I AIAA-90-2397

Ultra High Bypass Turbofan Technologies

for the Twenty-First Century
R. E. Owens, K. L. Hasel and D.E. Mapes
Downloaded by ETH Zuerich on April 4, 2024 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1990-2397

Pratt & Whitney, Engineering Division

East Hartford, CT 06108

AIAAISAUASMVASEE
26th Joint Propulsion Conference
Y July 16-18, 1990 / Orlando, FL
For permission to copy or republish, contact the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
370 L'Enfant Promenade, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024
 ULTRA HIGH BYPASS TURBOFAN TECHNOLOGIES
FOR THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY

R.E. Owens*, K. L. Hasel** and D. E. Mapes***

Pratt & Whitney
East Hartford, CT 06108

Abstract

A study was conducted under the NASA sponsored

High Technology UHBR Turbofan contract which iden-
tified the key technologies needed to realize the
potential benefits of advanced turbofan engines in
the 21st century. Engines in this study were based
on technologies predicted to be available in the
year 2010 for service in year 2015. These engines
have approximately 60,000 pounds of thrust- and
were sized to power large, long range, subsonic
commercial transports of a similarly advanced
? I , ,
r
, ,
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0.4
level of technology. The benefits of advanced 1960 1970 1980 1990
cycles and technologies were assessed through
comparison with a current technology conventional Engine certification year
turbofan with the same thrust capability as the
advanced study engines. This study also explored Fig. 1. Historical Cruise Fuel Consumption Trend.
innovative engine arrangements and design concepts Advances in technology have reduced turbo
affecting the weight, cost, and/or maintenance engine specific fuel consumption by 40%
cost. The designs addressed noise and emissions in 30 years.
which are expected to continue as serious concerns
in the future.
Fin. 2 defines these parameters. Overall efficien-
This paper summarizes the cycle selection cy-is the product of ihermal efficiency times pro-
process and the configuration options studied. pulsive efficiency. The thermal efficiency relates
Benefits defined for the advanced aircraft the energy made available for propulsion by the
systems relative to the baseline turbofan are core to the energy added from the fuel. Thermal
identified along with the key technologies efficiency is a function of the core component
required to achieve these benefits. efficiencies, core cycle parameters [combustor
. . and o v e r a l l Dressure ratio
exit temerature (TY)
(OPR)], and turbine cooling and secondary flow
Introduction systems.
Thrvrt energy rsalized
Over the past several decades, commercial air- 'i P,OP",ri"B Energy available
craft turbine engine propulsion technology has
experienced significant advances. Propulsive /
cycles have progressed from turbojets to high
bypass ratio turbofans while core cycle pressure
ratios and temperatures have been constantly
increasing. Component aerodynamic improvements
have increased the efficiency and work capability
for each stage. Material advances and mechanical
design innovations, as well as improved turbine
airfoil cooling schemes, have allowed operation
a t higher gas temperatures and shaft rotational
speeds while reducing weight. The integration of
these advances has resulted in a trend toward
improved thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC)
as shown in Fig. 1. Recent NASA-sponsored studies
on advanced subsonic propulsion systems technology Fig. 2. Definition of Thermal and Propulsive
have identified significant potential for further Efficiency. TSFC is inversely Propor-
fuel consumption improvements into the early tional to the product of thermal and
twenty-first century. propulsive efficiency.

Although TSFC is commonly used to measure an The propulsive efficiency then is defined as
engine's performance level, other fundamental the ratio of propulsive power ( r e a l i z e d as thrust)
efficiency parameters such as thermal efficiency to the energy available for propulsion from the

-
can be studied to understand performance trends. core. Propulsive efficiency includes the effects
of the propulsive cycle parameters fan pressure
~- ~

(FPR) and bypass ratio (BPR), as well as propulsor

* Senior Project Engineer and drive turbine efficiencies, energy transfer
** Project Engineer losses as in a gear, and any ducting, nozzle, or
*** Senior Engineer nacelle l o s s e s included in the thrust definition.

