Teacher Name -

Carbon and Its Compound

CONTENTS

BONDING IN CARBON 2

ALLOTROPES 3

PROPERTIES OF CARBON 5

CATENATION 5
TETRAVALENT NATURE: 6
NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION OF CARBON 7

HYDROCARBON 7

ISOMERISM 8

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: 9

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS: 10

QUESTIONS AND ANSWER 14

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 Carbon and Its Compound

BONDING IN CARBON

• Carbon form bonding by sharing electron atoms or atoms of different elements.

• This bond can be three types - Single bond, Double bond or triple bond.

Single bond – When a single pair of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; CH4, H2 etc.

Fig- Formation of single bond in hydrogen

Fig – Formation of single

bond in Methane

Double bond When two

pairs of electrons are shared
between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; O2,
C2H4 etc.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

Fig Formation of double bond in oxygen

• Triple bond When three pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms in a
molecule. For example; N2, C2H2 etc.

Fig – Showing Nitrogen forming triple bond

ALLOTROPES

• Carbon exists in various forms in nature, known as allotropes, exhibiting diverse

physical properties despite having the same chemical properties.

• Two prominent allotropes are diamond and graphite, differing in their atomic
arrangements.

Diamond:

Structure:

• Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms,

forming a rigid three-dimensional lattice.

Properties:

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 Carbon and Its Compound
• Hardest substance known.

• Non-conductive.

Synthesis:

• Can be synthesized by subjecting pure carbon to extremely high pressure and

temperature.

• Synthetic diamonds are virtually identical to natural ones.

Graphite

Structure:

• Each carbon atom is bonded to three others

within the same plane, creating a hexagonal
array.

• One bond is a double bond, satisfying

carbon's valency.

• Layers of hexagonal arrays are stacked atop

one another.

Properties:

• Smooth and slippery texture.

• Excellent conductor of electricity,

unlike most non-metals.

4. Fullerenes:

Definition:

• Class of carbon allotropes.

C-60 Fullerene:

• Carbon atoms arranged in the shape of a football.

• Named after the geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller.

• Represents a unique molecular structure with potential applications in various fields.

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 Carbon and Its Compound
- Allotropes of carbon demonstrate how variations in atomic arrangements result in distinct
physical properties.

- Understanding these allotropes is crucial for their applications in technology, industry, and
research.

PROPERTIES OF CARBON

CATENATION

The catenation property of carbon refers to its unique ability to form long chains or
rings of carbon atoms through covalent bonds. This phenomenon is a consequence of
carbon's ability to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Here are some
key points about the catenation property of carbon:

Chain Formation: Carbon atoms can bond to each other in long chains, resulting in
linear or branched structures. This is evident in organic compounds such as alkanes,
alkenes, and alkynes, where carbon atoms form continuous chains of varying lengths.

Eg-

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 Carbon and Its Compound

Ring Formation: Carbon can also form cyclic structures by bonding with itself in
closed loops. Rings of carbon atoms are prevalent in organic compounds such as
aromatic hydrocarbons (e.g., benzene), cycloalkanes, and heterocyclic compounds.

Diverse Structures: The catenation property of carbon enables the formation of diverse
molecular structures with different sizes, shapes, and properties. Carbon chains and
rings can vary in length, complexity, and connectivity, leading to a vast array of organic
compounds.

Stability: Carbon-carbon bonds are relatively strong, allowing carbon chains and rings
to maintain their structural integrity under various conditions. This stability contributes
to the durability and versatility of carbon-based molecules.

Biological Importance: The catenation property of carbon is fundamental to the

chemistry of life, as carbon serves as the backbone of organic molecules found in living
organisms. Biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids
contain carbon chains and rings that play crucial roles in biological processes.

TETRAVALENT NATURE:

Carbon has a valency of four. It is capable of bonding with four other atoms of carbon
or some other heteroatoms with a single covalent bond as well as a double or triple
bond.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

NOBLE GAS CONFIGURATION OF CARBON

The noble gas configuration of an atom refers to the electron configuration that mimics the
nearest noble gas element. For carbon (C), the nearest noble gas is neon (Ne), which has the
electron configuration 1s² 2s² 2p⁶.

