” - ball Brass, Low and medium carbon steel, soft cast
B 100
(1.6 mm) irons and cast alloys
Brale
C 150 Hardened steels, Hard Cast irons
(Diamond Cone)
D Brale 100 Medium cast hardened steels
1/8” ball Al and Mg alloys, bearing metals, ferritic cast
E 100
(3.2 mm) irons
F 1/16” ball 60 Cu alloys thin soft sheet metals
Useful for material slightly harder than B i.e.
G 1/16” ball 150 Copper, Phosphorus, Bronze & Beryllium
Bronze
DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE -
The hardness indicating dial on the machine is provided with 100 equal division and each
division correspond to vertical motion of 0.002 mm, 2 sets of numerals are indicated on the
dial, 1 set is printed in red and second is in black. The red numerals are used for ball indenter
and black numeral is used for Ball Indenter. Red scale is shifted by 30 numerals in a counter
clockwise direction, so that 30 number of red dial exactly comes over a zero number of black
dial. The calibration is according to the following equation,
A) For Brale Indenter –
B) For Ball Indenter:-
PROCEDURE –
1) Selected suitable scale as per the given material.
2) Factors controlling scale selection:
i) Type of material
ii) Specimen thickness
iii) Test location
iv) Scale limitations.
3) Place the specimen on the anvil. The dial pointers are idle. Neither the minor nor the
major load is applied.
4) The anvil along with the specimen is raised so that the specimen touches the indenter.
By further raising the anvil slowly, minor load of 10 kg is applied by coinciding the
small pointer on the dial with the index mark
5) This major load consists of original load of 10 kg+ additional load.
6) Without removing the minor load of 10 kg, the major load is removed.
7) Without removal of minor load hardness number is read directly from the dial.
OBSERVATION TABLE -
12
Types of scale/load Rockwell

Sr. Types of
Hardness
No. material
Number
Scale Minor Major
Indenter
Symbol load (Kg) load (Kg)
Ball
1. Copper B 10 90 41
(10 mm)
Ball
2. Aluminium B 10 90 30
(10 mm)
Ball
3. Cast Iron B 10 90 62
(10 mm)
Brale
4. Hard Steel C 10 140 96
(1200)
CONCLUSION –
As of testing on Rockwell hardness testing machine, reflect the hardness of aluminium is
greatly softer than copper, cast iron and hard steel. I.e. Hard steel is harder as compared to
other material.
1. How Rockwell hardness test is differs from Brinell hardness test?
13
Ans. In Brinell hardness test Area of indentation is measured; while in Rockwell hardness
test Depth of indentation is measured
2. Write down the types of indenters used in this test?

Ans. In this test two types of indenters are used.
i) Hard steel balls of 1/16”, 1/8”, 1/4”, and ½” diameters.
ii) Brale indentor which is made up of diamond.
3. Describe the Rockwell hardness tester?

Ans. The hardness indicating dial on the machine is provided with 100 equal division and
each division correspond to vertical motion of 0.002 mm, 2 sets of numerals are indicated on
the dial, 1 set is printed in red and second is in black. The red numerals are used for ball
indenter and black numeral is used for Ball Indenter. Red scale is shifted by 30 numerals in a
counter clockwise direction, so that 30 number of red dial exactly comes over a zero number
of black dial.
4. Write down the equation of hardness for Brale and ball indenter?
Ans. The calibration is according to the following equation,
A) For Brale Indenter –
B) For Ball Indenter:-
5. What are the advantages of Rockwell hardness test?

Ans. 1) It is more flexible than the Brinell, a large number of combinations of indentor and
loads make it more useful to test a wider range of materials.
2) Rockwell testers are also fitted with a number of fixtures for testing different sizes and
shapes of metal parts.
3) Hardness can be read directly from the dial without ant calculations.
4) Less skill is required to operate the Rockwell hardness tester.
5) Both types of indentors used steel balls and diamond cone, it combine the advantages of
Brinell and Vickers hardness tests.
6) It is not portable.
14
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
ERICHSON CUPPING TEST
EXPERIMENT NO. 03
15
AIM -
Erichson cupping test.
OBJECTIVE -
To determine the formability of given metal samples. Erichsen Cupping Test is used for
measurement of formability. Formability is the ability of a sheet material to be formed into a
specific shape or configuration.
APPERATUS -
Erichsen Cupping Test, Metal sheet, Micrometer, Metal samples – Brass, copper, mild steel,
alluminium.
PRINCIPLE -
This is the standard described method for conduction of the modified Erichsen cupping test
for both ferrous and non ferrous metals. The sheet metal is with thickness of less than 0.25
mm to 0.5 mm.
PROCEDURE -
1. The sheet is held between two ring shaped clamping dies.
2. A hemispherical punch (of 20 mm dia.) is forced against one side of the sheet until
fracture occurs or there is sudden drop in the load.
3. The height of dome produced is measured. This is reported in mm as a measure of
formability.
4. The cup (i.e. dome) height is very sensitive to the thickness of sheet and increase
approximately by 0.24 mm with every 0.1 mm increase in the sheet thickness.
5. The results are not consistent because of metal pull in the form of the clamped dies
and inconsistent lubrication, if lubricant is applied on the sheet metal to be tested.
Fig – Erichsen cupping tester
16
a) Radial crack b) Circular crack
Fig: Cracks in metal sample
Fig: Erichsen standard chart
17
OBSERVATION -
1. The visual examination of dome gives information regarding grain size, anisotropy of
sheet etc.
2. A rough appearance of dome indicates a large grain size indicates a large grain size.
4. If the cracks are in one direction it indicates variation in ductility in different direction.
5. Erichsen standard curves show typical values of expected depth of cup for various
thicknesses of metals.
6. However this does not indicates the suitability of the material for a specific application or
operation.
ADVANTAGES -
1. It is used to measure the formability.
2. It is performed on the tester.
3. Dom indicates a large grain size. The cracks are in one direction.
4. Ericson cupping test permit the change pull in under controlled the hold down the force.
DISADVANTAGES -
1. In this test only the ferrous and non-ferrous material can be tested.
2. This test does not indicate the suitability of material.
3. The variation in ductility is in different direction.
OBSERVATION TABLE –
Sr. Thickness Sampal Nature of

Metal Remark
No. (mm) depth cracks
1 Brass 0.99 7.64 Circular Good
2 Copper 0.90 6.20 Radial Not Good
3 Mild steel 0.48 7.64 Circular Good
4 Aluminum 1.41 8.50 Circular Good
CONCLUSION –
Visual examination of dome gives information of anisotropic properties of sheet material.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
18
1. What is formability?
Ans. Formability is the ability of sheet material to be formed into a specific shape or
configuration. It is ability of a material to form into a desirable shape or specific dimension in
any forming operation.
2. What is the principle of Erichsen cupping test?

