Module-3 Transportation

Module – 3 Storage and Transportation
In this section we shall talk about:
Various Means of Pipeline Facilities

Transportation Description
Features of Cross Country Pipeline

- Construction, Pigging & SCADA
June 20, 2006 Oil and Gas Processing... Module - 3..Storage and Trans.. 3-1
© Technomanage
Transportation
Transportation of Oil
Pipeline Rail or Road

Marine Tankers
Sub-sea or Tankers
SPM or Jetty
On-land (Small Volume)
Transportation of Gas
Pipeline Liquefaction
Sub-sea or LNG, Gas to Liquid, Gas by Wire
On-land Gas to Methanol Convert to Power
Pipeline Rail or Road

Sub-sea or Marine Tankers Tankers
On-land (Small Volume)
© Technomanage
Module - 3 1
Gas by Wire - Concept
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Typical Pipeline System
• Pipeline is the most preferred option to transport oil or gas in

bulk over long distances.
• It could be thousands of km long, branched and networked.
• It starts with pumping/compression or without it, if pressure is

adequate to reach destination at desired pressure.
• The starting pressure depends on length of pipe, pipe diameter,

and destination pressure.
• For long pipelines (hundreds of km), booster

pumps/compressors are required along the length.
• Gas is distributed along the length to many customers.
• The entire facility is monitored and managed by SCADA system.

© Technomanage
Module - 3 2
Gas Pipeline Configuration
Cross-country
Pipeline
Offshore
Platform Subsea
Pipeline
SPM/PLEM Shore Terminal

(Pig receiver, Booster
(Manifold, Station
Pig Launcher) Slug Catcher,
Flare, Metering
Landfall
Point
Consumers (each consumer will
have a Receiving Terminal)
© Technomanage
PLEM : Pipeline End Manifold
The start or end of a sub-sea pipeline is with PLEM.

PLEM is a manifold with valves and pigging facilities.
Offshore Platform Sea Surface Oil Tanker
SPM
PLEM
Sub-sea Line Sub-sea Trunk Pipeline
Sand bed
© Technomanage
Module - 3 3
SPM : Single Point Mooring
• It is a floating device used to load or unload oil and

products from marine tankers in mid-sea.
Useful for:
• Loading and unloading to tanker in shallow water

port when tanker can not reach close to jetty.
• For transfer of oil from offshore platform when

there is no pipeline to shore.
© Technomanage
SPM Terminal for Crude Oil Unloading
Hose
Connection
SPM
Oil Tanker
Rotating Floating
Manifold Hoses
PLEM
Control Cable
to shore terminal Anchor Cables
Submarine Pipeline
(Crude) to shore terminal
© Technomanage
Module - 3 4
Land Fall Points
One landfall point at Uran

Second landfall point at Hazira
Uran
Landfall
Bombay High
Offshore
© Technomanage
Cross Country Pipeline
Pipeline Design, Monitor

& Control System
© Technomanage
Module - 3 5
Pipeline Project – Special Features
Essential activities in a pipeline project are similar to any

Design Basis other project.
But like any other industry, it has its own special

Conceptual & features:
Feasibility Study
¾ It can be thousands of KM long, across a country or

Front End
Engg. Design countries, crossing private and public property.
¾ Pipeline routing and Right-of-Way are important pre-
Engineering, project activities
Procurement &
Construction ¾ Booster stations en-route
¾ Construction technology
Commissioning ¾ Special maintenance and monitoring techniques -
Pigging and corrosion control
¾ Monitoring and control of a facility spread over
Operation &
Maintenance hundreds of kilometers - SCADA
© Technomanage
Pipeline Design Basis
• Design Considerations
• Flow Rate, Destination Pressure
• Pipeline Route Established
PD
• Optimization
• Pipe Size, Pressure, Compression and
pumping, Booster Stations
Distance
• Finalize pipe diameter, booster stations
There is a tradeoff between large dia pipes (high initial cost, low
pumping cost) and small dia pipes (low initial cost, high pumping
cost).
The best pipe diameter is one that minimizes the life cycle cost of
the system.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 6
Long Distance Pipeline Design and Optimization
A typical configuration of a long distance 400 KM long pipeline will

look like this:
Compression 100 KM Booster 100 KM Booster 100 KM Booster

at Compressor Compressor Compressor
Source Station-1 Station-2 Station-3
100 KM
For desired flow of 700 MMSCFD, starting pressure of 750

Receiving
psig and required delivery pressure of 750 psig, a typical Terminal
optimum number of stations and pressure profile is given
in the next slide.
© Technomanage
Long Distance Pipeline Design and Optimization
Typical pressure profile for the system described is given below.
1000
800
740
600
720
400
i
,p
u
s
re
P
D
C
S
M
te
ra
w
lo
F
700
200
680
Booster Booster Booster Booster Booster

Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 Station 5
miles 0 82 124 186 249
Km 0 100 200 300 400
© Technomanage
Module - 3 7
Major Cost Factor
• Onshore or offshore
• Geographical location – mountains, rocks, marshy lands
• Pipe size, and wall thickness
• Road/ river/ rail crossings
• Method of pipe laying (for offshore)
• Coating and lining of pipe
• Compressor station
© Technomanage
Steps in Pipeline Construction
The steps that are involved:
Route Survey and Selection: Satellite images along the possible route
of pipeline, physical survey maps and contour diagrams are studied
to select optimum route. The selected route is pegged by the survey
team with markers or pillars.
ROW (Right-of-Way): Constructing an underground natural gas

transmission line begins after extensive research, identifying a route,
designing the pipeline, obtaining required permits, and obtaining
easements from landowners.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 8
Steps in Pipeline Construction Contd.
Delivery and Site Grading
The Pipeline is
procured, coated
and layed along
the route.
A section of the
Right-of-Way is
cleared of bushes
and graded to
provide a flat
surface.
© Technomanage
Trenching
Ditching equipment is brought in to dig a trench for the pipe.

© Technomanage
Module - 3 9
Depth of Cover Steps in Pipeline Construction Contd.
Depth of cover in a pipeline may vary from 1 to 3 meters
© Technomanage
Stringing
Photo shows sideboom cat (caterpillar with sideboom)

re-positioning a welding hut after welding together two
sections of pipe.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 10
Lowering-in A series of
Sideboom cats are
synchronized in
pipe lowering
operation, as they
lower completed
section of pipeline
into the trench.
Generally ten to
twelve sidebooms
are put together
making into one
Spread.
Sections of pipeline
are hydraulically
Sidebooms lined up to lay pipeline tested.
© Technomanage
Directional Drilling for Crossings
When the hole is determined to

be of sufficient diameter to
accommodate the pipe, the drill
pulls the pipe that has been
assembled on one side of the
river through the opening to the
other side.
Horizontal Directional Drilling Rig

© Technomanage
Module - 3 11
View of Pipeline Right-of-Way after Construction Replanting

The area is
graded, seeded
and returned as
close as possible
to its original
contours.
Then construction
crews move on to
the next section
to repeat the
process.
© Technomanage
Laying a Sub-sea Pipeline

Lay barges are used for laying the
pipeline into the sea bed.
The prepared pipe-lengths with

coating are welded together
offshore on a lay barge.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 12
Laying a Sub-sea Pipeline
Trenching Barge Pipe Laying Barge
As the barge winches forward on its

anchor lines, the pipeline drops gently
to the seabed, guided by a 'stinger'.
The inside of pipelines needs to be

cleaned regularly to remove deposits
and water
To do this a pig is forced through the

pipe
© Technomanage
Pipeline - Pigging
Pigs are used for
• Cleaning – removing dirt, condensate deposits etc.
• Monitoring inner surface profile and corrosion with

intelligent pigs
• Batching of products in multi-product pipeline.
Pigs are cylindrical or spherical in shape with or without

brushes at the edge and having diameter close to the pipe
diameter.
It is pushed inside pipeline through pig launcher at the

pumping station.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 13
Pigs
Pigs can be cylindrical, spherical or other shapes, of diameter slightly

less than the pipeline internal diameter. Brushes can be put along its
circumference for cleaning purpose.
© Technomanage
Intelligent Pigging
The most common requirements are measurement of diameter

and metal loss/corrosion. The intelligent pigs can provide wider
range of information, which include –
Diameter/geometry measurements
Curvature monitoring
Crack detection
Mapping
Corrosion detection
Leak detection
Wax deposition
© Technomanage
Module - 3 14
Basics of SCADA
Definition
SCADA stands for Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition.
It refers to the combination of the fields of telemetry and data
acquisition. Extensive use of telemetry to link physically isolated
measurement and control points is feature of SCADA System.
SCADA Comprises of –
h The collection of the information (pressure, temperature, flow,
equipment status, safety information etc.) along the pipeline.
h Transfer of information from the remote site to Master Control
Station (MCC).
h Analysis, monitoring and control of the system from MCC.
h Display and reporting of the received information.
h Leak detection.
© Technomanage
Pipeline SCADA Telemetry System
© Technomanage
Module - 3 15
Monitoring the Pipeline Facilities
Regular surveillance (walking, car, helicopter) is done to monitor

status, unusual activities on ROW, leakage etc.
Some clues that may indicate a

natural gas leak are:
By Sight:
A white vapor steam or mist cloud
over the pipeline
By Sound:
An unusual hissing noise coming
from the pipeline or connecting facility
By Smell:
An unusual petroleum odor
© Technomanage
Special Problems in Transportation-1
© Technomanage
Module - 3 16
Important Characteristics of Waxy Crude
Waxy crude are often a light crude of low viscosity.

Below pour point they start gelling and turn into Non-
Newtonian fluid.
For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is not a function of velocity
or shear stress.
For a Non-Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of
velocity or shear stress.
Which means that in flowing condition, the viscosity of
waxy crude is much lower than when it becomes stagnant.
When stagnant, a waxy crude requires a very large
pressure to be applied to make it move again. This is called
“Break-thru Pressure”.
But as it starts moving the pressure requirement gradually
goes down as the velocity keeps increasing.
© Technomanage
How to Handle a Waxy Crude
Method-1: Design system based on lab generated

rheological data.
Evaluate stress vs viscosity characteristics of the crude

below the pour point in standard laboratory set-up.
Evaluate ‘break-thru pressure”.
Normal pumping pressure to be based on estimated

viscosity characteristics.
A parallel pump to be installed with discharge pressure

based on break- thru pressure.
Normal practice is to flush out the crude before

shutdown of the pump.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 17
How to Handle a Waxy Crude Contd.
Method – 1 Contd.
Let us assume, based on viscosity measurements
under flowing condition the required discharge
pressure of pipeline transfer pump is 30 bar.
Estimated “break-thru pressure” is 90 bar.
The scheme of pumping will look as given below.
Transfer Pump
30 bar Disch. Pr., full capacity
Break-thru Pump
90 bar Disch. Pr., small capacity
© Technomanage
Method – 2: Use Pour Point Depressant
Certain chemicals alter the wax crystal structure from

honeycomb structure to granular structure.
That alters the pour point of crude to a lower value.
These chemicals are called Pour Point Depressant.
The dosage could be between 50 ppm to 100 ppm on

crude flow rate.
The pour point can go down by 20 to 30 0C.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 18
Method – 3: Heat the crude to above pour point
To be used as last option.
The disadvantages are-
Energy consumption.
Need for intermediate heating stations in a long
distance pipeline.
Repeated heating and cooling is known to raise the
pour point in certain crude oils.
© Technomanage
Method – 4: Pump directly from Oilfield High Pr. Separator

to destination.
Crude oil will retain considerable amount of propane/

butane from the separated gas.
Propane is a very good solvent for wax.
Wax will remain dissolved raising the congealing point.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 19
Method – 5: Crude Conditioning Process
Crude oil chilled and reheated to pre-determined

temperature based on lab study.
The process alters the wax structure.
Effectively used by BP/OIL for 360 pour point crude in

North-Eastern India.
Not suitable for all waxy crude oils.
Not suitable for offshore.
© Technomanage
Special Problems in Transportation-2
© Technomanage
Module - 3 20
Gathering and Transportation
In gathering and transportation pipelines, 2-phase and 3-phase

flow creates tricky problems on-
Pressure Drop estimates
Slugging Phenomenon
Flow pattern and pressure drop get affected by a number of

factors-
Pipeline Route Topography
Gas Oil Water ratio
Flow Velocity
Physical Properties
Operating Conditions
© Technomanage
Gathering – Selecting the Right 2-Phase Methodology
Well heads are spread around a wide area. Well fluid need to be
gathered and tied-back to major process facility (GGS).
Typical gathering configurations –
Well-1 Well-2 Well-4 Well-5
Well-3 Group Gathering

Station (GGS)
Generally flow in gathering lines are multiphase – gas- liquid and

solids.
This makes the line sizing and pressure drop calculation

methodology very complex.
Available software have options for choosing from a wide range of

methodologies.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 21
Two Phase Flow Pattern Contd..
Horizontal Flow Patterns
[Source: Elementary Aspects of Two-Phase Flow in Pipes R. Shankar Subramanian ]
© Technomanage
Horizontal Flow Patterns
© Technomanage
Module - 3 22
Vertical Flow Patterns
© Technomanage
Two Phase Flow Calculation - Conclusion
Flow regime depends on

a number of factors-
Composition
Operating conditions
Gas-liquid ratio
Inclination of pipe
Each flow regime has an

individual pressure drop
correlation.
A long distance pipeline

may require use of
multiple correlations.
© Technomanage
Module - 3 23
Two Phase Flow Calculation Methods
Pressure-drop Calculation Methods
The following methods are used:

• Beggs and Brill Method
• AGA-API method
• Hughmark correlation
• Duckler Correlation
• Lockhart – Martinelli Method
• Others
© Technomanage
Selecting the Right 2-Phase Methodology
Will the software give you the right answers? How much is the
margin of error?
Credibility of the software