Carbon has 6 electrons, and its electron configuration is 1s² 2s² 2p². To achieve a noble gas
configuration similar to neon, carbon needs to gain or lose electrons. However, carbon typically
achieves stability by sharing electrons in covalent bonds rather than gaining or losing them.

In a covalent bond, carbon shares electrons with other atoms, typically other carbon atoms or
atoms of different elements, to complete its valence shell. For example, in methane (CH₄),
carbon forms four covalent bonds with four hydrogen atoms, sharing its four valence electrons
and achieving a stable configuration.

So, while carbon does not attain a noble gas configuration like neon by gaining or losing
electrons, it achieves stability by sharing electrons in covalent bonds.

HYDROCARBON
Property Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated Aromatic
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons
Chemical Contain only single bonds Contain one or more Contain conjugated pi
Structure between carbon atoms double or triple bonds bonds, often in a
between carbon atoms benzene ring structure
General CnH2n+2 CnH2n (Alkenes) CnHn (where n is a
Formula CnH2n-2 (Alkynes) whole number,
usually multiples of
6)
Examples Methane (CH4), Ethene (C2H4), Benzene (C6H6),

Propene (C3H6), Toluene (C7H8),

Ethane (C2H6),

Propyne (C3H4)
CH3-C=CH Xylene (C8H10)
Propane (C3H8)

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 Carbon and Its Compound

Saturation Fully saturated with Not fully saturated with Not fully saturated
Level hydrogen atoms hydrogen atoms with hydrogen atoms

Physical State Often found as gases, Often found as gases or Often found as liquids
at Room liquids, or solids liquids or solids
Temperature
Reactivity Generally less reactive due More reactive due to Can undergo
to stable single bonds presence of double or substitution reactions
triple bonds or electrophilic
aromatic substitution
Examples of Combustion, Halogenation Addition reactions Electrophilic aromatic
Reactions (e.g., hydrogenation, substitution,
halogenation) Nitration, Friedel-
Crafts alkylation
Structural Fewer structural isomers More structural isomers Fewer structural
Isomers due to limited bonding due to different isomers due to the
possibilities arrangements of double rigid planar structure
or triple bonds of benzene rings
Toxicity Generally low toxicity Can be toxic depending Some aromatic
on specific compounds hydrocarbons are toxic
(e.g., benzene), while
others are less so (e.g.,
toluene)

ISOMERISM
Compounds having the same molecular formula but different structural formulas and properties
are known as Isomers and this phenomenon is known as Isomerism.

Structural Isomerism: Compounds having the same molecular formula but different
structures are called Structural isomers. Example: Isomers of butane (C4H10)

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 Carbon and Its Compound

Homologous Series: Series of organic compounds having the same functional group and chemical properties
and successive members differ by a CH2 unit or 14 mass units are known as Homologous series.

Example –

Alkane

Methane → CH4

Alkene

Alkyne

NOMENCLATURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS:

It is difficult to remember millions of compounds by their individual common name. Thus, to

systematize the nomenclature of organic compounds IUPAC (International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry) has given certain rules which are as follows:

Step 1 Identify the number of carbon atom

Sl Number of carbon atom Word root Single bond Double bond Triple bond
no
1 1-C Meth ane ene Yne
2 2-C Eth -- -- --

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 Carbon and Its Compound
3 3-C Prop -- -- --
4 4-C But -- -- --
5 5-c Pent -- -- --
6 6-C Hex -- -- --
7 7-C Hept -- -- --
8 8-C Oct -- -- --
Step 2 Identify the functional group

Sl Functional Group Prefix Suffix

No
1 Double bond (=) -- Ene
2 Triple bond -- Yne
3 Chlorine (Cl) Chloro --
4 Bromine (Br) Bromo --
5 Alcohol (OH) -- Ol
6 Aldehyde (-CHO) -- Al
7 Ketone (-CO-( -- One
8 Carboxylic acid (-COOH) -- Oic acid
Step 3 Name the compounds by the following order

