BRIGHTON FARAI MADZIMA

ANIMAL HEALTH RESEARCH & INNOVATION – COMMON DISEASES IN LAYERS AND BROILERS
(In Depth Edition)
Part 1
2024
CONTENTS

 NEWCASTLE DISEASE
 INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS
 AVIAN INFLUENZA
 COCCIDIOSIS
NEWCASTLE DISEASE

Newcastle disease affects the respiratory, gastrointestinal, nervous, and reproductive systems and causes up to 100%
mortality in nonvaccinated chickens. The virus is transmitted through infected saliva and feces, and is found worldwide.

DIAGNOSIS
✓ Virus isolation is the gold standard, however, molecular diagnostic techniques, such as real‐time reverse
transcription PCR are often used to facilitate a faster diagnosis.
✓ Tentative diagnosis is based on flock history and also the presence of clinical signs and lesions.
INTERVENTION
✓ Vaccination prevents morbidity and mortality, but not infection. Vaccination with strict biosecurity is key for
Newcastle disease (ND) control. Culling infected birds is often necessary to contain ND outbreaks in countries
normally free of the virulent virus.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
✓ Poultry diseases have a significant impact on human welfare, especially in rural areas where village or
backyard chickens are a source of income and a crucial food source. Countries with industrialized poultry
production also expend large amounts of money to prevent ND or prevent losses from ND, to maintain a
ND‐free status, or eradicate ND after an outbreak.
CLINICAL SIGNS

✓ Nonvaccinated chickens infected with virulent viscerotropic isolates become listless and depressed two days
after infection, hence this ends with 100% mortality by the third or fourth day.
✓ With an oculonasal route of infection bilateral conjunctivitis with some facial swelling may be present.
✓ Clear mucous will pour from the mouths of infected birds if their heads drop toward the ground leaving the
bird gasping for air as it tries to clear the oral cavity of fluid.-This fluid may appear to be nasal secretions but
is more likely crop fluid related to stasis of the gastrointestinal tract, and it pours from the mouth when the
crop is compressed as the bird is handled.
✓ The feces of infected birds may be green and watery. The comb may become blue as
the bird becomes cyanotic, but hemorrhages are only seen with some isolates.
✓ Well‐vaccinated layers infected with ND may present with only a decrease in egg
production one week after infection, with the fewest eggs produced two to three weeks
postinfection, after which the number of eggs produced will start to increase.
VACCINATION

✓ The role of vaccination in the control of ND has been to prevent losses from morbidity and mortality because
vaccines are not able to completely prevent vaccinated birds from being infected with ND.
✓ Vaccination may increase the resistance to the infection and reduce the quantity of ND shed resulting at the end in
fewer birds being infected.
✓ Vaccination is to be used along with good management and biosecurity practices
✓ Inactivated and live NDV vaccines formulated with NDV strains of low virulence, such as B1, LaSota, and more
recently Ulster and VG/GA, are the most commonly administered vaccines.
✓ Mass application of live NDV vaccines in drinking water, sprays, or aerosols is less labor intensive than
administering inactivated vaccines to individual birds. Unfortunately, with mass application of live vaccines it is
difficult to produce protective antibodies in high percentages of birds in a flock. Ocular delivery provides the best
response (93%), while vaccine delivery in water or spray may produce protective antibodies in only 53–60% of the
birds.
✓ The inability to control the amount of water consumed per bird, inactivation of vaccine by heat or impurities make water delivery
problematic.
✓ If applying the ND vaccine in a spray or aerosol, the correct particle size is critical to ensure a proper immune response. If the
particles are too small vaccine reactions may develop in the form of respiratory disease because the virus is deposited deep in the
lungs, and if the particles are too big, the immune response may not be optimal because the virus drops out of the air before the
birds can become infected.
ADVANTAGES OF LIVE VACCINES
✓ Affordable
✓ Easy to administer
✓ Provide mucosal activity
DISADVANTAGES OF LIVE VACCINES
✓ Vaccine reactions demonstrated by respiratory disease, especially if secondary infections or high ammonia levels are present.
✓ Decrease in body weight gain and feed efficiency may occur in early stages of growth for broilers
NEWCASTLE TREATMENT

✓ There are no treatments for ND and in most instances all infected birds are culled to
contain an outbreak. Treatment for infections with ND of low virulence consists of
addressing secondary bacterial infections with particular attention to Gram‐negative
bacteria.
INFECTIOUS BRONCHITIS

Infectious bronchitis is caused by the avian coronavirus, infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), which is found worldwide.
Infections, depending on the strain, may cause an acute upper‐respiratory tract disease, drops in egg production,
decreased egg quality, and nephritis. The virus is transmitted by inhalation or direct contact with contaminated objects
and morbidity is usually 100%; whereas, mortality can vary depending on a variety of host factors and the strain of the
infecting virus.