Ans. The test consist of clamping as a metal test pipe under control past test remaining a disc
by means of a bell particular having a spherical head initial previous the depth of prevention
the capacity as sheet outside between the limits impressible capacity by a condition as a test.
3. What is the indication of Radial and Circular cracks?

Ans. Radial cracks indicates equal strength of the sheet in all the direction (i.e. sheet is
isotropic) and circumferential cracks indicate anisotropic properties of the sheet. If the cracks
are in one direction, it indicates variation in ductility in different directions
4. Draw the Erichsen cupping chart?

Ans.
5. On which factors formability depends?

Ans.
working.
6. Describe the Erichsen cupping tester.

Ans. In this test sheet is held between two ring-shaped clamping dies and a hemispherical
punch having dia. 20mm. With the help of punch acting wheel movement is carried out into
punch and it applied the force on the sheet until fracture occurs. Height of the dome produced
due to application of force in the sheet is measured. It is nothing but formability. The dome
height is very sensitive to the thickness of sheet and increases approximately by 0.24 mm
with every 0.1 mm increases in sheet thickness. The visual examination of dome gives
information regarding grain size, anisotropy of sheet etc.
19
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
MAGNAFLUX TEST
MEASUREMENT OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTS.
20
EXPERIMENT NO. 04
AIM -
Measurement Non-destructive tests: Magnaflux Test (Magnetic particle testing).
OBJECTIVE -
Study of Non Destructive Tests - Magnaflux Test (Magnetic particle testing)
INTRODUCTION -
Non destructive testing, as the name implies does not damage or reduce the service life of the
component. Usually these tests do not directly measure the mechanical properties such as
tensile strength or hardness, but they are used to locate the defect or flows in the component.
These flows may reduce the useful life of the component, resulting in the premature failure
even with a sound design and proper selection of materials. To obtain high level of reliability,
the defect should be absent or should be at minimum level. Also the component should be
periodically tested for the defects during the service.
Various methods are used to detect the defects in the components. The most common types
of non destructive tests are magnetic particle inspection, dye penetrant and fluorescent-
penetrant inspection, sonic and ultrasonic inspection.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST (MAGNAFLUX TEST) -

In this method special magnetic powder is applied by wet method similar to magna flux
method. The powder gets attracted due to formation of pole in crack. The remaining powder
is removed. The component is inspected in dark room with ultraviolet light of wavelength
between 3500 to 4000A. Such a powder is greenish yellow in light. Under the influence of
ultraviolet light & it gives better contrast to detect crack. This method is used to detect
various kinds of frame in ferromagnetic component such as welding, Casting, Forging &
Rolling. This method is used to detect various kinds of flows in ferromagnetic component
such as welding, casting and forgings of iron and steel.
PROCEDURE -
1. The component to be inspected for the flows in magnetized and inspection medium is
applied to the component or magnetization of the component and application of
inspection medium can be done simultaneously.
2. In any method of inspection, a special fine ferromagnetic powder is applied on the
surface by means of a handshake vibrating screen or any other suitable method so that
the powder uniformly distributed on the surface of the component.
3. In wet method of inspection, liquid containing fine ferromagnetic particles suspended
in some carrier such as kerosene or petroleum oil is applied by some suitable method
such as dipping, spraying or brushing.
21
4. Magnetization of the component is done either by using external magnetic yoke oil or
by passing an electrical current through it.
5. Magnetic pole is formed at the cracks or flaw which causes the magnetic powder to
concentrate on this area and the flaw gets easily detected. This is done by energizing a
coil around the bar.
DETECTION OF DEFECTS DEPENDS ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS -

1. The detection of subsurface defects will depend upon the strength of the magnetic
field.
2. The distance from the surface at which defect is located.
3. The ratio at the height of the defect to the thickness of the component and the width
of the discontinuity.
DETECTION MEDIUM -
Dry method is more sensitive for revealing deep seated discontinuities to that of act method
and also is easy to carry out powders or liquids of different colors can be used. Dry powders
are available in gray, black and red colors whereas liquids are available in black and red
colors.
ADVANTAGES
1) This is a sensitive method of locating small and shallow surface cracks.
2) Sub surface cracks (i.e. cracks just below the surface) can be detected.
3) No electronic display or read out is required.
4) There is almost no limitation for the size and shape of the component.
5) Instruments are portable and easy to handle.
DISADVANTAGES
1) Only ferromagnetic materials can be tested.
2) Process required high currents.
3) Deep-seated flaws (more than 4mm deep) may not always be located.
4) Local heating and sparking is possible if care is not taken in product testing.
5) After testing demagnetization is required.
CONCLUSION:
The Magnaflux test is carried out by dry and wet method. Dry method is more sensitive for
revealing deep seated discontinuities to that of act method and also is easy to carry out
powders or liquids of different colors can be used
22
1. What is Non Destructive testing?

Ans. Non destructive testing does not damage or reduce the service life of the component,
like destructive test. These tests are used to locate or find out the defects or flaws in the
component. Various methods are used to detect defects in component.
2. List various Non Destructive Testing’s?

Ans. Most common types of non destructive tests are
i) Magnaflux test iv) Eddy current test
ii) Dye penetrate test v) Radiography test
iii) Ultrasonic test vi) Visual inspection
3. Write down working principle of Magnaflux Test?

Ans. Magnaflux test is used to detect various kinds of flaws in ferromagnetic components
such as welding, casting and forgings of iron and steel. In the test we have to magnetize the
component and then the inspection medium is applied on the magnetized component or both
the processes can be done simultaneously.
4. What is main difference between Destructive and non Destructive testing?

Ans. Destructive test – 1. Destructive tests are used for finding out the properties of
materials. 2. In this test load is applied on the material. 3. Due to load application material
gets damage.
4. Special equipments are required for destructive tests.
5. Skill is required to perform the tests.
6. e.g. Tensile test, hardness tests, creep test, compression test etc.
Non-Destructive test –
1. Non Destructive tests are used for finding out the defects of materials.
2. In this test load not is applied on the material.
3. There is no lad applications so no chance for material damage.
4. Special equipments are not required for non destructive tests.
23
EXPERIMENT NO. 05
AIM -
Measurement Non-destructive tests: Dye Penetrant test,
OBJECTIVE -
Study of Non Destructive Tests - Dye Penetrant Test.
INTRODUCTION -
Non destructive testing, as the name implies does not damage or reduce the service life of the
component. Usually these tests do not directly measure the mechanical properties such as
tensile strength or hardness, but they are used to locate the defect or flows in the component.
These flows may reduce the useful life of the component, resulting in the premature failure
even with a sound design and proper selection of materials. To obtain high level of reliability,
the defect should be absent or should be at minimum level. Also the component should be
periodically tested for the defects during the service.
Various methods are used to detect the defects in the components. The most common types
of non destructive tests are magnetic particle inspection, Dye Penetrant and fluorescent-
Penetrant inspection, sonic and ultrasonic inspection.
DYE PENETRANT TEST –

