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Language Matters: Studies

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Translation and Gender:

Interconnections
a
Kim Wallmach
a
Depart ment of Linguist ics (Translat ion
St udies) , Universit y of Sout h Africa
Published online: 31 May 2008.

To cite this article: Kim Wallmach (1998) Translat ion and Gender:
Int erconnect ions, Language Mat t ers: St udies in t he Languages of Africa, 29:1,
5-25, DOI: 10.1080/ 10228199808566130

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 Translation and Gender:
Interconnection s
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Kim Wallmach
Department of Linguistics (Translation Studies)
University of South Africa

ABSTRACT

This paper examines the gender bias present in texts and discusses
interconnections between translation and feminism in revising metaphor,
myth and history, in rereading 'patriarchal' translations, in bridging the gap
between French feminism and Anglo-American feminism, and in devising
a feminist translation theory.

INTRODUCTION

The aim of this paper is to provide a general overview of

instances where translation and gender intersect. I begin by
examining how gender bias affects texts and then go on to
discuss some of the major areas where translation has impacted
on feminism.

No-one can deny that we are living in an era powerfully

influenced by feminist thought. But many believe, in fact, that

5
 we are now past the 'era of feminism' and are living in a post-
feminist world. As a result many tend to dismiss as irrelevant
many of the feminist issues that feminists like Simone de
Beauvoir, Betty Friedan and Germaine Greer fought so hard for.
Surely, now that high-profile successful women are no longer
the exception, we no longer need to concern ourselves with
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issues such as sexism and gender stereotyping?

The answer to this question can be found by discussing some

textual examples. As the following texts demonstrate, gender
bias, far from being a non-issue, is still very much prevalent in
our society.

GENDER BIAS IN ADVERTISEMENTS

One type of sexist language usage which feminists fight to

eradicate, and which non-feminists deny is even an issue, is that
of the male as norm, the so-called "he/man" generic. Many
people believe that words like chairman, mankind, man and
expressions like the man in the street, the right man for the job
are neutral. So many would argue that the text below (fig. 1),
which depicts the history of mankind, from pre-historic man to
modern man (Mills 1995: 89), does not trace the development
specifically of men, but of women too, despite the fact that the
picture used as an illustration is that of a man.

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Source: Cover illustration from Stephen Jay Gould, Erer Since Dancin, London: Random House.
7

Figure 1: Pre-historic man/the history of mankind

 But what about this text, which appeared in the women's
magazine Fair Lady?

ADVERTISEMENT

When should you start

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worrying about heart disease?

Figure 2: Heart disease advertisement (Fair Lady, 1997)

8
 Despite the fact that this advertisement by a pharmaceutical
company appeared in a women's magazine, and therefore has a
presumed audience of mainly women, the illustrations used are
those of a man in progressive stages of obesity. The advert
addresses the reader directly in the second person, "When should
you start worrying about heart disease?" and goes on to say
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"You can be as trim as the man on the left and still be at risk."
But then the body copy goes on to explain that it is mainly men
who suffer from heart disease. So in presenting male-oriented
experience as generic or as the norm, the text creates a
disjunctive effect for the female reader who in a sense has to put
herself inside a man's body in order to derive meaning from the
text. The necessity for a female reader to position herself as
male in order to make sense of a text is an important concern for
many feminists.

Sara Mills (1995: 20) has been quoted as saying:

A feminist analysis of the language of texts is essential since so many

things in western culture are sex-differentiated: from spectacles to
cardigans, from deodorants to nappies, from birthday cards to weight
training; all of these elements are differentiated according to gender
and this difference is marked and maintained in the language used.
Western European cultural systems attach great importance to gender
difference, and it is signalled at every possible moment, in situations
where sex differences are irrelevant.

Some theorists go so far as to suggest that gender itself might be

considered a 'schema' for making sense of a text. It is interesting
to compare the different ways in which advertisers advertise a
product such as a car to different audiences. For instance in the
advertisement below (fig. 3), there is no overt clue as to who the
reader might be.

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Figure 3: BMW advertisement (Gateway, August 1997)

10

On.
 Compare that advert to this one, which clearly targets the female
consumer.
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Figure 4: Toyota Conquest advertisement (Elle, 1998)

Here there is a clear representation of a woman, who is depicted

as a buxom blushing blonde bride on top of a wedding cake
holding the hand of a physically unpreposessing old man. The
headline reads: "Do whatever it takes to get a Conquest." The
assumption being, of course, that the woman will even marry
money to get her hands on a Toyota Conquest. Interestingly, the

11
 technical features of the car are presented very simplistically,
just the words "aircon", "radio and tape player" and "power
steering" accompanied by a suitable graphic, are given. The
advertiser plays on a presumed stereotypical feature of a woman:
her preoccupation with marriage, and her preparedness to marry
for money. This is a very different approach to the BMW ad,
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which provides no overt representation of its (presumably) male

consumer and which flatters this reader by attributing a great
deal of technical knowledge to him.