DIAGNOSIS
✓ The preferred diagnostic test is molecular detection of the viral spike (S1) gene or virus isolation in embryonating
chicken eggs. Multiple antigenic types of the virus are identified by sequence analysis of the S1 gene or by the virus
neutralization test using serotype‐ specific antibodies. The disease can also be diagnosed by demonstrating
rising antibody titers against IBV between preclinical and convalescent sera.
INTERVENTION
✓ Attenuated live and killed vaccines are used in an attempt to control the disease. However, multiple different
antigenic types and constantly emerging new types that do not cross‐protect make it difficult to prevent
transmission and disease.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
✓ The disease is characterized by respiratory signs, reduced weight gain, and reduced feed efficiency in
meat‐type broiler chickens infected with the virus. Infection also predisposes broilers to secondary
opportunistic bacterial infections that can result in airsacculitis, pericarditis, and perihepatitis. Morbidity is
almost always 100%, but mortality can vary depending on the age and immune status of the birds, the strain
of the virus, and if secondary bacterial or viral pathogens are involved. Some strains of IBV are
nephropathogenic and can cause high mortality due to kidney failure in susceptible birds.
✓ In layer and breeder chickens, infection may result in reduced egg production of up to 70% and declines in
eggshell quality. The virus can replicate in the oviduct and cause permanent damage in young hens resulting
in limited egg production over a prolonged period of time and birds that fail to come into production (false
layers). Eggs from breeds with pigmented shells may become pale, and the albumen can have a watery
viscosity. Egg production often recovers but may be permanently depressed in flocks with no immunity to
the virus.
CLINICAL SIGNS

✓ The nonspecific respiratory signs of IB in susceptible chicks are gasping, coughing,

sneezing, tracheal rales, and nasal discharge.
✓ Watery eyes may be observed, and an occasional chick may have swollen sinuses.
✓ The chicks appear depressed and may be seen huddled under a heat source.
✓ Feed consumption and weight gain may be significantly reduced.
The severity of the respiratory signs is influenced by the quality of the climate, housing, kind of
bird, strain involved, IB vaccination program, and presence of coinfections including
secondary infections.
✓ Broiler chickens infected with a nephropathogenic virus may appear to recover from the
respiratory phase and then show signs of depression, ruffled feathers, wet droppings,
increased water intake, and mortality.
✓ 6 Kidney lesions associated with infectious bronchitis (IB)
✓ caused by T strain of virus.
✓ Note swollen kidneys with tubules
✓ ureters distended with urates
VACCINATION

Types of Vaccines:
✓ Live-attenuated vaccines: These vaccines contain weakened forms of the infectious bronchitis virus. They are administered
to day-old chicks through various methods such as spray, drinking water, or eye drops. Birds are often revaccinated
approximately 2 weeks after the initial vaccination.
✓ Inactive vaccines: These vaccines do not contain live virus but still stimulate the immune system. They can also be given to
chicks.
Administration:
✓ Spray or eyedrop: The ideal route for live infectious bronchitis vaccines.
✓ Drinking water: Another method for administering vaccines to chicks.