Surface defects such as cracks, laps, lamination, seams porosity & other defects can be easily
detected by these techniques. Component may be of any material like ferrous, non ferrous,
plastic or glass can be tested by applying penetrate on surface.
PRINCIPLE -
This test is based on the principal that a liquid applied to a component penetrates into a
surface defect by capillary action. The penetration area can be revealed by the application of
a suitable developer. The area is nothing but defect or cracks.
There are two type of penetrate test.
1. Red dye penetrate test.
2. Fluorescent dye penetrate test.
PROCEDURE -
The steps of inspection are given below:-
a) Cleaning: - Clean the surface of the specimen by using suitable solution so that grease, oil
or any other extraneous material must be removed.
b) Drying of surface: - dry the clean surface.
24
c) Application of penetrate- Apply the dye penetrate on clean and dry surface by dipping,
bushing or any other suitable method. The dye penetrate is allowed to penetrate in the surface
flaws or any discontinuity and the time required for it is depend on the type of defect.
d) Removal of excess of penetrate –remove excess of penetrate from the surface by a soft
and clean cotton.
e) Application of developer – apply the developer on the surface, developer absorb the
penetrant from the flaws and it can be detected by the color of dye. The contour due to
colorations defines the shape or cracks its intensity & depth. Instead of developer a special
fine powder or talc powder can be sprinkled on the surface. So that powder absorbs dye from
flaws and the flaws are immediately revealed. The defects if any can be observed with naked
eye or by means of magnifying glass depending on type of developed employed.
Fig - Principle of dye penetrate test
ADVANTAGES
1) All type of solids and non ferrous materials can be tested.
2) Both metallic and nonmetallic materials can be tested.
3) It is very economical and easy to use.
4) It is relatively fast method and interpretation of result is easy.
5) It does not require any machine ore instrument.
6) The result does not require any electronic display or calculations.
LIMITATIONS
1) Only surface defects can be detected.
2) Powder metallurgy components which are highly porous are difficult to examine.
25
3) Surface films like paints or coating may interface with the results.
4) Cleaning is must before and after the test to avoid rusting.
5) Only surface defects can be detected.
APPLICATIONS
For surface detection of forging, casting, weld elements etc.
CONCLUSION:
Surface defects such as cracks, laps, lamination, seams porosity & other defects can be easily
detected by die penetrant test.
26

1. What is Non Destructive testing?
Ans. Non destructive testing does not damage or reduce the service life of the component,
like destructive test. These tests are used to locate or find out the defects or flaws in the
component. Various methods are used to detect defects in component.
2. List various Non Destructive Testing’s?

Ans. Most common types of non destructive tests are
i) Magnaflux test iv) Eddy current test
ii) Dye penetrate test v) Radiography test
iii) Ultrasonic test vi) Visual inspection
3. Write down working principle of Die Penetrate Test?

Ans. This test is based on the principal that a liquid applied to a component penetrates into a
surface defect by capillary action. The penetration area can be revealed by the application of
a suitable developer. Invisible cracks, porosity and other defects on the surface of
components can be easily detected by this method. Component may be of any material like
ferrous, non ferrous, plastic, glass or ceramic can be tested.
5. Difference between Magnaflux and dye penetrant test

Ans. Magnaflux test – 1.is used to detect various kinds of flaws in ferromagnetic
components such as welding, casting and forgings of iron and steel.
2. In the test we have to magnetize the component and then the inspection medium is applied
on the magnetized component or both the processes can be done simultaneously.
Dye penetrant test – 1. This test is based on the principal that a liquid applied to a
component penetrates into a surface defect by capillary action.
2. Component may be of any material like ferrous, non ferrous, plastic, glass or ceramic can
be tested.
6. What is main difference between Destructive and non Destructive testing?

Ans. Destructive test – 1. Destructive tests are used for finding out the properties of
materials. 2. In this test load is applied on the material. 3. Due to load application material
gets damage.
4. Special equipments are required for destructive tests.
6. e.g. Tensile test, hardness tests, creep test, compression test etc.
Non-Destructive test –
1. Non Destructive tests are used for finding out the defects of materials.
2. In this test load not is applied on the material.
3. There is no lad applications so no chance for material damage.
4. Special equipments are not required for non destructive tests.
27
6. e.g. Magnaflux test, dye penetrate test, ultrasonic test, radiography, visual inspection.
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
SPECIMEN PREPARATION FOR MICROSCOPY.

(MICRO SPECIMEN PREPARATION AND USE OF
METALLURGICAL MICROSCOPE.)
28
EXPERIMENT NO. 06
AIM -
Specimen preparation for microscopy.
(Micro specimen preparation and use of metallurgical microscope.)
OBJECTIVE -
1) To provide practice in the techniques of micro specimen selection, grinding polishing
and etching.
2) To provide initial training in the use of metallurgical microscope.
SPECIMEN PREPARATION -
Specimen preparation and polishing is necessary to study its microstructure and racks
structural details. Satisfactory metallographic result can be obtained only when the specimen
has been carefully proponed.
Specimen preparation consists of two steps:

a) SAMPLING
It is process of selecting proper specimen for observation and examination is not
extremely brittle. The sample may be removing by manually and for brittle metals sample is
removed by using hammer blow. Size of the specimen should be convenient and comfortable
for handling purpose. The specimen should be properly selected so that it is characteristic of
the material and should fulfill the object of examination. For example, if it is to be
determined whether a given metal is in annealed or rolled condition, then the specimen must
be taken out from the longitudinal section. Observation of longitudinal section shows
elongated grains for cold rolled materials and equiaxed grains for annealed materials.
The specimen should be preferably of a size that is convenient and comfortable for
handling. Large specimens require more time for polishing and small specimen tends to rock
on the emery paper during polishing, resulting in rounding of the edges and curved surfaces.
b) POLISHING
Polishing of the samples suitable for microscopic examinations is done in two steps.
These are rough polishing and fine polishing.
1) Rough polishing:
Top and bottom surfaces of the specimen are made flat and parallel with each other by
filing or machining. The surfaces to be examined is made plane using motor driven emery
belt. Specimen may get heated during this operation and hence it should be kept cool by
frequently dipping into water. This will prevent the alteration of structure from martensite to
tempered martensite in hardened steel.
Distortion of the surfaces cannot be completely prevented during polishing operations. It
can be reduced by using light contact pressure during polishing operation. It is desirable to
remove sharp edges and corners of the specimen to prevent tearing of emery paper and
polishing cloths in later operation.
29
2) Fine polishing:
During this stage of polishing scratches introduced by number 0000 paper or number 600
papers are completely removed and the specimen surface becomes scratch free. Success
and time required in polishing in this stage depends on the quality of cloth, type and
quality of abrasive, and the skill of technician.
ETCHING
It is the process done on the polish surface so that structured details are revel by the
microscope. Etchant is nothing but organic and inorganic acid alkali in solution with same
approximate solvent such as water, alcohol, glycerin. When the etching reagent is apply on
the polishing surface. It occurs dislocation on some micro area and reveals the structural
details.
Techniques of Etching:
1) Immersion Technique:
In this technique etchant is taken into glass containers, the sample which have to etch
is dip into this etchant. This dipping procedure is continuing till the desired degree of
darkness is obtained. After that sample is removed wash with water and rise into ethyl
and methyl alcohol so that water droplets are removed. Then sample is dry by using
warm air.
2) swabbing technique:
This technique follows same procedure like immersion technique only difference is
that sample is swab with soft cotton which already mixed with etchant.
STUDY OF OPTICAL METTALURGICAL MICROSCOP (WORKING) -