Prefix + Word Root + Suffix

C4H10 But+ene=Butene

C3H8 Prop 1 ene or propene

Triple bond
C2H2 Ethyne
C4H6 Butyne

C2H5Cl Chloro+eth+ane = Chloroethane

C2H5Br Bromoethane

C2H5OH Ethanol

CH3COCH3 Methan -e + oic acid = Methanolic acid

• Alkane – CnH2n+2
• Alkyne – CnH2n-2
• Alcohol – CnH2n+1OH
• Ketone – CnH2n+1COCnH2n+1
• Alkene – CnH2n
• Haloalkane – CnH2n+1X
• Aldehyde – CnH2n+1CHO
• Carboxylic acid – CnH2n+1COOH

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 Carbon and Its Compound

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS:

1. Combustion: The complete combustion of carbon compounds in the air gives carbon
dioxide water, heat and light.
CH3CH2OH(l) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + H2O(l) + Heat and light

Carbon burns in air or oxygen to give carbon dioxide and heat and light.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g) + Heat and light

Saturated hydrocarbons burn with a blue flame in the presence of a sufficient supply of air or
oxygen.
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + Heat and light

In presence of limited supply of air, saturated hydrocarbon forms a sooty flame.

Unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a yellow smoky flame.

The gas and kerosene stove used at home has an inlet for air so that, burnt to give clean blue
flame.
Due to the presence of small amounts of nitrogen and sulphur, coal and petroleum produce
carbon dioxide with oxides of nitrogen and sulphur which are major pollutants.

2. Oxidation: Oxidation of ethanol in the presence of oxidising agents gives ethanoic acid.

Oxidizing Agent: Some substances are capable of adding oxygen to others, are known as
Oxidising Agent.
Example: Alkaline KMnO4 (or KMnO4—KOH)
Acidified K2Cr2O7 (or K2Cr2O7—H2SO4)
KMnO4 – Potassium permanganate
K2Cr2O7 – Potassium dichromate

3. Addition Reaction: Addition of dihydrogen with unsaturated hydrocarbon in the presence

of catalysts such as nickel platinum or palladium is known as a Hydrogenation (addition)
reaction.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

SOME IMPORTANT COMPOUND

ETHANOL
Properties

Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, is a simple organic compound with the chemical
formula C2H5OH. It is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and taste. Ethanol
has several notable properties, including:

• Solubility: Ethanol is highly soluble in water, as well as in many organic solvents. This
property makes it useful in various industrial and laboratory applications.
• Boiling Point: Ethanol has a relatively low boiling point of approximately 78.37°C
(173.07°F). This makes it volatile and easily evaporated at room temperature.
• Density: The density of ethanol is about 0.789 g/cm³ at 20°C (68°F), making it less
dense than water.
• Flammability: Ethanol is flammable, meaning it can easily ignite and burn in the
presence of an ignition source. Its flammable nature makes it useful as a fuel and as a
component in alcoholic beverages.
• Toxicity: While ethanol is safe for consumption in moderate amounts, excessive
consumption can lead to intoxication and alcohol poisoning. It is considered a
psychoactive substance due to its effects on the central nervous system.
• Antiseptic Properties: Ethanol has antiseptic properties and is commonly used as a
disinfectant for skin and surfaces. It can help kill bacteria and viruses.
• Hydrophilic: Ethanol is both hydrophilic (mixes with water) and lipophilic (mixes with
fats and oils). This property makes it useful in various applications, including as a
solvent in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and personal care products.
• Preservative: Ethanol is often used as a preservative in pharmaceuticals, food, and
beverages due to its ability to inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
• Reactivity: Ethanol can undergo various chemical reactions, including oxidation to
form acetic acid (vinegar) and esterification reactions to form ethyl esters.
• Renewable Resource: Ethanol can be produced from renewable resources such as
corn, sugarcane, and other biomass through fermentation and distillation processes,
making it a potentially sustainable alternative to fossil fuels