Choice of fluid dynamic methodology
How accurate is the input data and assumptions
Whether the software has been calibrated with some real life
results for similar design basis
• Taking care of flexibility required in the design basis and

uncertainties of a new field development.
• How sensitive is the selected topsides equipment type to these

uncertainties?
© Technomanage
Module - 3 24
Selecting the Right 2-Phase Methodology Contd..
Software like PIPESIM, HYSIS and OLGA-2000 can be used for

pressure drop as well as slug estimates.
Choice of methodology (equations or models) of the

calculation is important. Knowledge and study of phase flow
phenomenon is important.
Ideally, if it is an operating field, calibration of the software with

some actual pressure drop data is useful.
Margins on uncertainty to be kept on the calculations.
© Technomanage
Move to natural gas ..\..\Training Video\Natural Gas US

Geology Dept.wmv
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Module - 3 25

Module-3 Transportation

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Module-3 Transportation

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Module – 3 Storage and Transportation

In this section we shall talk about:

Various Means of Pipeline Facilities

Features of Cross Country Pipeline

Pipeline Rail or Road

Pipeline Rail or Road

Typical Pipeline System

• Pipeline is the most preferred option to transport oil or gas in

• It could be thousands of km long, branched and networked.

• It starts with pumping/compression or without it, if pressure is

• The starting pressure depends on length of pipe, pipe diameter,

• For long pipelines (hundreds of km), booster

• Gas is distributed along the length to many customers.

• The entire facility is monitored and managed by SCADA system.

SPM/PLEM Shore Terminal

PLEM : Pipeline End Manifold

The start or end of a sub-sea pipeline is with PLEM.

Offshore Platform Sea Surface Oil Tanker

• It is a floating device used to load or unload oil and

• Loading and unloading to tanker in shallow water

• For transfer of oil from offshore platform when

SPM Terminal for Crude Oil Unloading

One landfall point at Uran

Cross Country Pipeline

Pipeline Design, Monitor

Essential activities in a pipeline project are similar to any

But like any other industry, it has its own special

¾ It can be thousands of KM long, across a country or

Pipeline Design Basis

A typical configuration of a long distance 400 KM long pipeline will

Compression 100 KM Booster 100 KM Booster 100 KM Booster

For desired flow of 700 MMSCFD, starting pressure of 750

Long Distance Pipeline Design and Optimization

Typical pressure profile for the system described is given below.

Booster Booster Booster Booster Booster

• Geographical location – mountains, rocks, marshy lands

• Pipe size, and wall thickness

• Road/ river/ rail crossings

• Method of pipe laying (for offshore)

• Coating and lining of pipe

Steps in Pipeline Construction

The steps that are involved:

ROW (Right-of-Way): Constructing an underground natural gas

Delivery and Site Grading

Steps in Pipeline Construction Contd.

Ditching equipment is brought in to dig a trench for the pipe.

Depth of cover in a pipeline may vary from 1 to 3 meters

Steps in Pipeline Construction Contd.

Photo shows sideboom cat (caterpillar with sideboom)

Steps in Pipeline Construction Contd.

Directional Drilling for Crossings

When the hole is determined to

Horizontal Directional Drilling Rig

View of Pipeline Right-of-Way after Construction Replanting

Laying a Sub-sea Pipeline

The prepared pipe-lengths with

Trenching Barge Pipe Laying Barge

As the barge winches forward on its

The inside of pipelines needs to be

To do this a pig is forced through the

• Cleaning – removing dirt, condensate deposits etc.

• Monitoring inner surface profile and corrosion with

• Batching of products in multi-product pipeline.

 Pigs are cylindrical or spherical in shape with or without

Pigs are cylindrical or spherical in shape with or without

It is pushed inside pipeline through pig launcher at the

Evaluate stress vs viscosity characteristics of the crude

Evaluate ‘break-thru pressure”.

Normal pumping pressure to be based on estimated

A parallel pump to be installed with discharge pressure

Normal practice is to flush out the crude before

Certain chemicals alter the wax crystal structure from

That alters the pour point of crude to a lower value.

These chemicals are called Pour Point Depressant.

The dosage could be between 50 ppm to 100 ppm on

The pour point can go down by 20 to 30 0C.

To be used as last option.

The disadvantages are-

Crude oil will retain considerable amount of propane/

Propane is a very good solvent for wax.

Wax will remain dissolved raising the congealing point.

Crude oil chilled and reheated to pre-determined

The process alters the wax structure.

Effectively used by BP/OIL for 360 pour point crude in

Not suitable for all waxy crude oils.

Not suitable for offshore.

Credibility of the software

Move to natural gas ..\..\Training Video\Natural Gas US