Microscope is the device used for obtaining more resolution and magnification so that
structured details can be examine that light falls from an electrical bulb as same suitable
external source falls on emissive glass plate situated at 45° to the vertical axis. These light
rays get reflected vertically downward travel to the objective and falls on the specimen.
These light rays again get reflected from the specimen surface travel to the objective and
transport portion of semi silver glass plate and come to the eye piece. The observation of
microscope it is frequency seen that flat and polish surface appears bright while rough
surface appears dark.
Important terms related with microscope:
1) Magnifying power of objective:
It is the ability of an objective to magnify the real object by a definite number of times
without the aid of an eyepiece. Objectives are available with magnifying power of 5, 10, 40
or 45 and 95 or 100 X. (X sign denotes a linear magnification).
2) Magnifying power of eyepiece:

It is ability of the eyepiece to magnify the real objects by definite no. of times. Eyepieces are
available with magnifying powers of 5, 6, 7.5, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 25.
Total magnifying power depends upon distance of eyepiece from objective and it is given by
30
Fig - Optical features of metallurgical microscope
Where, M = Magnification of screen

M1 = Magnification of the objective
M2 = Magnification of the eyepiece and
D = Projection distance i.e. the distance from the eye lens of eyepiece to
the screen in mm.
3) Numerical aperture:
It is the light gathering or light collecting ability of an objective. It is constant for a given
objective and is a function of design.
The purpose of all objectives is to receive and combine into an image a larger solid cone of
light that can not normally be received by unaided eyes. The amount of light received by the
objective is influenced by the refractive index of the medium between the objective and
specimen surface.
In dry objective i.e. an objective having air (index of refraction, n=1.0) between the objective
and the specimen, light rays up to R1 are received by the objective and rays R2 with greater
angularity than R1 are not received by the objective.
If the medium between objective and specimen is oil such as pine or cedar oil (index of
refraction, n=1.5), it will be seen that the light rays R2 will bend while passing through the
oil and now will be received by the objective, i.e. greater amount of light is received by the
oil immersion objective than by a dry objective. Therefore, light gathering ability depends
31
upon the cone of light (µ) entering the objective and the refractive index of medium between
the objective and specimen.
Numerical Aperture (N.A.) = n sin µ
Thus for fig (a), the Numerical Aperture of the objective in air will be,
1.0 × sin 30° = 1.00 × 0.5 = 0.5
Thus for fig (b), the Numerical Aperture of the objective with cedar oil will be,
1.50 × sin 30° = 1.50 × 0.5 = 0.75
Modern optical microscope have dry objective with numerical aperture of 0.95.
4) Resolution of objective:
It is the ability of objective to produce sharply defined separate images of closely spaced
detail in the object. It is given by
Fitness of detail or Resolution limit =
Where, wavelength of illumination, and

N.A. = numerical aperture of the objective
5) Vertical resolution of an object:

It is the ability of objective to produce a sharply focused image when the surface of the object
is not truly plane. This is also called as the Depth of focus or penetration. The vertical
resolution is inversely proportional to the numerical aperture and the magnification of the
objective, and cannot be changed for a given objective. It is of the order of 0.006 microns for
oil immersion objectives.
CONCLUSION -
By this experiment we study specimen preparation and use of metallurgical microscope.
32
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS -

1) Why it is necessary to prepare the specimen surface properly for microscopic
examination.
Ans - Specimen preparation and polishing is necessary to study its microstructure and racks
structural details. Satisfactory metallographic result can be obtained only when the specimen
has been carefully prepared.
2) Define the terms microscopy and macroscopy.

Ans – Microscopy – Microscopic examinations involve study of prepared metal surface
using higher magnification (> 60 X).
Macroscopy – Macroscopic examinations involve study of metal either by the unaided eyes
or with the aid of low power microscope (magnification < 10 X).
3) Explain the procedure for preparing the mounts.

Ans – Mounting of specimens is done by using a mounting press. The mounting press
consists of small die assembly with lower and upper plungers. Pressure can be applied by
hand lever and can be read on dial. A small furnace is provided around this die for heating
purpose and temperature can be read by thermometer or pyrometer. Cooling system is also
provided to die assembly.
4) Differentiate between the dry method and wet method of polishing.

Ans - Dry method- This is done by using emery papers of grade numbers 0(1 X 0), 00(2X0),
000(3X0) and 0000(4X0). First a 0 emery paper is placed on a bench plate or on any clean,
hard and flat surface such as glass plate. The paper is held with the left hand and the
specimen is slowly moved back and forth by right hand with moderate pressure.
Wet method- The procedure of polishing is almost similar to dry method. In this method,
water proof emery papers of numbers 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 are used in succession.
Water flows continuously on papers during polishing. Due to this, washing of specimen is
not necessary while changing the specimen from one paper to another. After polishing on 600
number papers, the sample is polished on lapping wheel.
5) What is microscope? List out the imp terms related to optical microscope.
Ans - Microscope is the device used for obtaining more resolution and magnification so that
structured details can be examine that light falls from an electrical bulb as same suitable
external source falls on emissive glass plate situated at 45° to the vertical axis. These light
rays get reflected vertically downward travel to the objective and falls on the specimen.
These light rays again get reflected from the specimen surface travel to the objective and
transport portion of semi silver glass plate and come to the eye piece.
Important terms related with microscope:
1) Magnifying power of objective.
2) Magnifying power of eyepiece
3) Numerical aperture
4) Resolution of objective
33
5) Vertical resolution of an object.
EXPERIMENT NO. 07
SULPHUR PRINT TEST
34
EXPERIMENT NO: 07
AIM:
Sulphur print test. (On steel specimen or flow lines examination on forged components.)
INTRODUCTION:
Sulphur printing is used to detect sulphur in steel. It also gives permanent record of
distribution of sulphur in steel. Sulphur makes the steel cold short as well as hot short and
hence detrimental to the properties of steel. The harmful effect of sulphur is reduced by
addition of manganese. And hence depending on the amount of manganese, Sulphur may
exist as FeS or MnS, or FeS + MnS. The surface of component to be tested for distribution of
sulphur should be fairly smooth and free from grease and scale. Polishing of surface on No
0 or 00 energy paper and subsequent thorough washing is enough for satisfactory result.
PROCEDURE:
1) Photographic bromide paper is soaked for about 3 to 4 minute in 2 % aqueous
solution of H2SO4.
2) The Paper is taken from solution and excess solution is removed.
3) The emulsion side of paper is placed in control with surface of specimen from about 2
to 3 mm under moderate pressure.
4) The photographic paper is removed from the surface of specimen washed in clear
running water and fixed permanently by keeping in photographic fixer solution for
about 15 minutes. It is then taken out from solution, washed in running water for
about 1 hour and subsequently dried by an appropriate method.
5) Examine of this print clearly reveals the presence of sulphur by dark colored areas of
silver sulphide on the paper. The grounding of such dark spot or areas indicates the
presence of sulphur segregation, whereas a random dispersion of the spots denotes a
more uniform and less harmful distribution of sulphur.
PRECAUTIONS:
1) A paper type of photographic paper with regards to surface finish must be used. A
semi-matte paper is good because of its less tendency of slippage on the specimen
surface.
2) The paper should be in complete contact with the specimen surface and all the
entrapped air bubbles between paper and specimen surface should be removed by
carefully pressing with a squeegee roller.
The contact time of photographic paper on surface specimen must be controlled properly.
The micro areas of FeS and MnS get enlarged by 200 to 300 time are revealed on printing
paper as dark areas of Ag2S. The size of these areas will increase further with more time and
may lead to erroneous interpretation.
35
The reactions are as bellows:

Fes (from steel) + H2So4 (from paper) FeSo4 + H2S
And MnS (from steel) + H2So4 (from paper) MnSo4 + H2S
H2S + 2 AgBr (emulsion on paper) Ag2S + 2 HBr
This Ag2S is brown in colour.

The entire process of sulphur printing can be carried out in day light.
Figure (c) - Photo macrograph showing flow lines in longitudinal section of a forged hook
36
FLOW LINE OBSERVATION:

It is well known that forged components have superior properties than the cast or rolled
and machined components. Also the properties of forged components are governed by the
metal flow pattern. Therefore it is necessary to find out whether the component is
manufactured by forging or casting or rolling and machining. This is achieved by macro
etching the prepared surface of the component in a 50 % aqueous solution of hydrochloric
acid at a temperature of 60 to 70 °C for about 5 to 10 minutes.
If the component is forged macro etched surface shows a directional flow pattern
consisting of streak and striations. The orientation of this pattern with respect the plane of the
prepared surface indicates the direction of metal flow during forging. The flow lines are seen
because the elongated inclusions and other elongated heterogeneous areas are selectively
attacked by etching reagent. Even after normalizing and annealing of the component, flow
lines are seen. This is due to:
1) The presence of elongated nonmetallic inclusions. Nonmetallic inclusions do not
recrystallise during normalizing or annealing and
2) The presence of prepared orientation areas which are always formed due to
normalizing or annealing of a cold worked metal.
Appearance of flow lines on the macro-etched surface is an indication of mechanical
working and not an indication of defect.
Forged components show flow lines and they follow a streamlined path as shown in
figure (a). Cast components do not show flow lines. Rolled and machined components show
broken and discontinuous flow lines as shown in figure (b). A typical photo macrograph of a
socket trunion showing flow lines is shown in figure (c).
CONCLUSION:
The sulphur print test is carried out on steel specimen. Sulphur printing is used to detect
sulphur in steel. It also gives permanent record of distribution of sulphur in steel.
37

1) What is the effect of sulphur on steel?
Ans – Sulphur makes the steel cold short as well as hot short and hence detrimental to the
properties of steel. The harmful effect of sulphur is reduced by addition of manganese. And
hence depending on the amount of manganese, Sulphur may exist as FeS or MnS, or FeS +
MnS. The surface of component to be tested for distribution of sulphur should be fairly
smooth and free from grease and scale.
2) Write down the procedure for sulphur printing.

Ans – PROCEDURE -
1) Photographic bromide paper is soaked for about 3 to 4 minute in 2 % aqueous
solution of H2SO4.
2) The Paper is taken from solution and excess solution is removed.
3) The emulsion side of paper is placed in control with surface of specimen from about 2
to 3 mm under moderate pressure.
4) The photographic paper is removed from the surface of specimen washed in clear
running water and fixed permanently by keeping in photographic fixer solution for
about 15 minutes. It is then taken out from solution, washed in running water for
about 1 hour and subsequently dried by an appropriate method.
5) Examine of this print clearly reveals the presence of sulphur by dark colored areas of
silver sulphide on the paper. The grounding of such dark spot or areas indicates the
presence of sulphur segregation, whereas a random dispersion of the spots denotes a
more uniform and less harmful distribution of sulphur.
3) List out the reasons for flow line observation on components.

Ans – Even after normalizing and annealing of the component, flow lines are seen. This is
due to:
1) The presence of elongated nonmetallic inclusions. Nonmetallic inclusions do not
recrystallise during normalizing or annealing and
2) The presence of prepared orientation areas which are always formed due to
normalizing or annealing of a cold worked metal.
38
EXPERIMENT NO. 08
STUDY AND DRAWING OF MICROSTRUCTURES OF PLAIN

CARBON STEELS OF VARYING CARBON PERCENTAGE.
39
EXPERIMENT NO: 08
AIM -
Study and drawing of microstructures of plain carbon steels of varying carbon percentage.
(Low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, high carbon steel).
OBJECTIVE –
1) To study the microstructure of different metal samples.
2) To draw the microstructure of different metal samples.
INTRODUCTION -
In iron carbon and alloy it is important to study the phase diagram. It is graphically represent
as the temperature and composition limits of phase under specific condition of heating and
cooling.
In the IIC diagram phases are observed and defined as below.
1) Ferrite:
It is represented by alpha (α) ferrite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in low
temperature BCC and iron. It is almost a pure iron and the name ferrite comes from Latin
word ferrisum at room temperature is 0.08 % and increase with increasing temperature to
about 0.025 % and 727 °C is relative extensively cooled work without cracking is strongly
ferromagnetic up to 768 °C becomes paramagnetic at 765 °C during heating. This
temperature is 768 °C at which ferrite becomes paramagnetic is called as Curie temperature
and paramagnetic which exist below the 768 °C to 910 is denoted by B.
2) Austenite:
It is interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC and iron phase is called austenite in honor of
Austen who was one of the first metallographic to study its property. It can be dissolved up to
2 % carbon at 1147 °C. The phase is stable only above 729 °C. It is soft ductile and malleable
and nonmagnetic phase. It can be exterstial at temperature of its existence.
3) δ- Ferrite:
It is an intermetalic compound of iron and carbon with fixed carbon content of 6.67 % of
weight. Cementite has a complex rhombic crystal structure with in carbon atom and 12 – iron
atom is a unit area. It is extremely hard and brittle phase. Carbon hardness is 900 - 1200
BHN. It is ferromagnetic up to 210 °C and paramagnetic up to this temperature called iron
carbide in the discussion of FCC system
4) Perlite:
It is an intermetalic microstructure of ferrite and cementite. It has distinct structure and
consists of alternative layer of ferrite and cementite. Ferrite is called because of lust pearl like
appearance under microscope. Pearlite is called as micro constitutes. Pearlite contains 38 %
40
ferrite and 12 % cementite. Its room temperature when later is cooled slowly below 27 °C.
Pearlite has a variable hardness (from 20 RC to 30 RC) depending upon its fitness.
5) Ledeburite:
Similar to pearlite it is also a micro constitution consisting of a mixture of the two phase
austenite and cements. It is obtained when liquid alloy containing 43 % is cooled below 1147
Similar to pearlite it is also a micro constitution consisting of a mixture of the two phase
austenite and cements. It is obtained when liquid alloy containing 43 % is cooled below 1147
°C, Below 727 °C. Austenite of ledeburite changes to pearlite giving its characteristics and
appearance under microscope.
Fig – Iron - Carbide equilibrium diagram
Microstructure at room temperature -