REACTION OF ETHANOL
Reaction with sodium

When ethanol reacts with sodium, it undergoes a vigorous and exothermic reaction, resulting
in the formation of sodium ethoxide and hydrogen gas. The chemical equation for this reaction
is:

2Na + 2CH3CH2OH → 2CH3CH2O–Na+ + H2

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 Carbon and Its Compound

Reaction to give unsaturated hydrocarbon

Ethanol on dehydration in the presence of cone. H2SO4 acid at 443 K forms ethene gas. H2SO4
acid absorbs water molecules from the alcohol molecules and acts as a strong dehydrating
agent.

ETHANOIC ACID

• Ethanoic acid commonly called acetic acid (CH3COOH) is a colourless liquid. The
functional group present in it is carboxylic acid – COOH.

• It’s melting point is 290 K and the boiling point is 391 K.

• Being an acid, it turns blue litmus red.

• It is sour in taste.

• Ethanoic acid reacts with alcohols in the presence of cone. H2SO4 acid to form sweet
smelling compounds called esters.

REACTIONS OF ETHANOIC ACID:

Esterification is a chemical reaction between an alcohol (or phenol) and a carboxylic acid,
resulting in the formation of an ester and water. This reaction is typically catalyzed by an acid
catalyst such as sulfuric acid or hydrochloric acid. The general chemical equation for
esterification is:

Carboxylic acid + Alcohol → Ester + Water

For example, the esterification of acetic acid (CH3COOH) with ethanol (CH3CH2OH) yields
ethyl acetate (CH3COOCH2CH3) and water:

CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH → CH3COOCH2CH3 + H2O

Esterification is a reversible reaction, meaning that under certain conditions, the ester can be
hydrolysed back into the carboxylic acid and alcohol through the addition of water and an
acid or base catalyst. Esterification is widely used in organic synthesis to produce various
esters, which find applications in flavourings, fragrances, solvents, and plastics, among other
industries.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

REACTION WITH A BASE:

When ethanoic acid reacts with a base like sodium hydroxide, it produces water and a salt,
commonly called sodium acetate (or sodium ethanoate).

NaOH + CH3COOH → CH3COONa + H2O

REACTION WITH CARBONATES AND HYDROGEN CARBONATES:

Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to give rise to a salt, carbon
dioxide and water. The salt produced is commonly called sodium acetate.

2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 → 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CH3COOH + NaHCO3 → CH3COONa + H2O + CO2

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAPS AND DETERGENTS:

• Both soaps and detergents cantains two parts. A long hydrocarbon part which is
hydrophobic (water repelling) in nature and a short ionic part which is hydrophillic
(water attracting) in nature.

• The hydrocarbon part of the soap molecule links itself to the oily (dirt) drop and ionic
end orients itself towards water and forms a spherical structure called micelles. The
soap micelles helps in dissolving the dirt in water and wash our clothes.

QUESTIONS AND ANSWER

1. What would be the electron dot structure of carbon dioxide which has the
formula CO2?

Answer : The electron dot structure, also known as Lewis structure, of carbon dioxide
(CO2) can be represented as follows:

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 Carbon and Its Compound

In this structure, each oxygen atom (O) has six electrons, and the carbon atom (C) has four
electrons. The pairs of dots represent the valence electrons, and the lines represent the
covalent bonds between the atoms. Each oxygen atom forms a double bond with the central
carbon atom, fulfilling the octet rule for each atom in the molecule.
2. What would be the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulphur which is made up
of eight atoms of sulphur?

To draw the electron dot structure of a molecule of sulfur (S8), you need to understand the
valence electrons of sulfur atoms. Sulfur has six valence electrons in its outer shell.

Since there are eight atoms of sulfur in the molecule, you'll have a total of 8 x 6 = 48 valence
electrons to distribute.

The electron dot structure of S8 would look like this:

Each Sulfur atom contributes six valence electrons, and you represent these by placing dots
around the symbol, ensuring that each atom has a total of eight electrons around it (the octet
rule), either by sharing electrons (covalent bonding) or by having lone pairs.

