WESTERN PHILOSOPHICAL
PERSPECTIVES ON THE the basic emotions such as love,
Ancient Philosophy
1000 BC to 500 AD
3 Periods:
– Pre-Socratics (The Milesians)
– The Ancient Triumvirate
– Post-Aristotelians
Pre-Socratics
• Cosmo-centric: There is a
fundamental principle/thing that
underlies everything else,
including the human self:
– Thales: Water
– Anaximander: Apeiron –
“Boundless Something”
– Anaximenes: Air
• Others: Democritus (atom),
Heraclitus (fire),
Anaxagoras
(nous/mind),
Pythagoras (numbers)
In what ways do I get to know
myself?
According to: The Ancient
Triumvirate
• Socrates:
– Two Aspects of Reality
• Physical world : changeable,
transient, and imperfect; World of
Senses/Matter
• Spiritual world: unchanging,
eternal, perfect; The World of
Ideas/Form
– Our souls (self) strive for
wisdom and perfection, and
reason is the soul’s tool to achieve
such state.
– The soul is a unified,
indissoluble, immortal entity that
remains the same over time, and
that is in the very likeness of the
divine.
Other philosopher:
• Plato:
– 3-part soul/self (psyche)
• Reason: the divine essence
that lets us think deeply (wisdom),
make wise choices and
achieve a true understanding of
eternal truths.
• Physical Appetite: accounts
for the basic biological needs such
as
hunger, thirst and sexual
desire
• Spirit/Passion: accounts for
anger, ambition,
aggressiveness, empathy
– These are in a dynamic
relationship with each other:
in agreement or in conflict.
But it is the responsibility of
the Reason to restore harmony
among the three.
– Harmony: Justice in the
individual, social and political
levels.
• Aristotle:
– The mind (self) is a blank tablet
– The self consists of matter and
form; matter is in a continuous
process of developing and
becoming.
– The process of completion is
through experiences as knowledge
is acquired through the senses
(and this knowledge is true).
– But this self comes from a First
Cause, the source of all changes
although unchangeable in Itself.
– The goal of the human self is
reached in happiness through
moderation or balance of things.
The Post-Aristotelians
• Maintains the dualism between
body and soul
• More ethical in their ideas (moral
norms attainment of
happiness)
– Stoicism: apathy or
indifference to pleasure
– Hedonism: “Eat, drink and
be happy, for tomorrow, you
will die.”
– Epicureanism: moderate
pleasure
Is the self-related to a supreme
being/God?
Who am I in relation to a supreme
being/ God?
Based from the
Medieval Philosophy
• 500 AD to 1350
• Theo-centric
• From the scientific investigation
on nature and search for
happiness to the question of life
and salvation in another realm, in a
better world (cf. afterlife)
• Influence from ancient thought:
 – The (human) self endures
through time.
Medieval Philosophy
• Rather imposing than informing,
because it was trying to aim at
paganism and barbarism.
• There was an aim to merge
philosophy and religion (Christian,
Jewish, Muslim)
St. Augustine
• Integrates Platonic ideas with the
tenets of Christianity
• Platonic Realm of Idea/Forms:
the Christian philosophy of a
transcendent God: the self strives
to achieve union with God through
faith and reason.
• The finite, temporary world of
Plato becomes a proving ground for
our eternal destinies: such that the
the human person becomes whole
with both body and soul (more
unified view).
Anthony de Mello, SJ
• Identity
“How does one seek union
with God?”
“The harder you seek, the
more distance you create between
Him and you.”
“So what does one do, about
the distance?”
“Understand that isn’t there”
“Does that mean that God and
I are one?”
“Not one, not two”
“How is that possible?”
“The sun and its light, the
ocean and the wave, the singer and
his song – not one: Not Two”
How can I be sure that
the self exists?
What are the proofs
that the self exists?
Based from readings on
Modern Philosophy
14th century to the early 20th
century
Modern Philosophy
Anthropocentric = centered on the
human person
• Thinkers began to reject the
scholastics’ (medieval thinkers)
excessive reliance on authority
• Period of radical social,
political and intellectual
developments
• Genuine knowledge has to
be based on independent rational
inquiry and real world
experimentation, rather than
dependent on knowledge handed
down by authorities.