With a very low carbon % the microstructure of steel is almost single phase. I.e. α – ferrite,
this is also called mild steel. As carbon phase % increases the second phase pearlite is
observed amount of pearlite phase increases in carbon % for plain carbon steel. At 0.8 %
41
carbon the microstructure is 100 % pearlite with further increase. The cementite phase is
observed for hypereutectoid steel
Microstructure of mild steel (0.01 % c):
At point 1 α starts separating at grain boundary of % as composition varies along line CD and
that of P along line CF. at 2 the temperature existing transformation at the constant
temperature of 727 °C to ferrite and cementite called pearlite by eutectoid transformation
process. Cooling from 2-3 does not result in significant change in microstructure due to
solubility of carbon in α and hence same structure is obtained at room temperature.
Microstructure of eutectoid steel (0.8 % c):

1) Eutectoid transformation occurs at 0.8 % C. this point austenite of 0.8 % C at constant
temperature at 727 °C.
2) It forms mixtures of ferrite (0.025 % C) and cementite. This phase is called pearlite
due to purple appearance. It consists of alternative or of ferrite and cementite.
727 °C
γ α + fe3C
FCC (0.257 C) (Orthorhombic BCC)
Microstructure of hypereutectoid steel (1.0 % c):

1) At point 1 fe3C starts separating out on grain boundary of austenite. as temperature
decrease amount of fe3C increases.
2) At point 2, the existing amount of austenite transform at constant temperature of 727
°C to pearlite.
3) Cooling from 2-3 does not result of significant change in microstructure and hence
same structure is observed at room temperature. The amount of fe3C and pearlite to
ledeburite.
Microstructure of Low carbon steel, medium carbon steel, Eutectoid steel,

Hypereutectoid steel -
1) Low carbon steel
Mechanical treatment - Hot Rolled
Heat treatment - Annealing

Composition - 0.18 % Carbon
0.50 % Manganese
Magnification – 200 X
Etchant - Nital
42
Description – A typical two phase structure is observed. Ferrite is bright phase whereas
pearlite is dark phase. Ferrite occupies about 25 % volume and pearlite is the balance. Grains
of ferrite phase are polynomial and equiaxed. Pearlite is unresolved.
2) Medium Carbon Steel

0.50 % Manganese
Etchant - Nital
Description – A typical two phase structure is

observed. Ferrite is bright phase whereas pearlite is dark phase. Ferrite occupies about 50 %
volume and pearlite is the balance. Grains of ferrite phase are polynomial and equiaxed.
Pearlite is unresolved.
3) Eutectoid steel

0.50 % Manganese
Etchant - Nital
Description – A typical two phase structure is observed. Ferrite is bright phase whereas
pearlite is dark phase. Ferrite occupies about 50 % volume and pearlite is the balance. Grains
of ferrite phase are polynomial and equiaxed. Pearlite is unresolved.
4) Hypereutectoid steel
43

0.50 % Manganese
Etchant - Nital
Description – A typical two phase structure is observed. Cementite is bright phase whereas
pearlite is dark phase. Cementite occupies about 5 % volume and pearlite is the balance.
Cementite occupies boundary regions of pearlite. Perlite is resolved in some locations.
CONCLUSION -
By this experiment we study and drawing microstructure of low carbon, medium carbon,
eutectoid steel, and hypereutectoid steel in annealed condition.
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS –

1) Explain the ferrite phase existing in Fe3C equilibrium diagram.
Ans - It is represented by alpha (α) ferrite is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in low
temperature BCC and iron. It is almost a pure iron and the name ferrite comes from Latin
44
word ferrisum at room temperature is 0.08 % and increase with increasing temperature to
about 0.025 % and 727 °C is relative extensively cooled work without cracking is strongly
ferromagnetic up to 768 °C becomes paramagnetic at 765 °C during heating.
2) Write down the transformations exists in iron carbon equilibrium diagram.

Ans – Transformations exists in iron carbon equilibrium diagram –
1. Eutectic transformation
2. Eutectoid transformation
3. Peritectic transformation.
3) List out the different phases existing in Iron Carbon phase diagram.
Ans - The different phases existing in Iron Carbon phase diagram are as below:
1. Ferrite
2. Austenite
3. δ- Ferrite
4. Perlite
5. Ledeburite
45
EXPERIMENT NO. 09
JOMINY HARDENABILITY TEST
EXPERIMENT NO: 09
AIM -
46
Jominy harden ability test.
OBJECTIVE -
1) To conduct the Jominy harden ability test on two types of steel specimen.
SAMPLE -
Size of Diameter = 25.4 mm,
Sample length = 102 mm, 14 inch,
Quenching temperature = below 21°C to 27°c.
APPRATUS -
Jominy and Quench test equipment.
HARDENABILITY -
It is the property of metal by which it can be held easily by martensite transformation. On its
depth of hardening produce under given condition of cooling of surface may be fast but
decrease towards contact. This difference of cooling rate is used while severity of quench
increases section thickness of cool. Martensite may form up to the point to critical cooling
rate is attended.
CONSTRUCTION -
The specimen of cylindrical shape with 25.4 mm diameter and approximately 102 mm length
has mixed at one end water is allowed to flow on bottom end through a pipe having inside
diameter 12.7 mm. The distance below pipe and bottom end of specimen is 12.7 mm. The
pressure should be adjusted such that flow adjusted behind of water approximately 64 mm.
The temperature is 27° c.
PROCEDURE:
1) Open the valve to adjust pressure of water such that force free height of water is
approximately 64 mm and form a complete umbrella over than bottom surface.
2) Specimen is austenite at constant temperature.
3) Transfer the specimen quickly to fixed line.
4) Water is allowed to flow on bottom end through pipe.
5) After quenching 2 flat surface ground apposite to each other along the length of size.
6) Measure the hardness (UPN as RC) at interval of 1.6 mm distance from quenching.
7) Plot the hardness value on a function of distance from quench and resulting curve is
called `Joining Curve’.
47
Fig – Jominy test apparatus
Fig – Jominy end curve
48
OBSERVATION TABLE -
SR NO. DISTANCE (MM) HARDNESS ( N/MM)

01 00 00
02 10 70
03 20 43
04 30 30
05 40 28
06 50 26
07 60 23
08 70 10
CONCLUSION -
Thus we conduct the Jominey harden ability test on two types of steel specimens and
measure the hardness by showing the Jominy harden ability curve.
49
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS –

1) What is hardenability? How it is differ from hardness.
Ans – Hardenability is defined as the relative ability of the steel to be hardened by quenching
and it determines the depth and distribution of hardness across the cross-section. Hardness is
mainly function of carbon content.
2) How the Jominy harden ability test is performed.