In this structure, each sulfur atom forms a single covalent bond with its neighboring sulfur
atoms, sharing one electron pair, and completes its octet by having two lone pairs.

3. How many structural isomers can you draw for pentane?

Answer-

Pentane (C5H12) is an alkane with five carbon atoms. It has the chemical formula C5H12.
Structural isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural
arrangements of atoms.

For pentane (C5H12), there are three possible structural isomers:

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 Carbon and Its Compound
1. n-Pentane (normal pentane): CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

2. 2-Methylbutane (isopentane): CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2-CH3

3. 2,2-Dimethylpropane: (CH3)3-C-

These are the only three possible structural isomers for pentane. Each has a unique arrangement
of carbon atoms, leading to different physical and chemical properties.

4. What are the two properties of carbon which lead to the huge number of carbon compounds
we see around us?

Answer The two properties of carbon that lead to the vast number of carbon compounds we
see around us are:

1. Tetravalency: Carbon has four valence electrons in its outer shell, allowing it to form up to
four covalent bonds with other atoms. This property enables carbon to form long chains,
branched structures and rings with other carbon atoms and various other elements. This
versatility in bonding allows for the creation of diverse and complex molecular structures,
resulting in a wide array of organic compounds.

2. Catenation: Carbon has the unique ability to form strong covalent bonds with other carbon
atoms, leading to the formation of long chains, branched structures, and cyclic compounds.
This property, known as catenation, allows carbon to create molecules of varying sizes and
complexities, resulting in an immense variety of organic compounds with different properties
and functionalities. The ability of carbon to bond with itself in a variety of arrangements
contributes significantly to the vast number of carbon compounds observed in nature and
synthesized in laboratories.

5. What will be the formula and electron dot structure of cyclopentane?

Answer

Cyclopentane is a cyclic hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C5H10. It consists of a ring
of five carbon atoms with two hydrogen atoms attached to each carbon atom. Here's the
electron dot structure for cyclopentane:

In this structure, each carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms and two neighbouring
carbon atoms. The carbon atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds, and each carbon atom
has a total of eight valence electrons around it (satisfying the octet rule), including the shared
electrons and any lone pairs.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

6. Draw the structures for the following compounds.

(i) Ethanoic acid

(ii) Bromopentane

(iii) Butanone

(iv) Hexanal.

7. Why is the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid an oxidation reaction?

The conversion of ethanol (C2H5OH) to ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is an oxidation reaction

because it involves the loss of hydrogen atoms (in the form of H+ ions) and gain of oxygen
atoms.

In the process of converting ethanol to ethanoic acid, the carbon atom in the ethanol molecule
goes from being bonded to two hydrogen atoms and one hydroxyl group (OH) to being bonded
to two oxygen atoms (one in the carbonyl group and one in the hydroxyl group) and one
hydrogen atom.

The oxidation state of the carbon atom increases from -2 in ethanol to +2 in ethanoic acid. This
change indicates that the carbon atom has lost electrons and gained oxygen atoms, which is
characteristic of an oxidation reaction.

The balanced chemical equation for the oxidation of ethanol to ethanoic acid is:

C2H5OH + 2O2 → CH3COOH + H2O

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 Carbon and Its Compound

In this reaction, ethanol is oxidized to ethanoic acid, and oxygen is reduced to water. Therefore,
the conversion of ethanol to ethanoic acid is classified as an oxidation reaction.

8. A mixture of oxygen and ethyne is burnt for welding. Can you tell why a mixture of ethyne
and air is not used?

A mixture of oxygen and ethyne (acetylene) is preferred for welding over a mixture of ethyne
and air due to several reasons:

1. Higher Flame Temperature:

When ethyne (C2H2) is burnt with oxygen, it produces a flame with a much higher
temperature compared to when it's burnt with air. Ethyne mixed with pure oxygen can
reach temperatures above 3,000°C (5,432°F), which is essential for efficient welding
of metals.