And, for the more mature woman consumer, who has possibly
had the odd nip or tuck, Toyota has this to offer, also in the 8
August edition of Elle:

To make
you feel
rejuvenate
it nips, fold
and tucks

Figure 5: Toyota RAV 4

12
 This advert for Daiwoo Cielo (Fair Lady, 2 April 1997) uses a
similar approach in targeting the female consumer.
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■ DEMAND MORE

Figure 6: Daewoo Cielo advertisement (Fair Lady, 2 April

1997)

According to the advertisers, "Women of the 90s demand more".

Here again, the advert contains a very simplistic explanation of
the features of the car, with accompanying graphic: "more

13
 style", "more control", "more luxury", "more security", "more
power". No attempt is made at giving the technical
specifications of the car (eg. that it has a 1600 fuel-injected
engine, etc.). The main graphic depicting the car itself is
overlaid with a collection of lipsticks and blushers. The colour
range of the Cielo is juxtaposed with the make-up used by a
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woman, the reader being led to assume that each of the objects
takes on the other's positive qualities. The perfect accessory for
a woman of the 90s who cares for her personal appearance is
clearly a Daewoo Cielo.

So, taking a rather round-about approach, I've discussed some

feminist concerns and looked at some of the ways in which
gender stereoyping and bias affects texts. The application of this
type of stylistic analysis to practical translation is clear:
confronting students with texts of this type can raise
consciousness and awareness of the fact that texts are not always
transparent. Very often, because something is so prevalent in
our society it appears to be normal or commonsense. Language
analysis can help to challenge these notions of 'normality' (Mills
1995: 21). In my view, learning to identify ideological
assumptions underpinning texts is perhaps even more important
than attempting to avoid sexist language usage or male-gender
specific expressions when translating, although this is clearly
also vital.

GENDER METAPHORS IN TRANSLATION

But there are other, perhaps more powerful, ways in which

translation and gender intersect in an era powerfully influenced
by feminist thought. Feminist influence on translation and
translation studies is most readily visible in the revision of

14
 traditional rhetoric. The metaphors traditionally used to describe
the translation process provide particularly fruitful ground for
revision. Researchers have found that metaphors of translation
going as far back as Cicero tend to illustrate the inferiority of a
translation in relation to the original in various ways. The
original author is often seen as an 'inventor', free to express
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himself as he wishes, whereas the translator is merely an

'imitator', bound by the wording of the original. In many
statements about translation, the translator is portrayed as a
slave, and this slavery is then contrasted with the freedom and
originality of the 'inventor'. Dryden, writing on the threshold of
the 18th century, uses this kind of imagery:

He who invents, is master of his thoughts and words: he can turn and
vary them as he pleases, till he renders them harmonious; but the
wretched translator has no such privilege: for, being tied to the
thoughts, he must make what music he can in the expression; and for
this reason, it cannot always be so sweet as that of the original.
(Rener in Simon 1996: 3)

Gender metaphors are also common in discourses on translation

and also reveal much about society's attitudes to the translation
process. Recent work by Lori Chamberlain on translation has
shown that the most traditional and misogynist conceptions of
gender roles and attributes have coloured much of the discussion
on translation, coding it as a passive and subservient activity that
simply reproduces someone else's real work. Traditionally, the
act of translating has been viewed as something qualitatively
inferior to the original act of writing - writing being original and
'masculine', and translating seen as being derivative and
'feminine' (Chamberlain in Venuti 1992: 68). One famous
quotation of this kind was made by John Florio, in ca. 1603,
who, in commenting on the insufficiency of his translation, said:

15
 "Because they are necessarily defective, all translations are
reputed females." (Simon 1996: 1). A similar (in)famous
statement was made by William Congreve (1670-1729): "Hell
hath no fury like a translator criticised".

Metaphors of translation have historically been couched in terms

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of power relations within the family, focusing on the control of

female sexuality by male authorities or male family members.
The implication is that a text (and a woman) must be kept in
check in order for the man/husband to be sure that the offspring
- the translation or the children - are legitimately his. An
example of this kind is the tag les belles infidèles used to
describe translation in 18th century France (Flotow 1997: 41).
Literally translated, les belles infidèles means 'the beautiful
unfaithful.' This expression implied that if translations (like
women) were faithful, they were probably ugly, and if they were
beautiful, they were likely to be unfaithful. So this expression
seems to have survived because it has captured a cultural parallel
between the issues of fidelity in translation and in marriage.
There are a number of recent instances where it has been used.
Steven Seymour, who was U.S. President Jimmy Carter's
interpreter, states: "Translations are like women. When they are
pretty, chances are they won't be very faithful." Roy Campbell
echoes this in Poetry Review, June-July 1949: "Translations
(like wives) are seldom faithful if they are in the least
attractive." Uys Krige, too, said this in his preface to the
translation of Twelfth Night, ca. 1971: "As the French say,
translating a great poem is like kissing another man's bride
through a veil."

It is in reaction to statements like these that many women have

chosen to use translation as a different type of metaphor. In fact,

16
 translation has become "a metaphor used by women writers to
describe their experience; like translated texts they can be
betrayed, transformed, invented and created" (Homel and Simon
1988: 49). Like translations, they struggle to speak in a foreign
language, the language of patriarchy. Susanne de Lotbinière-
Harwood (1991: 82) is particularly eloquent in this regard:
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Because we live under the phallic signifier, all women are bilingual. We
speak the dominant 'he/man' language and our own muted tongue(s).
translation: being so perfectly bilingual
makes me just as marginal
as being female.

But translation and gender connect not just metaphorically, but

also in a number of more tangible ways, particularly in literary
translation. In the following sections, I discuss only a few of
these interconnections.

RECOVERING 'LOST' WOMEN TRANSLATORS:

REWRITING HISTORY

La Malinche or Dona Marina was a woman of Aztec origin who

was sold into slavery as a child, and later became the interpreter
and wife/mistress of Cortes as he was conquering 16th century
Mexico. In conventional myths and stories, La Malinche is
considered to be responsible for causing the downfall of Mexico
through her services as an interpreter. She is also held
responsible for being the mother of a bastard race, a woman who
consorted sexually and politically with the conquistador (Flotow
1997: 74-76). The term malinchismo, which means 'selling out
to foreigners' is still used in Mexico today. A feminist revision
of La Malinche's story has been undertaken by Mirandé and
Enriquez, who look at the historical facts of her story and try to

17
 reinterpret it in the light of the fact that her position as a so-
called traitorous translator was due to the fact that she had been
sold into slavery. La Malinche had also seen the Mayas and
other tribes being slaughtered en masse in the name of Aztec
superiority, and thus, in aiding Cortes and by becoming a
convert to Christianity, she may have felt that Cortes represented
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the lesser evil.

REREADING PATRIARCHAL' TRANSLATIONS

Existing translations are being reread and re-examined, in the

suspicion that women writers have been misrepresented in
'patriarchal translations' of their work (Flotow 1997: 49). The
most striking example of this is the English translation of
Simone de Beauvoir's Le deuxième sexe (1949) as The second
sex by American professor of zoology Howard Parshley
appeared in 1952 and made the New York Times bestseller list
in 1953.

The main criticism of this translation is that more than 10% of

the book was deleted without explanation. Large sections of text
recounting the names and achievements of women in history
were cut from the English version. The translation also deletes
references to cultural taboos such as lesbian relationships, as
well as references to the tedium of women's everyday lives.
This has had far-reaching implications: Anglo-American
feminists have criticised Beauvoir's stance on sexuality and
sexual practices: according to Barbara Klaw, many fault her for
"perpetuating patriarchal stereotypes of female sexuality" (Klaw
in Flotow 1997: 51). Yet, Beauvoir's cliches may be due to
censorship by her (predominantly male) translators. Another
example of this kind is Beauvoir's book, Les Mandarins (1954),

18
 which broke enough sexual taboos to be on the Catholic
Church's prohibited list in France. Yet none of these
transgressions survived in the 1956 translation into English. The
book's American editor apparently apologised to Beauvoir for
this, stating: "in our country, one can talk about sexuality in a
book, not about perversion." (Flotow 1997: 51).
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There is another instance where Beauvoir's views have been

misrepresented in translation. An interview with Beauvoir,
published in Ms Magazine in July 1972, is a shortened, edited
version of the original interview published in French in February
1972 (Flotow 1997: 51). The English adaptation of the
interview was later reprinted in the highly influential book New
French Feminisms. An Anthology (Marks & de Courtivron
1980) and reached a wide academic public which was not made
aware of the editing. Sections dealing with sensitive and
controversial matters of feminist and Marxist ideology were
omitted or modified. According to Terry Keefe (in Flotow
1997: 52), a major sequence on capitalism was omitted, and
Beauvoir's emphasis on socialism and the class struggle was
played down. The English text also leaves out certain question-
and-answer sequences concerning lesbianism and women with
children. So Beauvoir came to mean something different in
English than she does in French, merely because the original
English translation was edited to suit the white middle-class
feminist readership of Ms Magazine.

TRANSLATING FRENCH FEMINISMS

Translators have sought out contemporary women's writing in

order to translate it into their own cultures. Because of the
experimental nature of much of this work, they have had to deal

19
 with enormous technical challenges in the translations. Crossing
the barrier between Anglo-American and French feminisms was
one such challenge. For there are in fact two main schools of
feminism, the French school and the Anglo-American school,
which have traditionally approached feminism from radically
differing points of view. Put simplistically, the Anglo-American
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school is more concerned with fighting for women's rights,

whereas the French school draws upon a strong philosophical
and psychoanalytic background in attempting to subvert
partiarchy in theoretical debate. Until the mid 1970s, these
schools remained largely unaware of the concerns of the other,
mainly because of the language barrier (Walker 1990: 31-2).

So you can imagine both the delight and the confusion of

anglophone feminists at being confronted with French feminist
work in English translation. Sandra Gilbert comments as
follows in her introduction to the English translation of one of
Irigaray's books, La jeune née, The newly born woman:

Now ... we can meet the "newly born woman" - the ancient/innocent/
fluent/powerful/impossible woman - as she is, or as Clement and Cixous
have envisioned her. What will we, products of a culture perhaps
stodgier than France's think of her thieving and flying, her Utopian body,
her desirous fantasizing and guilty shuddering? Everything about her -
as most anglophone readers will no doubt feel - is intense, indeed
hyperbolic. She is born of Flaubert and Baudelaire, of Rimbaud and
Apollinaire, as well as of ... Freud, Genet, Kleist, Hoffmann, Shakespeare
and Aeschylus ... For an American feminist - at least for this American
feminist - reading The Newly born woman is like going to sleep in a realm
of facts, which one must labor to theorize, and waking in a domain of
theory, which one must strive to (f)actualize.
(Cixous and Clément 1986: x).

20
 Sherry Simon (1996: 86-88) comments that the (sometimes
ambivalent) attraction of Anglo-American women to the work
of French feminists such as Cixous, Irigaray and Kristeva in
particular was central to the dynamic of literary and academic
feminism from the 1970s onwards. Translation served to
provide the theoretical nourishment and analytical tools in which
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Anglo-American feminism felt itself to be lacking. This was

part of a more general fascination with French thought which
dominated this period, embracing such thinkers as Barthes,
Lacan, Foucault and Derrida. Curiously, though, although there
were signs that these two very different philosophical and
cultural traditions had some difficulty in understanding each
other's ideas, there was very little recognition of the sometimes
problematic effects of translation.

The first effect was that although Cixous, Irigaray and Kristeva
approached feminism in very different ways, they were grouped
together in the minds of Anglo-American feminists by the
simple act of translation (Simon 1996: 86).

Secondly, only certain works were translated, which influenced

Anglo-Americans' grasp of their theories. This was particularly
serious in the case of Cixous. For almost a decade, her writing
and, by extension, French feminism, was represented by the
translation of one article, The Laugh of the Medusa, which
appeared in the anthology Signs in 1976 and in New French
Feminisms in 1980. Until the early 1990s, only three out of
forty-odd books by Cixous had been translated. Her theoretical
texts were more popular than her fiction, the end result being
that the few available fictional texts were in fact falsely
considered to be representative of her work (Jouve 1991: 49).
To put it mildly, Anglo-American perceptions of her work were

21
 somewhat skewed. Simon (1996: 95) comments: "It would
seem that Anglo-Saxon criticism has found the theoretical
Cixous most useful, if only to use her as a foil for the suspect
essentialism of French feminism."

The third problem concerns the translations themselves. The

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wordplay in Cixous' writing has, understandably, been a source

of considerable difficulty for her translators. They must try to
follow, imitate or reproduce the wordplay or slippages of the
original, without reducing the text to its communicative content
only. Then too, the original author makes philosophical and
psychoanalytical references which are unfamiliar to the Anglo-
American readership. So what was principally neglected in such
translations is the full import of context, both intellectual and
rhetorical. In the interests of fluency and transparency, the
translators generally strove to avoid the wordplay used in the
original and find a single message/meaning in the text. But in
so doing they created a clearly false assumption of easy access
to a text which depends on wordplay for its meaning.
I comment as follows (Walker 1990: 26):

The reader of a feminist text translated from one language and culture
into another may very well view that text from a different vantage point
to the reader of the original text, not only because of differing cultures in
the source and target texts, but also because of the specific feminist
stance taken. Even if the translated text attempts to reproduce the
ideology of the original exactly, the reader of the translated text may
draw upon a different field of feminist experience which examines
concepts in a different way.