Ans – PROCEDURE -
1) Open the valve to adjust pressure of water such that force free height of water is
approximately 64 mm and form a complete umbrella over than bottom surface.
2) Specimen is austenite at constant temperature.
3) Transfer the specimen quickly to fixed line.
4) Water is allowed to flow on bottom end through pipe.
5) After quenching 2 flat surface ground apposite to each other along the length of size.
6) Measure the hardness (UPN as RC) at interval of 1.6 mm distance from quenching.
7) Plot the hardness value on a function of distance from quench and resulting curve is
called `Joining Curve’.
3) Write down the factors on which hardenability is depend.

Ans – Hardenability of steel is depends on
i) Composition of steel. ii) Method of manufacture
iii) Section of the steel iv) The quenching media
V) Quenching method.
4) Differentiate between Jominey and Grossman’s methods of harden ability.

Ans –
Sr.no. Jominey Test Grossman’s Test
In this test, a cylindrical steel specimen This method consists of heating a
with 25 mm dia. and 100 mm length is number of cylindrical pieces of
1 heated to the proper austenitising different diameters of the same steel to
temperature. It is after heating austenitising temperature and
transferred to a fixture (quenching jig). quenching.
Results are expressed as a curve of The maximum diameter of sample
hardness value versus distance from the which shows 50% martensite or RC 50
2 quenched end (Jominey distance). This at the centre is called as critical
curve is called as the Jominey diameter and is taken as a measure of
hardenability curve. hardenability.
50
EXPERIMENT NO. 10
STUDY AND DRAWING OF MICROSTRUCTURE OF CAST

IRONS. (MICROSTRUCTURE OF WHITE CAST IRON,
MALLEABLE CAST IRON, AND GRAY CAST IRON AND
DUCTILE CAST IRON.)
51
EXPERIMENT NO: 10
AIM:
Study and drawing of microstructure of cast irons . (White cast iron, malleable cast iron, gray
cast iron and ductile cast iron.)
INTRODUCTION:-
The term CI refers to a formally of ferrous metal, that are used in CI in which carbon content
varies below 2 to 6.67.many engineering component cast directly from liquid state into
required size and shape CI passes following advantages over steel and metal.
1) It is least expensive casting material because of all raw materials is relatively cheap.
Steel lime stone coke.
2) CI has lower melting temperature then steel i.e.(140 to 1200 ) and (13600 to 1500 ).
3) It passes high casting properly on high flexibility low shrinkage casting around easy
to production of higher yield.
4) CI can provide wide range of metal properly ranging from yield strength to ductility
and toughness.
5) They pusses a high compressive strength.
6) It can be machined easily.
7) They provide high wear resistance.
8) It has high damping capacity in very high temperature.
9) Prevent metal to absorb vibration.
10) Alloy CI poses high corrosion and heat resistance. It generates mechanical property
of steel in vibration, damping capacity, sliding quality and resistance to wear.
On the basis of strength, CI have been classified into various group such as,
a) WHITE CI -
When carbon in CI present in the form of cementite it is called as `White CI’.
It shows white structure when it is fractured. White CI I obtained by controlling the chemical
composition and cooling rate lower silicon contents and rapid cooling liquid always produces
white CI because `fe3c’ is preheated from due purpose the graphite due to presence of
cementite white CI has hardness and wear resistance depending upon contents.
Hardness may varies from 350 to 550.it is difficult to m/c and machining to form strength
white CI is not employed from structure part because of an cementite brittleness typical
application of white CI produce wearing plate. Inner grinding hall and rolled surface.
b) MALLEABLE CAST IRON -

White Cast Iron is heated to produce casting having ductility, plasticity, formality such a CI
is called malleable Cast Iron.
It consists of graphite module and temperature uniformly distributed in ferrite and pearlite. It
is produced by heat treatment of white cast iron which does not contain corrosion in free
graphite from the total time vary from 50 to several time.
Depending upon heat treatment it is divided into:
52
1) White Band malleable Cast Iron

2) Black Band malleable Cast Iron
Malleable Cast Iron posses good machinability, cast ability, adaptability and is economical.
Typical application are pipe storming bracket support white has switch gain part distribution
system for railways, electrical system etc.
c) GREY CAST IRON -

When carbon is present in the form of graphite the CI is called as Grey Cast Iron. The
graphite plates are dispersed in the matrix of pearlite. The amount of graphite may vary from
0.9 to 17% of total alloy. Grey Cast Iron is obtained when liquid alloy of suitable
composition poverty this slow cooling rate cementite is decomposed its iron and carbon
follows `fe3c’ slow cooling 3fec.the above relation is called graphite action because it
produce carbon in the form of graphite flash the state of graphitization is increased to by
increasing carbon and silicon contents and decreasing the cooling rate. Addition of Ni and Al
also increasing the graphitization but chromium molybdenum etc. limit this graphite the other
important mechanical property of grey CI are flow important resistance and poor ductility
because it is very brittle due to wide range of physical and mechanical properties. Coupled
with cost of production grey cast iron I widely used in energy application such as it is used
for making clutch plate break drum for necessary of bed fan deep mould no weight. Industrial
furnace wear and pump having flywheel cylinder and piston engine flange.
d) DUCTILE CAST IRON -

In nodular cast iron, graphite is present in gray color & is the form of regular shaped nodules
& spheroids. So it is called nodular cast iron or spheroid cast iron & ductile cast iron because
of its higher ductility 6.20 %.As shown in fig. Nodular cast iron is manufactured from gray
cast iron by adding some nodulising elements i.e. Mn, Ca, Ba, Li. Most commonly used
nodulising element is Mn added in the amount of 0.06 -0.08 %. At the time of manufacturing
gray cast iron is takes into furnace. Heated up to 300 0C adding nodulising elements & cooled
to the room temperature by normal cooling rate. During the process following two things are
considered:-
i) Nodulising elements are always added in alloy form.
ii) When they are present in pure form they are purely active and burn on the surface of
the portion.
At the time of adding nodulising element solution is stirred, at that time, gases are evolved.
Some gases mix in the solution, result into formation of blow holes. Though nodular cast iron
is manufacture from gray cast iron, it is free from the defects. i.e. growth & fire cracks. Its
properties are as
i) Hardness – 100-300 BHN.
ii) Ductility – 6-20 %
Applications of nodular cast iron

i) In agriculture – tractor and implement parts
ii) In automotive – crankshaft, piston and cylinder heads.
iii) Electrical fittings, switch boxes, motor frames, circuit breaker parts.
53
iv) In mining – hoist drums, drive pulley, flywheels, elevator buckets.