2. Better Control and Precision:

Using oxygen allows for better control over the welding process. The precise ratio of
oxygen to fuel (ethyne) can be adjusted to achieve the desired flame characteristics and
welding conditions. This level of control is crucial for producing high-quality welds
with minimal defects.

3. Reduced Risk of Contamination:

Air contains a significant amount of nitrogen (approximately 78%), which doesn't

participate in the combustion process. When ethyne is burnt with air, nitrogen from the
air dilutes the flame, reducing its temperature and efficiency for welding. Additionally,
nitrogen in the flame can lead to the formation of nitrogen oxides, which may
contaminate the weld and affect its quality.

4. Safety Concerns:

Using ethyne with oxygen allows for safer welding practices compared to using ethyne
with air. The precise control over the oxygen-to-fuel ratio reduces the risk of flashback
(a dangerous phenomenon where the flame travels back into the equipment) and ensures
a stable flame for welding operations.

Overall, the use of oxygen with ethyne provides higher flame temperatures, better control over
the welding process, and improved safety compared to using ethyne with air. Therefore, a
mixture of oxygen and ethyne is preferred for welding applications.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

9. How would you distinguish experimentally between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid?

Answer:

Test Alcohol Carboxylic acid

(i) Litmus test No change in colour. Blue litmus solution turns red.

(ii) Sodium hydrogen C2H5OH + NaHCO3 → CH3COOH + NaHCO3 →

carbonate test No reaction No brisk CH3COONa + H2O + CO2 Brisk

effervescence. effervescence due to evolution of

CO2.

(iii) Alkaline potassium On heating, pink colour Does not happen so.

permanganate disappears.

10. What are oxidising agents?

Oxidising agents are substances which give oxygen to another substance or which remove
hydrogen from a substance. For example, acidic K2Cr2O7 is an oxidising agent, that converts
(oxidises) ethanol into ethanoic acid.

11. Would you be able to check if water is hard by using a detergent?

Answer Checking for Hard Water using Detergent:

Yes, you can check if water is hard by using a detergent. Hard water contains dissolved
minerals, primarily calcium and magnesium ions, which can interfere with the cleaning action
of detergents. When detergent is added to hard water, it may not lather or dissolve as effectively
as in soft water.

To check for hard water using detergent, you can perform a simple soap lather test:

Take a small amount of water in a container and add a few drops of liquid detergent. Stir or
shake the mixture to create a lather.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

If the water is hard, you may notice that the detergent produces less lather and forms soap scum
instead. This is because the minerals in hard water react with the detergent, reducing its
effectiveness.

This test provides a qualitative indication of water hardness based on the behavior of detergent
in the water. However, for more accurate determination of water hardness, specialized test kits
or instruments are often used to measure the concentration of dissolved minerals.

12. People use a variety of methods to wash clothes. Usually after adding the soap, they ‘beat’
the clothes on a stone, or beat it with a paddle, scrub with a brush or the mixture is agitated in
a washing machine. Why is agitation necessary to get clean clothes?

Answer - It is necessary to agitate to get clean clothes because the soap micelles which entrap
oily or greasy particles on the surface of dirty cloth have to be removed from its surface. When
the cloth wetted in soap solution is agitated or beaten, the micelles containing oily or greasy
dirt get removed from the surface of dirty cloth and go into water and the dirty cloth gets
cleaned.

13. Ethane, with the molecular formula C2H6 has

(a) 6 covalent bonds.

(b) 7 covalent bonds.

(c) 8 covalent bonds.

(d) 9 covalent bonds.

The molecular formula of ethane (C2H6) indicates that it consists of two carbon atoms and six
hydrogen atoms.

Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds, and each hydrogen atom forms one covalent
bond. Therefore, to determine the total number of covalent bonds in ethane, we calculate as
follows:

Number of covalent bonds = (Number of bonds formed by carbon atoms) + (Number of bonds
formed by hydrogen atoms)= (2 carbon atoms × 4 bonds per carbon atom) + (6 hydrogen atoms
× 1 bond per hydrogen atom)

= 8 + 6= 14

So, ethane (C2H6) has a total of 14 covalent bonds.

Therefore, the correct answer is not provided in the options. Ethane has 14 covalent bonds,
which is not listed.

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 Carbon and Its Compound

14. Butanone is a four-carbon compound with the functional group

(a) carboxylic acid.

(b) aldehyde.

(c) ketone.

(d) alcohol.

Butanone, with the molecular formula C4H8O, is a four-carbon compound with the functional
group ketone. Therefore, the correct answer is: (c) ketone.

15. While cooking, if the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside, it means that

(a) the food is not cooked completely.

(b) the fuel is not burning completely.

(c) the fuel is wet.

(d) the fuel is burning completely.

If the bottom of the vessel is getting blackened on the outside while cooking, it usually indicates
that: (b) the fuel is not burning completely.

or

Incomplete combustion of the fuel produces carbon particles, commonly known as soot, which
can deposit on the bottom of the vessel, causing it to become blackened. This typically occurs
when there is insufficient oxygen supply or poor ventilation, leading to incomplete combustion
of the fuel. Therefore, option (b) is the correct answer.

16. Explain the nature of the covalent bond using the bond formation in CH3Cl.

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons so that the combining atoms complete
their outermost shell. In CH3Cl: C = 6, H = 1 and Cl = 17 And their electronic configuration is
C – 2,4, H – 1 and Cl – 2, 8, 7

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 Carbon and Its Compound
Three hydrogen atoms complete their shells by sharing three electrons (one electron each) of
carbon atom. Chlorine completes its outer shell by sharing one out of seven electrons with one
electron of a carbon atom.

Thus carbon atom shares all its four electrons with three hydrogen atoms and one of chlorine
atom and completes its outermost shell and single covalent bonds are formed in CH3Cl.

17. Draw the electron dot structures for

(a) ethanoic acid.

(b) H2S.

(c) propanone.

(d) F2

18. What is an homologous series? Explain with an example.

Homologous series : A homologous series is a group of organic compounds having

similar structures and similar chemical properties in which the successive compounds differ by
-CH2 group.

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 Carbon and Its Compound
19. How can ethanol and ethanoic acid be differentiated on the basis of their physical and
chemical properties?

Characteristics of homologous series :

(i) All members of a homologous series can be represented by the same general formula. For
example, the general formula of the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2, in which ‘n’
denotes number of carbon and hydrogen atoms in one molecule of alkane.

(ii) Any two adjacent homologues differ by one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms in their
molecular formulae.

(iii) The difference in the molecular masses of any two adjacent homologues is 14u.

(iv) All the compounds of a homologous series show similar chemical properties.

(v) The members of a homologous series show a gradual change in their physical properties
with an increase in molecular mass.
Value of n Molecular formula Name of compound Value of n
1 CH4 Methane 1
2 C2H6 Ethane 2
3 C3H8 Propane 3
4 C4H10 Butane 4
5 C5H12 Pentane 5
For example, the general formula of the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2, in which
‘n’ denotes the number of carbon atoms in one molecule of alkane. Following are the first five
members of the homologous series of alkanes (general formula CnH2n+2).

20. Why does micelle formation take place when soap is added to water? Will a micelle be
formed in other solvents such as ethanol also?

Property Ethanol Ethanoic acid

(i) State Liquid Liquid
(ii) Odour Sweet smell Pungent vinegar-like smell
(iii) Melting point 156 K 290 K
(iv) Boiling point 351 K 391 K
Basis of chemical properties

Test Ethanol Ethanoic acid

(i) Litmus test No change in the colour of
litmus solution.
(ii) Sodium hydrogen C2H5OH + NaHCO3 → No
carbonate test reaction No brisk
effervescence.
Blue litmus solution turns
red.
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 →
CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
Brisk effervescence due to
evolution of CO2.

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 Carbon and Its Compound
(iii) Alkaline potassium On heating, pink colour Does not happen so.
permanganate disappears.

21. Why are carbon and its compounds used as fuels for most applications?

Carbon and its compounds give a large amount of heat per unit weight and are therefore, used
as fuels for most applications.

22. Explain the formation of scum when hard water is treated with soap.

Hard water contains salts of calcium and magnesium. Calcium and magnesium on reacting
with soap form an insoluble precipitate called scum. The scum formation lessens the cleansing
property of soaps in hard water.

23. What change will you observe if you test soap with litmus paper (red and blue)?

Red litmus will turn blue because soap is alkaline in nature. Blue litmus remains blue in soap
solution.

24. What is hydrogenation? What is its industrial application?

The addition of hydrogen to an unsaturated hydrocarbon to obtain a saturated hydro-carbon is

called hydrogenation. The process of hydrogenation takes place in the presence of nickel (Ni)
or palladium (Pd) metals as catalyst.

Food Industry:

• One of the major applications of hydrogenation is in the food industry for the
production of partially hydrogenated oils.

• Partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils converts them from liquid to semi-solid or solid
forms, resulting in products like margarine and shortening.

• These partially hydrogenated oils have desirable properties such as increased shelf life,
stability at room temperature, and enhanced texture for various food products.

Chemical Industry:

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 Carbon and Its Compound
• Hydrogenation reactions are extensively used in the chemical industry to produce a
wide range of chemicals.

• For example, hydrogenation is used in the production of various organic compounds,

including alcohols, alkanes, and saturated hydrocarbons.

• It is also used in the synthesis of intermediates for pharmaceuticals, fragrances, and

polymers.

Petroleum Industry:

• Hydrogenation plays a crucial role in the petroleum refining process.

• It is used to remove impurities and sulfur compounds from petroleum fractions,

improving the quality of gasoline, diesel, and other refined products.

Pharmaceutical Industry:

• Hydrogenation is employed in the pharmaceutical industry for the synthesis of

pharmaceutical intermediates and active ingredients.

• It is used to modify the chemical structure of organic compounds to enhance their

stability, bioavailability, and efficacy.

Fine Chemicals and Specialty Chemicals:

• Hydrogenation is used in the production of fine chemicals and specialty chemicals,

including flavours, fragrances, and agrochemicals.

• It enables the selective reduction of functional groups, allowing for the synthesis of
complex molecules with specific properties

25. Which of the following hydrocarbons undergo addition reactions:

C2H6, C3H8, C3H6, C2H2 and CH4.

Among the hydrocarbons listed, those that undergo addition reactions are the unsaturated
hydrocarbons, which contain double or triple bonds. Addition reactions typically occur in
unsaturated hydrocarbons where the double or triple bonds break, and new atoms or groups are
added to the carbon atoms.

The unsaturated hydrocarbons listed are:

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 Carbon and Its Compound
1. C3H6 (Propene): This molecule has a double bond and can undergo addition reactions.

2. C2H2 (Ethyne or Acetylene): This molecule has a triple bond and can undergo additional
reactions.

So, the hydrocarbons that undergo additional reactions from the list are C3H6 (propene) and
C2H2 (ethyne or acetylene).

26. Give a test that can be used to differentiate between saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons.

Test Saturated Hydrocarbons Unsaturated

Bromine Water Test
Hydrogenation
Combustion
Bromine Water Test:
No observable reaction
No reaction (already
saturated)
Burns completely with blue
flame, producing carbon
dioxide and water
Hydrocarbons
Decolorization of bromine
water
Addition of hydrogen
(formation of saturated
compound)
Burns completely with blue
flame, producing carbon
dioxide and water

• Saturated hydrocarbons do not readily react with bromine water.

• Unsaturated hydrocarbons decolourize bromine water due to the addition reaction

between the double or triple bond in the unsaturated hydrocarbon and bromine,
resulting in the formation of a colourless compound.

Hydrogenation:

• Saturated hydrocarbons do not undergo hydrogenation since they are already saturated
with hydrogen atoms.

• Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo hydrogenation, where hydrogen gas is added across

the double or triple bond, forming a saturated compound.

Combustion:

• Both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo combustion in the presence of

oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water.

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