René Descartes: A Rationalist
• “Cogito ergo sum.” – “I think,
therefore, I am.”
• Human identity: self-awareness
• Self: A thinking thing
• Self: can exist independently of
the body
– But doesn’t deny the association
of the body to the self
• Dualism: thinking (spiritual) self
vs. physical body
• The spiritual self (governed by
the laws of reason and God’s will)
surpasses the physical self
(governed by the laws of nature).
• Yet the intimate connection
between the soul and the body is
undeniable (pineal gland)
John Locke: An Empiricist
• Knowledge originates in our
direct sense experience.
• Reason plays a subsequent role
in figuring out the significance of
our sense experience and in
reaching intelligent conclusions.
John Locke: An Empiricist
• The self is not necessarily
embedded in a single substance or
soul, but exists in space and time,
– Every aspect of the physical
body is integrated with personal
identity. The body changes. The
physical self changes.
• But the self endures because of
memory.
• Conscious awareness and
memory of previous experiences
are the keys to understanding the
self.
David Hume: Empiricist, Skeptic
& Nihilist
• There is no self!
• Empiricism
– Impressions – basic
sensations of experiences
– Ideas – copies of our
impressions
 – *Impressions form a fleeting
stream of sensations
– *No constant and invariable
self that exists as a
unified identity over the
course of life.
• The self is a “bundle or collection
of different perceptions, which
succeed each other in an
inconceivable rapidity, and are in
perpetual flux and movement.”
Immanuel Kant
• Contests Hume’s idea by alluding
to the primary experience of the
world that is not a disconnected
stream of sensations.
• A priori concepts: fundamental
organizing rules or principles built
into the architecture of the mind,
which categorize, organize and
synthesize sense data into the
familiar fabric of our lives ,
bounded by space and time.
– They are innate.
– Unity of consciousness that
makes the world
intelligible
Immanuel Kant
• The self actively organizes all the
sensations and thoughts into a
picture that makes sense to each
one of us. WE CONSTRUCT THE
SELF!
• The self is not an object located
in the consciousness, but rather, it
is a subject, an organizing
principle that makes a unified and
intelligible experience possible.
• The self exists independently of
and transcends experiences.
• The self is a transcendental
unifying principle of
consciousness
Sigmund Freud
• Founded the psychoanalytic
school of psychology
• The self is multi-tiered/multi-
layered:
– Conscious (governed by the
reality principle; at this level,
behavior and experience are
organized in ways that are
rational, practical and appropriate
to the social environment.)
– Preconscious
– Unconscious (contains the
basic instinctual drives including
sexuality, aggressiveness, and self-
destruction; traumatic memories;
unfulfilled wishes and childhood
fantasies; thoughts and feelings
that would be considered socially
taboo.)
Gilbert Ryle: A Physicalist
• Behaviorism: No more dichotomy
by denying the inner selves,
immortal souls, states of
consciousness, or unconscious
entities
• The self is defined in terms of
behavior that is presented to the
world.
• The self is a pattern of behavior,
the tendency or disposition for a
person to behave in a certain way
in certain circumstances.
Paul Churchland: A Physicalist
• Eliminative Materialism:
grounded in neuroscience
• The mind/self is the brain
Let us answer this
Describe what happens
to you when you fall in
love—physically,
emotionally, mentally
(cognitively).
Contemporary Philosophy
• Late 19th century
• Political revolution
• Industrial Revolution
• Scientific advancements and
growth of materialism
• Theory of Evolution
• More humanist as a response
to the so-called alienation
of the human person.
Edmund Husserl
• The father of Phenomenology
• We experience our self as a unity
in which the mental and physical
are seamlessly woven together.
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
• “lived body”
• An entity that can never be
objectified or known in a
completely objective sort of way, as
opposed to the “body as object” of
the dualists.
 • “There is no duality of substance
but a dialectic of living being in its
biological
milieu (environment).”
Take note:
EMBODIED SUBJECTIVITY
• Both Husserl and Merleau- Ponty
agree that our living body is a
natural synthesis of mind and
biology.