v) Steel mills- work rolls, furnace doors, table rolls and bearings.
Microstructure of white cast iron, malleable cast iron, gray cast iron and ductile cast
iron.
1) White cast iron
Mechanical treatment – As cast
Heat treatment - Nil

Composition – 2.8 % Carbon
1 % Manganese
Etchant - Nital
Description – A hypoeutectic type of white cast iron is observed. Dendrites of original

austenite transformed to pearlite are observed. White bright phase cementite is observed in
the interdendritic region.
2) Malleable cast iron

1 % Manganese
Etchant - Nital
Description – When we use slow cooling rate, we obtain ferritic malleable cast iron. In this
Cast Iron, ferrite is soft & ductile phase. When we use moderate cooling rate in malleablising
heat treatment, perlitic malleable Cast Iron is obtained. Perlitic malleable Cast Iron is harder
& stronger than ferritic Malleable Cast iron.
3) Gray cast iron
54

3 % silicon
Etchant - Nital
Description – Microstructure reveals dark flake

type graphite in the metallic matrix of ferrite and perlite. Ferrite appears white and is
observed more on vicinity of graphite.
4) Ductile cast iron

3 % silicon
Etchant - Nital
Description – Three distinct phases’ ferrite, pearlite and graphite are observed. Nodules of
graphite appear dark in colour in the matrix of white ferrite and perlite. Perlite is unresolved
and occupies about 70 % volume.
CONCLUSION –
Thus we study and drawing microstructure of gray, white, malleable and Spheroidal graphite
cast iron.

1) Write down the characteristics of cast irons.
Ans – Characteristics of cast irons -
1) It is least expensive casting material because of all raw materials is relatively cheap.
Steel lime stone coke.
55
2) CI has lower melting temperature then steel i.e. (140 to 1200) and (13600 to 1500).
3) It passes high casting properly on high flexibility low shrinkage casting around easy
to production of higher yield.
4) CI can provide wide range of metal properly ranging from yield strength to ductility
and toughness.
5) They pusses a high compressive strength.
6) It can be machined easily.
7) They provide high wear resistance.
8) It has high damping capacity in very high temperature.
9) Prevent metal to absorb vibration.
2) Why white cast iron is name as white cast iron. Explain the reason.
Ans - When carbon in CI present in the form of cementite it is called as `White CI’. It shows
white structure when it is fractured. White CI I obtained by controlling the chemical
composition and cooling rate lower silicon contents and rapid cooling liquid always produces
white CI because `Fe3c’ is preheated from due purpose the graphite due to presence of
cementite white CI has hardness and wear resistance depending upon contents.
3) How the malleable cast iron manufactured from white cast iron.
Ans – White Cast Iron is heated to produce casting having ductility, plasticity, formality such
a CI is called malleable Cast Iron.
It consists of graphite module and temperature uniformly distributed in ferrite and pearlite. It
is produced by heat treatment of white cast iron which does not contain corrosion in free
graphite from the total time vary from 50 to several time.
4) Write down the properties and defects of grey cast iron.

Ans – When carbon is present in the form of graphite the CI is called as Grey Cast Iron. The
graphite plates are dispersed in the matrix of pearlite. The amount of graphite may vary from
0.9 to 17% of total alloy. Grey Cast Iron is obtained when liquid alloy of suitable
composition poverty this slow cooling rate cementite is decomposed its iron and carbon
follows `fe3c’ slow cooling 3fec.the above relation is called graphite action because it
produce carbon in the form of graphite flash the state of graphitization is increased to by
increasing carbon and silicon contents and decreasing the cooling rate. Addition of Ni and Al
also increasing the graphitization but chromium molybdenum etc. limit this graphite the other
important mechanical property of grey CI are flow important resistance and poor ductility
because it is very brittle due to wide range of physical and mechanical properties. Coupled
with cost of production grey cast iron I widely used in energy application such as it is used
for making clutch plate break drum for necessary of bed fan deep mould no weight. Industrial
furnace wear and pump having flywheel cylinder and piston engine flange.
56

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MATERIAL SCIENCE & METALLURGY

HINDI SEVA MANDAL’S (ESTD.-1950)

Approved By A.I.C.T.E. New Delhi & Govt. of Maharashtra,

This is to certify that Mr. / Miss

Lecturer– in– charge Head of the Department

1 Brinell Hardness Test

2 Rockwell Hardness Test

3 Erichson Cupping Test

5 Dye Penetrant Test

Specimen Preparation For

7 Sulphur Print Test.

Study And Drawing of

Jominy End Quench Test.

Study And Drawing of Microstructure

BRINELL HARDNESS TEST

B.H.N = Load applied in Kg

Figure - Principle of a non standard Brinell hardness test

Load applied Dia. of indentation on

3 Aluminum 5 2.6 9.09

4 Copper 5 2.2 13.26

D = Diameter of steel ball indenter in mm.

1 Mild Steel BHN= 2*10 = 40

2 Brass BHN = 2*5 = 16

3 Aluminum BHN = 2*5 = 10

4 Copper BHN = 2*5 = 14

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:-

1. What do you mean by Hardness?

4. Defferantiate between Rockwell and Brinell hardness test.Ans- Rockwell hardness

5. What is the principle of Brinell Hardness Test?

6. Why Brinell hardness number is dependent of Load?

ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST

Symbols for various combinations of loads and indenters

Proper scale selection according to component condition is given below,

Hard – brale indenter

STANDARD ROCKWELL HARDNESS SCALES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS -

Hard in materials like Razor blades, Steels &

A) For Brale Indenter –

B) For Ball Indenter:-

Types of scale/load Rockwell

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:-

1. How Rockwell hardness test is differs from Brinell hardness test?

2. Write down the types of indenters used in this test?

3. Describe the Rockwell hardness tester?

A) For Brale Indenter –

B) For Ball Indenter:-

5. What are the advantages of Rockwell hardness test?

ERICHSON CUPPING TEST

Fig – Erichsen cupping tester

a) Radial crack b) Circular crack

Fig: Cracks in metal sample

Fig: Erichsen standard chart

Sr. Thickness Sampal Nature of

2 Copper 0.90 6.20 Radial Not Good

3 Mild steel 0.48 7.64 Circular Good

4 Aluminum 1.41 8.50 Circular Good

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

2. What is the principle of Erichsen cupping test?

3. What is the indication of Radial and Circular cracks?

4. Draw the Erichsen cupping chart?

5. On which factors formability depends?

6. Describe the Erichsen cupping tester.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TEST (MAGNAFLUX TEST) -

DETECTION OF DEFECTS DEPENDS ON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS -