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(Download PDF) Life From Above Epic Stories of The Natural World First U S Edition Bright Online Ebook All Chapter PDF
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INTRODUCTION
WORLD OF MOVEMENT
WORLD OF COLOR
WORLD OF PATTERNS
WORLD OF CHANGE
INDEX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
PICTURE CREDITS
Observing the Earth: a short history
During the Late Stone Age, about 27,000 years ago, a group of
hunter-gatherers in the Pavlov Hills, in what is now the Czech
Republic, looked around the landscape in which they lived and
realized that if they had some means by which they could easily find
their favorite hunting grounds and the best places in which to camp,
then they would have a better chance to survive. Word of mouth
from one generation to the next would have been one way to stoke
tribal knowledge, but these people had a new and more permanent
solution: they scratched marks onto a mammoth tusk, and this
would provide them with a visual representation of where they had
been, where they were now, and where they could go…in other
words, they had created a map.
Those early cartographers were limited in their outlook. They had
to make their observations from the tops of hills or, like later
civilizations, from the masts of ships, but that did not stop them
from considering the bigger picture. There was always a desire to
view ourselves as the gods might see us, and in the 6th century bce,
the Babylonians had a go at depicting the entire Earth in space with
their Map of the World. It is a clay tablet, in size about 5 by 3
inches, that shows our planet as a flat disk surrounded by the sea,
and, according to the British Museum where the artifact is kept, it is
thought to be copied from an earlier depiction made sometime after
the 9th century bce.
Archaeological finds like these show how, since the mists of time,
people have had an abiding curiosity about what the world looks like
when seen from above. But it was not until Greek philosophers and
mathematicians came along that we realized the Earth was not a flat
disk, but a sphere. It was the perfect shape the gods would have
preferred.
By the 13th century ce, ancient mariners had drawn up
navigational charts, like the portolan charts, which guided ships
across the world in pursuit of silk, spices, opium, political influence,
and the conquest of new lands. They were so valuable that the
charts were often closely guarded state secrets, and the outlines of
the known continents were remarkably accurate considering the
highest a ship’s navigator could climb to view the sea and shore was
to the crow’s nest, about 100 feet above the deck.
Then, during the 18th century, there was a quantum leap in the
way the Earth could be observed: the invention of the balloon. In
November 1783, the Montgolfier brothers flew a manned balloon in
France, but it was not until 75 years later that balloons were used to
take photographs of the Earth below.
It has taken less than 25,000 years to get from a simple map scratched
on a mammoth’s tusk to an International Space Station from which
pictures can be taken of an aurora from above. Our ancient forebears
were eager to see our world as the gods saw it, and now we can do just
that. Astronauts dreamed of traveling to other worlds, but it wasn’t until
they looked back and saw our delicate planet hanging in the void of
space that we came to have a new kind of self-awareness, something
that an International Space Station crewman described as “orbital
awareness”—a new and holistic view of the world. © Image courtesy of
NASA Johnson Space Center
The pioneer was French photographer Gaspard-Félix Tournachon,
known professionally as “Nadar.” In 1858, he took the first known
aerial photograph from a tethered balloon about 260 feet above the
valley of the Bièvre. It was not easy. The wet colloidal photographic
process in those days involved him taking not only a bulky camera
and tripod, but also an entire darkroom, in the balloon’s basket.
These early balloonists took enormous risks and very often put their
lives in danger.
In the USA in 1860, American photographer James Wallace Black
and his fellow balloonist Samuel Archer King tried to photograph the
countryside around Boston, but their balloon broke free and they
were dumped unceremoniously but safely in high bushes about 30
miles from their starting point. Two years later, British scientist
James Glaisher and balloonist Henry Tracey Coxwell attempted to go
considerably higher in order to photograph above the clouds. They
reached an altitude of about 6.5 miles, but Glaisher passed out due
to a lack of oxygen. Coxwell lost all sensation in his hands, but could
pull the relevant valve cord with his teeth, and they returned gently
to the ground but failed to photograph anything at all. And, in the
early 1900s, George R. Lawrence was photographing from a cage
strung beneath a balloon above Chicago when the cage detached
itself and both Lawrence and camera fell toward the ground, only to
be caught by telephone wires. Miraculously, he walked away
unharmed.
During the years that followed, the desire to photograph the
Earth from above gave rise to techniques that became increasingly
bizarre. In 1903, German apothecary Julius Neubronner designed
and patented a small camera mounted on the breast of a pigeon.
The pigeon did not always fly the intended track, but creating a
camera this small was an achievement nonetheless. The pigeons
were probably less impressed, flying as they did with a wooden box
attached to their breast. It was a wonder that they were able to take
off at all, let alone fly!
Pigeons were in the vanguard of the first Earth photographers. Julius Neubronner’s
pigeons carried cameras into international expositions in several European cities in the
early 1910s. Pictures they had taken on their flight were developed, printed, and sold as
postcards.
The earliest known picture from a balloon was of Paris, taken by Nadar
in 1858. “Montmartre” is conveniently labeled top right corner, as is the
“Avenue du Bois de Boulogne” at the bottom.
James Wallace Black photographed “Boston as the Eagle and Wild
Goose See It” from a tethered balloon at an altitude of 2,000 ft on
October 13, 1860.
Fig. 230.—Characteristic
Jamaican and Haitian
Mollusca: A, Sagdae
pistylium Müll., Jamaica; B,
Chondropoma salleanum Pfr.,
San Domingo; C,
Eutrochatella Tankervillei
Gray, Jamaica; D, Cylindrella
agnesiana C. B. Ad.,
Jamaica.
The land operculates form the bulk of the land fauna, there being
actually 242 species, as against 221 of land Pulmonata, a proportion
never again approached in any part of the world. As many as 80 of
these belong to the curious little genus Stoastoma, which is all but
peculiar to the island, one species having been found in San
Domingo, and one in Porto Rico. Geomelania and Chittya, two
singular inland forms akin to Truncatella, are quite peculiar. Alcadia
reaches its maximum of 14 species, as against 4 species in San
Domingo and 9 species in Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San
Domingo only; but, if Stoastoma be omitted, the Helicinidae
generally are not represented by so many or by so striking forms as
in Cuba, which has 90 species, as against Jamaica 44, and San
Domingo 35.
(c) San Domingo, although not characterised by the extraordinary
richness of Cuba and Jamaica, possesses many specially
remarkable forms of land Mollusca, to which a thorough exploration,
when circumstances permit, will no doubt make important additions.
From its geographical position, impinging as it does on all the islands
of the Greater Antilles, it would be expected that the fauna of San
Domingo would not exhibit equal signs of isolation, but would appear
to be influenced by them severally. This is exactly what occurs, and
San Domingo is consequently, although very rich in peculiar species,
not equally so in peculiar genera. The south-west district shows
distinct relations with Jamaica, the Jamaican genera Leia,
Stoastoma, Lucidella, and the Thaumasia section of Cylindrella
occurring here only. The north and north-west districts are related to
Cuba, while the central district, consisting of the long band of
mountainous country which traverses the island, contains the more
characteristic Haitian forms.
The Helicidae are the most noteworthy of the San Domingo land
Mollusca. The group Eurycratera, which contains some of the finest
existing land snails, is quite peculiar, while Parthena, Cepolis,
Plagioptycha, and Caracolus here reach their maximum. The
Cylindrellidae are very abundant, but no section is peculiar. Land
operculates do not bear quite the same proportion to the Pulmonata
as in Cuba and Jamaica, but they are well represented (100 to 152);
Rolleia is the only peculiar genus.
The relations of San Domingo to the neighbouring islands are
considerably obscured by the fact that they are well known, while
San Domingo is comparatively little explored. To this may perhaps
be due the curious fact that there are actually more species common
to Cuba and Porto Rico (26) than to Porto Rico and San Domingo.
Cuba shares with San Domingo its small-sized Caracolus and also
Liguus, but the great Eurycratera, Parthena, and Plagioptycha are
wholly wanting in Cuba. The land operculates are partly related to
Cuba, partly to Jamaica, thus Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Cistula,
Tudora, and many others, are represented on all these islands, while
the Jamaican Stoastoma occurs on San Domingo and Porto Rico,
but not on Cuba, and Lucidella is common to San Domingo and
Jamaica alone. An especial link between Jamaica and San Domingo
is the occurrence in the south-west district of the latter island of
Sagda (2 sp.). The relative numbers of the genera Strophia,
Macroceramus, and Helicina, as given below (p. 351), are of interest
in this connexion.
Porto Rico, with Vièque, is practically a fragment of San Domingo.
The points of close relationship are the occurrence of Caracolus,
Cepolis, and Parthena among the Helicidae, and of Simpulopsis,
Pseudobalea, and Stoastoma. Cylindrella and Macroceramus are
but poorly represented, but Strophia still occurs. The land
operculates (see the Table) show equal signs of removal from the
headquarters of development. Megalomastoma, however, has some
striking forms. The appearance of a single Clausilia, whose nearest
relations are in the northern Andes, is very remarkable. Gaeotis,
which is allied to Peltella (Ecuador only), is peculiar.
Fig. 231.—Examples of West Indian
Helices: A, Helix (Parthena)
angulata Fér., Porto Rico; B,
Helix (Thelidomus) lima Fér.,
Vièque; C, Helix (Dentellaria) nux
denticulata Chem., Martinique.
Land Mollusca of the Greater Antilles
Cuba. Jamaica. S. Domingo. Porto Rico.
Glandina 18 24 15 8
Streptostyla 4 ... 2 ...
Volutaxis ... 11 (?) 1 ...
Selenites 1 ... ... ...
Hyalinia 4 11 5 6
Patula 5 1 ... ...
Sagda ... 13 2 ...
Microphysa 7 18 8 3
Cysticopsis 9 6 ... ...
Hygromia (?) ... ... 3 ...
Leptaxis (?) ... ... 1 ...
Polygyra 2 ... ... ...
Jeanerettia 6 ... ... 1
Euclasta ... ... ... 4
Plagioptycha ... ... 14 2
Strobila ... 1 ... ...
Dialeuca ... 1 ... ...
Leptoloma 1 8 ... ...
Eurycampta 4 ... ... ...
Coryda 7 ... ... ...
Thelidomus 15 3 ... 3
Eurycratera ... ... 7 ...
Parthena ... ... 2 2
Cepolis ... ... 3 1
Caracolus 8 ... 6 2
Polydontes 3 ... ... 1
Hemitrochus 12 1 ... ...
Polymita 5 ... ... ...
Pleurodonta ... 34 ... ...
Inc. sed. 5 ... ... ...
Simpulopsis ... ... 1 1
Bulimulus 3 3 6 7
Orthalicus 1 1 ... ...
Liguus 3 ... 1 ...
Gaeotis ... ... ... 3
Pineria 2 ... ... 1
Macroceramus 34 2 14 3
Leia ... 14 2 ...
Cylindrella 130 36 35 3
Pseudobalea 2 ... 1 1
Stenogyra 6 7 (?) ...
Opeas 8 (?) 4 6
Subulima 6 14 2 2
Glandinella 1 ... ... ...
Spiraxis 2 (?) 2 1
Melaniella 7 ... ... ...
Geostilbia 1 ... 1 ...
Cionella 2 ... ... ...
Leptinaria ... 1 ... 3
Obeliscus ... ... 1 2
Pupa 2 7 3 2
Vertigo 4 ... ... ...
Strophia 19 ... 3 2
Clausilia ... ... ... 1
Succinea 11 2 5 3
Vaginula 2 2 2 1
Megalomastoma 13 ... 1 3
Neocyclotus 1 33(?) ... ...
Licina 1 ... 3 ...
Jamaicia ... 2 ... ...
Crocidopoma ... 1 3 ...
Rolleia ... ... 1 ...
Choanopoma 25 12 19 3
Ctenopoma 30 2 1 ...
Cistula 15 3 3 3
Chondropoma 57 (?) 19 4
Tudora 7 17 5 ...
Adamsiella 1 12 ... ...
Blaesospira 1 ... ... ...
Xenopoma 1 ... ... ...
Cistula 15 3 3 ...
Colobostylus 4 13 5 ...
Diplopoma 1 ... ... ...
Geomelania ... 21 ... ...
Chittya ... 1 ... ...
Blandiella ... ... 1 ...
Stoastoma ... 80 1 1
Eutrochatella 21 6 6 ...
Lucidella ... 4 1 ...
Alcadia 9 14 4 ...
Helicina 58 16 24 9
Proserpina 2 4 ... ...
The Virgin Is., with St. Croix, Anguilla, and the St. Bartholomew
group (all of which are non-volcanic islands), are related to Porto
Rico, while Guadeloupe and all the islands to the south, up to
Grenada (all of which are volcanic), show marked traces of S.
American influence. St. Kitt’s, Antigua, and Montserrat may be
regarded as intermediate between the two groups. St. Thomas, St.
John, and Tortola have each one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus,
while St. Croix has two sub-fossil Caracolus which are now living in
Porto Rico, together with one Plagioptycha and one Thelidomus
(sub-fossil). The gradual disappearance of some of the characteristic
greater Antillean forms, and the appearance of S. American forms in
the Lesser Antilles, is shown by the following table:—
S
P S S G M t
o t S t u a S .
r . t A . a D r t B T
t S . T n A d o t . a V G r
o T t o g K n e m i r i r i
h . C r u i t l i n L b n e n
R o r t i t i o n i u a c n i
i m J o o l t g u i q c d e a d
c a a i l l ’ u p c u i o n d a
o s n x a a s a e a e a s t a d
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bulimulus 7 4 2 4 1 2 2 3 8 9 5 3 3 6 2 4
Cylindrella 3 2 1 1 1 . . . . 1 1 1 1 . . 1
Macroceramus 3 1 1 . 2 1 . . . . . . . . . .
Cyclostomatidae, etc.23 4 1 5 1 1 1 . 4 . . . . . . 1
Dentellaria . . . . . . 1 1 8 5 11 2 2 . 1 1
Cyclophorus . . . . . . . . 1 2 2 . . . . .
Amphibulimus . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 . . . . .
Homalonyx . . . . . . . . 1 1 . . . . . .