• Phenomenological approach:
describe the phenomena of the
lived experience (reducing biases)
by describing what your immediate
responses are— physically,
emotionally, cognitively.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Choose your self-presentations
carefully, for what starts out as a
mask may become your face” –
Erving Goffman
How would you answer the
question:
“Who are you?”
The sociological perspective of the
self will let you explore the
importance of the self in relation to
the society.
It will let you examine how your
attitudes and behavior is influenced
by social interactions and
relationships.
And as you try to understand fully
yourself, this topic will facilitate you
to accept and be more tolerant of
the differences that you have and
that of others for you to live in a
harmonious way and be productive
in society.
Sociology - is the study of society,
patterns of social relationships,
social interaction and culture of
everyday life.
SOCIALIZING THE INDIVIDUAL
Personality Development
 In what ways do you like all
other people?
 In what ways you only like
some other people?
 In what ways don’t you like no
other people?
What is personality?
 The concept of personality is a
descriptive one.
 It describes how an individual
adapts to his or her cultural
surroundings.
Personality is the basic organization
of individuals that determines the
uniqueness of their behavior.
 The basic organization
refers to the structure of
the PERSONALITY – how
it is put together, and the
relationships among the
various parts.
 It consists of the total
physical, intellectual, and
emotional structure of the
individual.
 Each one is unique. Your
total personality structure
will determine your
particular way of
behaving.
 Each one of you has your
own way of interacting
with others and with your
social environment.
Some Aspects of Personality
 Physical characteristics
 Abilities
 Interests
 Beliefs
 Habits
The Influence of Heredity and
Environment
Is it “nature or nurture”?
If culture affects all aspects of your
personality, what role then does
heredity play in your personality
development?
Heredity
 Characteristics that are
innate, present at birth –
physical characteristics, like
hair, skin, and eye color and
body size.
 It is the transmitting of genetic
characteristics from your
parents to you. We inherit basic
needs and capacities.
 Heredity gives you biological
needs. Your culture determines
how you meet these needs.
 Heredity plays an important
role in shaping human
 personalities by setting limits
on individuals.
 Inherited characteristics place
limits on what is possible, but it
will not determine what you will
do and what kind of personality
you will have.
Birth order
– your personality is also
influenced by whether you have
brothers, sisters, both, or neither.
– Were you born first, last, or
in between? Do you have only
sisters or only brothers – or both?
– Think about ways in which
your own life situation could have
been different, and how your
personality might have been affected
by these factors.
Parents
• How might you be affected by
your parents’ age?
• Parents amount of education,
religious beliefs, ethnic
backgrounds, economic/social
status, occupations, and
communities in which they live,
all contribute to the personality
development of an individual.
Subcultures
– a subculture is a portion of
a society that has enough
characteristics of its own to set it
apart, and yet is included within the
general society.
The cultural environment
– every culture is different.
– These cultural differences affect
your personality development.
– It is cultural environment that
makes individuals human.
– It makes you embrace your
similarities and celebrate your
differences.
Try This! Read a Bit
Read the following additional
reading material on the influence of
heredity and environment in
personality development.
“The 10 Heartbreaking Stories of
Feral Children. “
THE SOCIAL SELF
At birth, you cannot talk, walk, feed
yourselves, or even protect yourself
from harm.
 You know nothing about the
ways of your culture or society.
Then, through interaction with
other people and your
environment, you are developed
into individuals who have
knowledge of your culture – you
become participants of your
society.
 This process of cultural
molding, how individuals learn
the basic skills, values, beliefs,
and behavior patterns of the
society, is called
SOCIALIZATION.
The Socialization Process
The following theories will help you
understand how we become
socialized and develop our identity,
or self.
1. JOHN LOCKE (1632-1704)
John Locke was an English
philosopher who insisted that each
newly born individual was a tabula
rasa – or clean slate, on which could
be written just about anything.
The social self is the way that you
see yourselves as a result of
interacting with others
2. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY
(1864-1929)
 Charles Horton Cooley was an
American sociologist who
developed the theory about
the social self.
 He observed that you only
begin to have a sense of your
own self – of who you are and
what you are like – after you
notice how others see you.
 He called his theory “the
looking glass theory”.