1
 Performance improvements from early turbojets
through current generation turbofans (Fig. 3 ) were
realized through approximately equal increases in
thermal and propulsive efficiency. Advanced pro-
pulsion system cycle and configuration analyses
identified the potential of another 10 - 15% im-
provement in each of these areas for large, com-
mercial transport, ducted engines targeted for
service in the years 2015 to 2 0 2 0 .
IS, gonsmtion
furboirtr and furbolanl
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I8
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Engine certification year
Fig. 3 . Fuel Consumption Projections. Studies
have shown the potential for further
improvements of 10 to 15% in both thermal
and propulsive efficiency in the next 30
years.
Previous studies have identified the Advanced
Ducted Prop (ADP) concept 8s a candidate propulsor
configuration for future ultra high bypass ratio
(UHBR) engines. The ADP is a geared, variable
pitch fan system with a fan pressure ratio signi-
ficantly lower than current turbofans which has
the potential Of providing increased propulsive
efficiency. The NASA-sponsored High Technology
UHBR Turbofan Study, upon which this paper is
based, evaluated the core cycle and configuration
opportunities which, when coupled with an ADP
propulsor, would continue the evolution of com-
mercial engines to more economical, environmen-
tally acceptable systems. This study explored not
only cycle and aerodynamic improvements to reduce
the fuel consumption of these engines, but also
innovative engine arrangements and design concepts
affecting weight and cost. The designs addressed
noise and emissions which are expected to continue
8s serious concerns in the future.
This paper discusses the cycle studies and
advanced turbofan configurations defined in the
NASA sponsored High Technology UHBR Turbofan
study. This study identified the key technologies
needed to achieve these engines and estimated
their potential benefits to airplane performance
and economics. The engines in this study were
based on technologies predicted to be available
in the Year 2010 for service in year 2015. They
have an engine size of about 60,000 pounds of
thrust and were sized to power a large, long
range, subsonic commercial transport of a similar-
ly advanced level of technology.
Baseline
In order to assess the benefit of advanced
cycles and technologies, a current technology
baseline engine was defined (designated a s
STF940). This engine is a conventional turbofan
with 1.65 FPR at cruise, 35 OPR at climb and v
2500°F T4 at takeoff with the Same thrust
capability 88 the advanced study engines. The
turbomachinery staging and design were defined
with technologies currently available today.
Performance Studies
Performance studies were conducted to target a
desirable core engine cycle which would net the
most TSFC improvement relative to the baseline
with the same thrust capability. The cycle studies
were conducted with the same ADP fan definition
with projected 21st century component efficiency
and turbine cooling levels, realistic efficiency
variations for varying core flow size, and realis-
tic variations in turbine cooling levels for vary-
ing temperature levels.
A common ADP fan definition was used in the
2020 cycle studies. All cycles had a cruise FPR of 1.3
and climb jet velocity ratio (VJR) of .75, two
parameters which are the major contributors to
propulsive efficiency. In-hokse studies identified
these FPR and VJR levels as optimum for advanced
ducted systems,.based on direct operating cost.
While propulsive efficiency continues to increase
with decreasing FPR, propulsion system weight and
drag increases tend to offset this benefit,
producing the curve shown in Fig. 4.
Advanced ducted geared engines
1.20 1.24 1.28 1.32 1.36 1.40
Fan pressure ratio
- 1.3 FPR selected for study
Fig. 4. Propulsor Selection. Optimum fan pressure
ratio for advanced geared engines was
found to be about 1.3:l.
Component efficiency and turbine cooling levels
were projected for 2010 technology availability
including the impact of technology improvements
at the same cycle as the baseline engine, and the
impact of changing the cycle on turbine cooling
and efficiency levels.
The technology improvements alone resulted in
10% TSFC improvement at the baseline T4 and OPR
cycle. The turbine cooling air was reduced approx-
imately by one-half and each component efficiency
increased by approximately 2-3 points. These im-
provements, in combination with the lower FPR ADP L
2
 fan, resulted in a net improvement of 18% TSFC at
cruise relative to the baseline turbofan at the
same cycle OPR and T4.
Far the cycle study, component efficiency and
turbine cooling levels were adjusted as the cycle
__ was varied to account for realistic effects at
constant technology levels. The efficiency levels
Were adjusted as a function of the turbomachinery
flow size; traditionally there are efficiency
variations with flow size because airfoil clear-
ance levels cannot be scaled down as the turbo-
machine is scaled. As a result, endwall losses of
turbines and compressors increase as their flow
size decreased. This scaling effect on efficiency - 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5
is nonlinear as illustrated in Figure 5 . Similar-
ly, the turbine cooling flow level was adjusted Relative turbine cooling air
in the cycle study as 8 function of local turbine
gaspath and turbine cooling source temperatures Fig. 7. Turbine Cooling Effect. Increasing
in order to maintain consistent airfoil life for cooling a i r reduces turbine efficiency.
advanced metallic materials. Bath diffuser and
HPC interstage air was used for turbine cooling. Using these component efficiency and turbine
Turbine efficiency levels were also adjusted as a cooling projections, a cycle matrix of four T4
function of the turbine cooling flow level to ac- and five OPR levels was evaluated. In addition,
count far mixing losses associated with turbine the impact of a more aggressive materials technol-
Downloaded by ETH Zuerich on April 4, 2024 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1990-2397