Numerous commentators have in fact remarked on the

frustration which students have felt in being made to read texts -
in English - which they could not understand. It is only now, in

22
 retrospect, that there is some appreciation of how the tendency
for the translators to neglect full textual explanations for
concepts and rhetorical strategies has limited the reception of
this work. That strategies of translation were not brought
forward as a topic of debate is itself puzzling.
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CANADIAN FEMINIST TRANSLATION: A FEMINIST

TRANSLATION THEORY?

It was against this background that a group of Canadian

translators have begun to translate the works of French Canadian
feminists into English. Unlike the translators of the French
feminists, these translators are conscious of their influence on
the text and may seek to impose it overtly. They call themselves
feminist translators not just because they translate feminist
works (which is not new) but because they wish to imitate the
original authors' innovative writing processes as part of the
translation process.

In translating Québécois feminist texts, which make extensive

use of linguistic wordplay in their concern to explore language
as a sign of difference, feminist translators such as Barbara
Godard claim that translating for the signifier, by "lapse and
bounds" (Cixous in Godard 1991: 112), is clearly preferable to
conventional translation practice, allowing the feminist
translator to use innovative translation strategies, to affirm "her
critical difference, her delight in interminable re-reading and re­
writing and [to flaunt] the signs of her manipulation of the text."
(Godard in Homel and Simon 1988: 57). Godard in particular
is aware of the inadequacies of the translations of French
feminist theorists, which is why she has proposed a translation
theory which targets feminist translation specifically.

23
 Unfortunately, feminist translation theory is not substantiated by
feminist translation practice (Wallmach: in press). There is a
clear discrepancy between the statements made in prefaces and
academic articles and the translations themselves. In other
words, despite statements to the contrary, far from betraying the
source text and womanhandling the source text, the feminist
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translations of Barbara Godard are absolutely literal. Which, in

a sense, is another kind of betrayal.

CONCLUSION

In this paper I have discussed some of the interconnections

between translation and feminism: in revising metaphor, myth
and history, in rereading 'patriarchal' translations, in bridging the
gap between French feminism and Anglo-American feminism,
and in devising a feminist translation theory. The extent of these
initiatives is clear evidence of the importance of examining
feminist thought in the light of translation and, conversely, of
taking into account the effect the current 'era of feminism' has
had on translation practice.

REFERENCES

Beauvoir, S. de. 1949. Le deuxième sexe. Paris: Gallimard.

Beauvoir, S. de. 1952/1974. The second sex. (Tr. H. Parshley).

Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Beauvoir, S. de. 1954. Les mandarins. Paris: Gallimard.

Chamberlain, L. 1992. "Gender and the metaphorics of translation." In:

Venuti, Lawrence. Rethinking Translation. London: Routledge.

24
 Cixous, H.K. and Clément, C. 1986: The Newly Born Woman. (Tr. B.
Wing) Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

Godard, B. 1991. "Translating (with) the speculum". TTR 4(2): 85-121.

Homel, D & Simon, S. (eds) 1988. Mapping literature, the art and
politics of translation. Montréal: Véhicule Press.
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Lotbinière-Harwood, S. de. 1991. Re-belle et infidèle: la traduction

commepratique de réécriture au féminin/The body bilingual: translation
as a rewriting in the feminine. Toronto/Montréal: Women's Press/les
editions du remue-ménage.

Marks, E. and de Courtivron, I. 1980. New French Feminisms. An

Anthology. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.

Mills, Sarah. 1995. Feminist stylistics. London: Routledge.

Simon, Sherry. 1996. Gender in Translation: cultural identity and the

politics of transmission. London: Routledge.

Von Flotow, Luise. 1997. Translation and Gender: Translating in the

'era of feminism'. Manchester: St Jerome Publishing and Ontario:
University of Ottawa Press.

Walker, A.K. 1990. Decoding the feminine 'semiotic': feminist literature

in translation. Unpublished MA (Translation) thesis, University of the
Witwatersrand.

Wallmach, A.K. Difference/derivation: feminist translation under

review. Unpublished PhD (Translation) thesis, University of the
Witwatersrand (in press).

Ward Jouve, N. 1991. White woman speaks with forked tongue: criticism
as autobiography. London: Routledge.

25