Additional Measures:
✓ Good ventilation and air quality: Proper ventilation helps maintain healthy respiratory tracts in the flock.
✓ Regular vaccination and hygiene practices are essential to prevent and manage infectious bronchitis in chickens.
Remember, preventing a disease through vaccination is always better than treating it after it occurs. If you have chickens, consult with a
veterinarian to ensure they receive the appropriate vaccinations to keep them healthy and protected.
IB TREATMENT

✓ No drug has been shown to be effective in reducing the severity of lesions or relieving
clinical signs
AVIAN INFUENZA

✓ Disease in poultry caused by Type A influenza viruses in the family Orthomyxoviridae has been recognized since
the late nineteenth century causing mainly sporadic, but serious disease outbreaks.
DIAGNOSIS
✓ Reverse transcription‐polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) is commonly used to diagnose avian influenza
infections, with type A detection targeted to the matrix or nucleoprotein genes, and subsequent subtype detection of
at least the H5 and H7 subtypes. Sequencing directly from clinical samples is being more commonly used. Isolation
of virus, primarily in embryonating chicken eggs, is still recommended to allow full characterization of an isolate.
Pathotype is determined by sequencing and/or in vivo tests (intravenous pathogenicity test).
INTERVENTION
✓ Biosecurity is the primary preventive measure but weaknesses in biosecurity systems results in infection on some
farms. Virus elimination is the preferred strategy for HPAI and H5/H7 LPAI control when outbreaks occur in
previously AI‐free countries or areas. Vaccination is also being used as a preventive and emergency control measure
for both LPAI and HPAI.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
✓ Poultry diseases have a significant impact on human welfare, especially in rural areas where village or backyard
chickens are a source of income and a crucial food source. Countries with industrialized poultry production also
expend large amounts of money to prevent AVIAN INFLUENZA or prevent losses from AI, to maintain a AI‐free
status, or eradicate AVIAN INFLUENZA after an outbreak.
✓ Direct losses in HPAI outbreaks include costs associated with high morbidity and mortality in affected flocks,
depopulation and disposal costs, cleaning and disinfection, quarantine and dwarf direct losses 5–10 fold.
✓ Low pathogenicity AI outbreaks have also caused significant economic losses for producers of chickens, turkeys,
ducks, and ostriches, especially when accompanied by secondary bacterial or viral pathogens, but accurate
documentation of such costs are generally not available.
CLINICAL SIGNS

✓ The pathotype of AI virus (LP or HP) has a major impact on the clinical manifestation of the disease.
However, clinical signs of disease are extremely variable and depend on other factors including host species,
age, sex, concurrent infections, acquired immunity, and environmental factors.
BIOSECURITY MOVEMENT &
MANAGEMENT

✓ Biosecurity is the first line of defense, and consists of exclusion measures to keep the virus out of virus‐free
premises and containment to prevent virus from spreading once cases occur. Every farm should have a biosecurity
plan that examines all potential pathways for entry of AI virus followed by development of appropriate measures to
minimize the risk for each pathway.
✓ This can include both facilities (such as fences and bird proofing of houses) and management procedures (use of
cleaning and disinfection, segregation of newly introduced poultry, procedures for handling dead birds, preventing
vehicles’ entry to areas close to poultry houses, etc.) overseen by a designated biosecurity manager (often the
company veterinarian).
✓ The most likely source of virus for poultry is other infected birds, so the basic means for the prevention of infection
of poultry with influenza viruses is the separation of susceptible birds from infected birds and their secretions and
excretions.
✓ Equipment that comes in direct contact with birds or their manure should not be moved from farm‐to‐farm without
adequate cleaning and disinfection, and it is important to keep the traffic area near the poultry house free from
contamination by manure.
VACCINATION

✓ There are several vaccines that have been found effective against Avian Influenza. A study conducted at Wageningen Bio-veterinary
Researchers tested four vaccines for their efficacy against HPAI (highly pathogenic avian influenza) type H5N1 bird flu.
The vaccines tested were:
✓ HVT-H5 vaccine from Ceva Sante Animale
✓ HVT-H5 vaccine from Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health
✓ DNA-vaccine from Huvepharma
✓ Nobilis vaccine of Merck Sharp Dome
The study found that both HVT-H5 vaccines were 100% effective in preventing disease and mortality after infection with the HPAI
H5N1 virus. They also prevented the spread of the virus between chickens. The other two vaccines showed disease symptoms.
Please note that the effectiveness of these vaccines can vary depending on the specific strain of the virus and
other factors. It’s always best to consult with a healthcare professional or a veterinarian for the most accurate
information.
AI TREATMENT

✓ Presently, no practical, specific treatment exists for AI virus infections in commercial poultry. Amantadine
has been shown experimentally to be effective in reducing mortality, but the drug is not approved for food
animals, and its use rapidly gives rise to amantadine‐resistant viruses which compromises public health.
Supportive care and antibiotic treatment have been employed to reduce the effects of concurrent bacterial
infections. The use of human anti‐ influenza drugs such as M2 inhibitors (amantadine and rimantadine) and
NA inhibitors (oseltamivir and zanamivir) is strongly discouraged because of the potential to generate
resistance that can result in a loss of these drugs for public health use. Treatment of infected birds is not
recommended.
COCCIDIOSIS

Poultry and gamebirds are susceptible to several species of Eimeria, which cause an enteric disease characterized
by diarrhea, morbidity, lost weight gain, dehydration, and sometimes mortality. Coccidia are intracellular
parasites, often resulting in disruption of the intestinal mucosa as they reproduce.

DIAGNOSIS
✓ Diagnosis is by detection of characteristic gross lesions at necropsy and by detection of microscopic oocysts
in fecal droppings.
INTERVENTION
✓ Control is largely by prevention, using anticoccidial drugs in the feed or live vaccines administered at the
hatchery.
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE
✓ Production Losses: The disease can cause high morbidity and mortality, leading to losses in production. It
can range from bloody enteritis, which can lead to high mortality, to subclinical forms that affect feed intake
and efficiency.
✓ Cost of Treatment and Prevention: The cost of treating and preventing coccidiosis, including the use of
anticoccidial drugs and vaccines, can be significant.
✓ Global Impact: When considering the global poultry industry, coccidiosis costs over 3 billion dollars
annually.
✓ Impact on Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) and Body Weight Gain (BWG): Subclinical coccidiosis can be more
costly to producers than clinical coccidiosis because of impairment on FCR.
CLINICAL SIGNS

✓ Diarrhea: This could be bloody or mucoid, and is often the main clinical sign of coccidiosis.
✓ Decreased Activity and Depression: Infected chickens may show signs of depression and decreased activity.
✓ Reduced Feed Intake: Birds suffering from coccidiosis often show a drop in feed intake due to loss of
appetite.
✓ Weight Loss: This is common in birds suffering from coccidiosis.
✓ Ruffled Plumage: Birds may have ruffled feathers, indicating discomfort.
✓ Suboptimal Growth: Coccidiosis can lead to poor growth in chickens
✓ Blood in Droppings: This is a common sign when birds are suffering from coccidiosis.
✓ These signs can vary depending on the severity of the infection and the species of the coccidia.
✓ If you suspect your birds have coccidiosis, it’s important to consult with a veterinarian for a proper diagnosis
and treatment
COCCIDIOSIS TREATMENT

✓ Treatment for coccidiosis typically involves the use of antiprotozoal drugs. These can help to shorten the
length of the illness, decrease the discharge of oocysts, alleviate clinical signs, and reduce the likelihood of
secondary infections and death.
✓ Here are some common treatment options:
✓ Sulfa drugs: These are often used to treat coccidiosis. They can be administered in the feed or water.
✓ Amprolium (Corid): This is a thiamine blocker that affects the coccidia’s ability to multiply.
✓ Toltrazuril (Baycox): This is a broad-spectrum anticoccidial drug that is often used in poultry
REFRENCES

✓ Wang, Y.D., Y.L. Wang, Z. Zhang, G. Fan, Y. Jlang, X. Liu, J. Ding, and S. Wang. 1998. Isolation and
identification of glandular stomach type IBV (QX IBV) in chickens.

✓ Chinese Journal of Animal Quarantine. 15:1–3. 180 Wickramasinghe, I.N., R.P. de Vries, A. Grone, C.A. de
Haan, and M.H. Verheije. 2011. Binding of avian coronavirus spike proteins to host factors reflects virus
tropism and pathogenicity.
✓ J Virol. 85:8903–8912. 181 Winterfield, R.W., and S.B. Hitchner. 1962. Etiology of an infectious
nephritis‐nephrosis syndrome of chickens. Am. J. Vet. Res. 23:1273–1278. 182
✓ Winterfield, R.W., F.J. Hoerr, and A.M. Fadly. 1978. Vaccination against infectious bronchitis and the
immunosuppressive effects of infectious bursal disease. Poultry Sci. 57:386–391
THANKYOU