cooling. Figure 6 illustrates the variation in ogy allowing operation with no turbine cooling air
turbine cooling air and Figure 7 shows the vari- was evaluated at one T4 level. The resulting TSFC
ation in turbine efficiency with turbine cooling potentials for these cycles are illustrated in
a i r used in the cycle study. Fig. 8.
+2 -
-1Or
c

-a"
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
-4
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Overall pressure ratio
Relative core size
Fig. 8. Cycle Selection. TWO cycles were chosen
Fig. Scaling Effect. Decreasing core airflow for further study.
size degrades component efficiency.

1.50 For the nominal 2010 materials assumptions,

Fig. 8 shows that TSFC initially improved with
.-a 1.25
L Current technology increasing OPR and then deteriorated. This trend
iel lo STF940 defined the optimum OPR level for each T4. The
a
.--C 1.00
0
turnaround in TSFC past a given OPR occurs because
the energy required to drive the compressors
increases with OPR while the turbine energy avail-
8 able remains fixed for a given T4. The turbine
cooling and scaling effects also contribute to
.- 0.75 the trend in TSFC. Figure 8 also shows that TSFC
f! improved with increased T4 at the same OPR level,
5 0.50 but the TSFC improvement at the optimum OPR is
m essentially the same for the highest T4 levels.
.s-> 0.25 ~ Fer term technology Based on these trends, 8 75 OPR, 3200'F T4 cycle
(STS964) was chosen for further study with the
nominal materials assumptions. The highest T4
level was chosen even though it showed little
0 +ZOO +400 +600 +so0
- TSFC improvement over the lower T4's since it

- A Takeoff T4 OF produced a smaller core, a potential weight

improvement. The TSFC of the STS964 is projected
Fig. 6. Turbine Cooling Trends. Projections used to be 22% better than the baseline turbofan.
for this study show a 50% reduction in
air needed to coal the turbine.
 For improved 2010 technology matefials, only a TABLE 2
turbine temperature level of 3000°F was studied SELECTED CONFIGURATIONS
since this was assumed to be the maximum tempera-
ture capability f o r uncooled ceramic materials.
Figure 8 shows that using materials that eliminate
the need for turbine cooling increases the optimum
OPR, further improving TSFC. Based an this TSFC
trend, a cycle with 100 OPR and 3000'F T4 was
chosen for further study with improved materials axial
41,11214
assumptions (designated STS970). This engine cycle
has a 3% additional TSFC improvement over the
STS964, resulting in a 25% net TSFC improvement LOW 1.9 6.0 6.0
over the current technology baseline. Table 1 ";oh 10.8 70.0 10.0
compares these selected cycles to the baseline.
-
4.3
-
3.B 1.6
.
4.7 17.5 17.5
TABLE 1
SELECTED CYCLES .I\tCt"i..

A further objective of this study was to inves-

Technology Current (basel Advanced (yr
tigate configurations that are different from
Fan PIB(IIUIB ratio 1.65 1.3 1.3 those traditionally found in engines in this
thrust class. Due to the relatively small high
Bypars l.110 5 25 25 compressor exit flow size, it seemed appropriate
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Overall pre$sure ratio 35 75 100 to examine centrifugal compressors (which are

somewhat less sensitive to size than are axial
Combustor exit femp~rafureIT,. O F 1 2500 3200 3000. compressors). In the 75 OPR case, the last three
Core exit tlow d m (relative1 1.00 0.24 0.19 stages of the six-stage axial high campressor
were replaced with a centrifugal stage shown as
Fan diameter (In1 94 130 130
the STS964B in Table 2 and Fig. 9. The principal
Engine designation STFS40 STSSM STS970 advantage of this configuration over the all axial
STS964A is that its centrifugal Stage replaces
over 300 compressor airfoils while maintaining a
high level of efficiency.

1A
--I
Confiauration S t u d i e s 101 .
6.itags

The component technology levels and the most \J

promising cycles selected under the cycle study
were used to configure engines which were evalu-
ated against the current technology baseline
engine. As in the cycle studies, two distinct
material technology levels were used. The 75 OPR
engines assumed Iess aggressive materials than
those used in the 100 OPR engines. The 75 OPR
engines used advanced metals which required same
cooling air t o handle the high T4 levels of these
cycles, while the 100 OPR engines assumed advanced
ceramic materials which required no cooling.
There were several reasons for evaluating two
material technology levels. When using our "most
likely" material assumptions which forecasted tur-
bines using advanced metals, not ceramics, the
cycle studies showed that beyond 75 OPR, the cool-
ing air requirements more than offset the effi-
ciency advantage of higher pressure ratios. If
ceramics suitable for use as turbine airfoils were
available, however, higher pressure ratios would
become more attractive. Therefore, an engine was
configured a t a pressure ratio of 100 around an
uneooled ceramic matrix composite turbine. This
would determine if there were any benefits beyond
the TSFC improvement identified in the cycle
studies for such a machine. Thus, the configura-
tions chosen for conceptual design shown in Table
2 include two configurations at 75 OPR and 100
OPR, respectively.
3 BXlSI stages
1 centrituga1
HPC
Fig. 9. 75 OPR Advanced Core Configurations. The
STS964B has an axi-centrifugal high
compressor.
The STS970B represents a considerably more
unusual configuration. In this case, the high
pressure spool is removed from its usual position
around the low shaft and placed "off axis" ( s e e
Table 2a and Fig. lo). In this arrangement, any
potential constraint caused by the law shaft is
eliminated, making the high pressure spool more
accessible for maintenance. Screening of a number
of off a x i s schemes with various high compressor
pressure ratios, configurations and number of
cores led to the selection of a two-core, centri-
fugal high compressor at a pressure ratio of 6
with an axial high turbine. Two cores instead of
one were chosen to reduce transition ducting
losses and complexity. More than two cores were
eliminated due to cost - reducing a core to 112
size reduces its cost by only about 20%, thus two
cores cost 60% more than one core, and four cores Ll
would cost about 150% more than one core.

4

TABLE ZA
SELECTED CONFIGURATIONS
6.0 3.2 14.0
10.0 11.4 6.0
Oxpm'io" rdlrio.
4.3 3.6 52 2.1
High
lOtLrrnediate . - - 2.8
LOW 4.7 I7.5 16 2 1q.6
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Fig. 10. 100 OPR Advanced Core Configurations.
i- The STS976B is an off axis design with
two cores, one on either side of the
engine centerline.
A centrifugal compressor was chosen because of
cost and the small core flow size. The selection
of a pressure ratio of 6 was a compromise between
minimizing the number of stages required in the
low compressor and minimizing the size of the off
axis core. This configuration also used an inter-
mediate turbine to drive the low compressor inde-
pendent of the fan. The higher pressure ratio of
this low compressor (14:l vs 6 and 3:l for the
inline cases) made the higher speed capability of
an intermediate turbine more attractive, while
placing the core off axis eliminated the mechani-
cal problems normally associated with a three
spool design.
The other two more conventional configurations,
STS964A and STS970A. (shown schematically in Figs.
9 and 10) are two spool engines with all axial
compression systems. The primary configurational
difference between these engines is the use of a
two-stage high turbine on the 100 OPR STS970A vs
a single stage on the 75 OPR STS964A. The reason
for this difference lies in the overall pressure
ratios. In configuring the STS964A, the philosophy
used to choose the high compressor pressure ratio
was to push it as high as a single turbine stage
could handle. Given the assumed technology levels
and cycle parameters, this produced a 10 pressure
ratio high compressor. Applying the same philas-
-, ophy to the 100 OPR STS970A also produced about a
10 pressure ratio high compressor, leaving a sig-
nificant amount of pressure to be produced by the
5
low compressor. To do this most efficiently, the
low compressor would have required the addition
of an intermediate turbine between the high and
low turbines, and hence, a third shaft under the
burner. While this was an attractive approach in
the case of the off axis STS97OB, where the high
pressure spool did not have to fit around the
intermediate shaft, space considerations under
the inline high spool made it unattractive for
the STS970A. Instead, a two-stage high turbine
was chosen, driving a 24:l high compressor and
allowing use of a 2 spool arrangement.
As noted in the cycle studies, all of the
advanced engines studied have the same propulsor,
a 1.3:l pressure ratio, single stage, variable
pitch fan driven through an inline gearbox.
Reverse thrust is provided by the fan itself,
eliminating the need for a reverser and thus,
simplifying its design. This propulsor is shown
installed an the STS964A in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11. Advanced Configuration. All of the
advanced cores were mated to a geared,
variable pitch ducted prop as shown in
this figure.
Technology
The advanced technology engines discussed in
this paper operate with higher rotor speeds,
reduced surge margins and reduced clearances
relative to the baseline. They also incorporate
technologies that improve the efficiency of each
component (Fig. 12). As a result, these engines
have at least 50% fewer airfoils in the core with
equal 01 better efficiency levels than the base-
line engine even though the compressor and turbine
must work harder due to the increased overall
pressure ratio. The technologies required to
achieve these benefits will now be reviewed.
Advanced technology fans will be dramatically
different from current fans due to future cycle
trends toward lower FPR and and BPR (Fig. 13).
These fans require variable pitch capability and
gear drive systems With high power and high gear
ratio capability. Pratt and Whitney is currently
developing these capabilities for nearer term
engines. Further advancements to these fan con-
cepts for year 2010 availability include: 1) Tech-
nologies to improve the aerodynamics, materials
and manufacturing techniques for the fan blades;
2 ) Reduction of endwall and secondary losses in
both blades and exit guide vanes through use of
better three dimensional aerodynamic analysis
 tools; 3 ) Development of swept rotors which could
result in lighter, more efficient, and quieter fan
designs by allowing operation at high tip speeds
and reduced fan diameter without the efficiency
losses and noise typically associated with shocks;
and 4) Reduction of blade weight through better
materials and blade manufacturing technologies to
allow operation at high tip speeds.
...
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. sursa .onrsirantsll.lion . Hiohm'
Fig. 12. Core Engine Technology Features. The
relatively small core size of the
advanced engine is apparent.
LorrDiidil"
.....
t.ihnola.*
..
OMC connruni0n
Fig. 13. Propulsor Technology Features. The
variable pitch fan eliminates the need
for a nacelle mounted thrust reverser.
For advanced technology compressors to operate
With higher tip speeds and temperatures and better
efficiency will require improvements in both mate-
rial and aerodynamic performance. Materials with
improved tensile and creep properties at high
temperatures will allow advanced compressors to
operate at higher speeds and temperatures. Im-
proved three dimensional design capability cali-
brated by testing will facilitate designing more
efficient airfoils. This is especially true for
the rotors where sweep is targeted to reduce the
severe efficiency penalties due to shocks associ-
ated with high tip speed designs. Smart controls
which sense and correct rapidly for compressor
surge and tip rubs will allow designing to reduced
surge margin and clearances, resulting in better
efficiencies and fewer airfoils.
Advanced combustors must operate with reduced
emissions at higher temperatures than today's
combustors. Reducing the NOx emissions will be
particularly challenging because of the high
overall pressure ratio and turbine temperature
cycle. Some type o f low emissions combustor needs
to developed in time for commercial operation in
v
the 2010 time frame. High temperature materials
such as refractory or ceramics will be required
for operation at the advanced cycle turbine
temperatures.
Materials will be the key technologies in the
turbine region which will allow operation of
advanced engines at higher temperatures and
speeds. Bath advanced metal alloys and ceramics
with improved tensile and creep properties as
well as improved oxidation resistance and thermal
barrier coatings have been targeted as potential
airfoil material candidates for future engines.
Advanced analytical to019 will facilitate turbine
coaling designs with better cooling effectiveness
and airfoil design5 with reduced losses, resulting
in less cooling air and better efficiencies.
Advanced controls with rapid response to engine
needs will allow designs with tighter clearances,
resulting in more efficient operation.
Benefit Analysis
The value of advanced technology engines is
their potential benefit to civil aviation. The
benefit for a commercial transport engine is
measured by fuel efficiency, economics, and
environmental impact. To determine the potential
benefit in each of these areas, the advanced
engines were compared to a. current technology
engine described in the cycle study section of
this paper. Although a benefit analysis for all L
of the advanced engines was not completed in time
to be included in this paper, the process was
completed for the 75 OPR all axial STS964A. This
engine is compared to the baseline engine on an
isolated pod basis as shown in Table 3 . For this
comparison both engines are at the same thrust
size. The TSFC values shown in the table include
isolated nacelle drag and are at a typical cruise
thrust. The weight and cost comparisons include
1 1 1 Ih...""iwralFLFIY
nacelle and EBU. The STS964A has a significant
TSFC advantage over the Current engine, and
despite its much larger fan diameter, a weight
advantage as well. Of the TSFC advantage, roughly
12% comes from propulsive efficiency improvement,
while the other 12% is due to thermal efficiency.
This TSFC improvement is larger than found in the
cycle studies because it includes component effi-
ciency increases identified in the configuration
and technology studies which exceeded the esti-
mates made at the start of the cycle studies.
The thermal efficiency improvement also eon-
tributes to the weight reduction through reduced
core size. In addition, the improvements in compo-
nent aerodynamics, efficiency, loading capability
and stability, have allowed reductions in the num-
ber of stages and airfoils, and therefore, weight.
The advanced lightweight materials assumed for
this time period (Fig. 14) are also major
contributors to the weight reduction.
W
6
 TABLE 3
PROPULSION SYSTEM COMPARISON
Isolated pod
Engine
L
In serviceyear 1989
Cruise TSFC' Base
Weight
Engine Base
Nacelle Base
Total Base
cost
Engine Base
Nacelle Base
Total Base
'M-8L15.000 11
drag.
including n 8 ~ a l l s BLD 8 HPX
Downloaded by ETH Zuerich on April 4, 2024 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1990-2397
Fig. 14. Advanced Configuration Materials.
Advances in materials, especially high
temperature materials, are necessary to
achieve the potential of the advanced
engine.
In spite of a much larger fan diameter (130 v8
94 inches), the STS964A offers a nacelle weight
advantage, due in part to the extensive use of
lightweight materials, but primarily because the
advanced engine does not have a nacelle mounted
thrust reverser. Instead, the advanced engine uses
a variable pitch fan to provide reverse thrust.
while it is difficult to predict the fuel con-
sumption and weight for an engine 25 years in the
future, predicting cost is even more challenging.
Not only must strengths, densities, etc., be
accounted for, but also how a material would be
manufactured, and how innovative constructions
might be fabricated. Given this caveat, the cost
of the advanced engine is predicted to be compet-
itive with the baseline engine. The reduction in
core size, number Of stages, and airfoils in the
advanced engine tends to offset the predicted
higher costs of the advanced materials. However,
reaching these cost levels will require signifi-
cant development in production fabrication tech-
niques for advanced materials.
In order to size the engines and evaluate their
fuel burn and economic benefits, a 21st century
4-engine commercial transport was selected. This
aircraft incorporates advanced structural and
aerodynamic technologies judged to be represent-
STS964A ative of an entry into service date of 2015 as
2015 that of the advanced engine. The aircraft was
sized to carry 600 passengers in a two-class
- 24% seating configuration over 7000 nautical miles at
a cruise speed of Mach 0 . 8 6 . Both advanced and
- 13% baseline engines are used to power the airplane.
-13% For the evaluations, the airplane was assumed t o
- 13% be "rubber", meaning the design takeoff gross
weight and the empty weight were scaled to produce
+ 17% a constant design range and payload with each
- 22% engine. Wing and empennage areas were also scaled
+ 6% as required with takeoff gross weight. Engine size
was scaled to maintain constant takeoff and
initial cruise altitude capability.
The potential fuel burn, airplane weight and
economic benefits, shown in Fig. 15, of this
advanced turbofan for the year 2015 are quite
large. The fuel b u m saving shown in this figure
results in a considerable reduction in airplane
TOGW, which in t u m , reduces airplane cost. This
reduced cost, combined with the fuel savings,
produces a significant reduction in direct operat-
ing cost, even at relatively low fuel prices.
.lengins,60Opax "rubber" airplans
40 r .Mach 0 86 C r u b
for
STS964A 2o
relative
to
STF940 io
-.
0
Fuel
burned
@
3000 nm
Fig. 15. Benefits of the Advanced Technology
Engine. The large TSFC and weight
advantages translate into greatly
reduced trip fuel and DOC.
The two major environmental issues facing civil
aviation are noise and gaseous emissions. In ultra
high bypass ratio engines, noise is primarily a
function of the propulsor. while gaseous emission
is most affected by engine thermal efficiency.
Engine overall pressure ratio has a direct effect
on the formation of nitrogen oxides (Nor). All
else being equal, increasing the pressure ratio
increases NOx. Using the overall pressure ratio
to increase cycle thermal efficiency requires
that other schemes be Considered to keep NOx
emissions low. Table 4 shows NOx, as well as CO
and HC, of the advanced engine with both current
and advanced burners compared to the baseline
engine. An advanced burner (in this case a rich
b u m , quick quench concept derived from industrial
engines and used in the High Speed Transport
Research Program) is required to make high pres-
sure ratios an acceptable way to increase engine
efficiency, while keeping NOx low.
7
 TABLE 4
BENEFIT ANALYSIS - EMISSIONS

The relatively low pressure ratio geared fan

of the advanced engine offers the potential of
achieving significantly lower noise levels than
current engines of this size class. Table 5 shows
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a comparison o f FAR 36 Stage 3 noise levels for

the advanced and current engines. The values
shown are each of the three FAR 36 measuring
stations compared to the Stage 3 rule level.
Reaching the potential shown for the advanced
engine will require significant development effort
In the field of noise reduction technology.

TABLE 5
BENEFIT ANALYSIS - NOISE

. 4 engine long-range transports

Relative to St%gelJ
Current technology engine 0 to -5 EPNdB
2015 tech engine potential -5 to -10 EPNdB

Conclusions

This study has shown that there is still

significant potential for gains in both the
propulsive and thermal efficiencies of turbofan
engines. These gains and the advanced design.
concepte that go with them can produce large
benefits In airplane performance (35% fuel burn)
and economics (14% D O C ) . Realizing this potential
will require considerable effort be devoted to
developing key propulsor. core and material
technologies. Only with this effort can the
benefits of these 21st century engines he
achieved.