 According to Cooley, you are
as other people see you. You
can only see yourselves only
as others see you. And what
they see is what you are. You
are continually changing your
personality as you adjust your
self-image to the way you are
viewed by the rest of society.
REFLECTION
 How do you react when others see
you differently from the way you see
yourself?
3. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD
(1863-1931)
“seeing yourselves as others see you
is only the beginning”
Two kinds of people
“significant others and the I-self”
-You can act in a way that is
not expected of someone in your role
because of your I-self.
“generalized others and the Me-
self”
- It comes from our continual
interaction with our social
environment. It is our objective
social identity.
The I-Self and the Me-Self
To summarize :
- Your personality is socially
created, and develops through social
interaction.
- Each time you step into a social
situation, you respond to your
surroundings. And you add to that
your unique experiences.
- This combination produces
your SOCIAL SELF.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL
Perspectives
“The main purpose of anthropology
is to make the world safe for human
indifferences”
– Ruth Benedict
Your racial category, family
structure, ethnic affiliation, religious
customs, language, social beliefs
and values, cultural expression and
identification indubitably contribute
on your formation as a person, and
accordingly, on your self-construal.
What is anthropology?
How does anthropology shape your
sense of self?
It is concerned about the various
aspects of the human species,
irrespective of time and place, from
ancient to the contemporary.
The development of culture and its
impact on shaping the self, appear
to be fundamental in any
anthropological discourse.
Culture is considered a way of life –
it encompasses the values,
behaviors, beliefs, customs,
languages and traditions of a
particular social or ethnic group.
Your goal here is to help deepen
your classmates’ awareness and
appreciation of the ethnic group’s
cultural identity.
The development of culture and its
impact on shaping the self, appear
to be fundamental in any
anthropological discourse. Culture
is considered a way of life – it
encompasses the values, behaviors,
beliefs, customs, languages and
traditions of a particular social or
ethnic group.
Our country has a rich history of
diverse cultures with colonial
influences. With the numerous
ethnic groups in the country, we
could just imagine how hybrid our
cultural identities are. In this
activity, you will have a grasp on the
different cultures of the country by
looking unto the uniqueness of each
of the ethnic groups in the regional
and national levels.
The SELF And The Person In
Contemporary Anthropology
“Every man is in certain respects
like all other men, like some other
men, and like no other man.”
According to psychologist Henry
Murray and anthropologist Clyde
Kluckhohn. This is how
Anthropologist viewed the pre-
contemporary and contemporary
human persons are.
The pre-contemporary view of
human nature demonstrated
sameness, invariability, and
universality where man was
regarded as identical, constant, and
general
The Concept of Culture
 Cultural anthropology being
one of the sub-disciplines of
anthropology underscores the
concept of culture and its
influence in shaping the self.
  All these illuminate your way
of life and all these elements
form part of the culture you
were raised to.
 Culture is a broad construct
which covers a wide range of
elements:
- from your clothing designs
to your food preferences,
- the dialect you use for
communicating,
- the festivals you enjoy,
- the religious beliefs and
customs you observe,
- the set of values you
conform to, or
- even the kinds of books you
read, or
- the jokes you crack
Our Bodies and Culture
Recall some circumstances in your
life where you pursued a particular
fashion statement or modified your
body image because it is what’s “in”
or it is what seems typical based on
your cultural context.
Yes or No?
 Did you ever go through
tattooing or body piercing
because these convey
something about your status?
 What about having been
restricted of wearing revealing
clothes because it is
considered a taboo?
Yes or No?
 Or had you ever been
refrained from letting your
hair be cut because of some
religious beliefs?
If you answered in the affirmative
then you probably adhere unto the
proposition that culture influences
our body image. Consciously or
unconsciously, your body image or
your perception of your body or that
of others is largely influenced by
your culture.
 Your bodies and what you do
with it is a reflection of the life
you live and the culture you
were accustomed to.
 Body modifications and
embellishments for instance
are regarded as part of the
norms and representations of
some cultures.
The following pictures below
exemplify how our CULTURES are
projected through our BODIES.
 Apo Whang-Od Oggay, the
Living Legend Mambabatok
(Tattoo Artist) of the Butbut
Tribe in Buscalan, Kalinga
 A woman from the Mursi Tribe
in South Ethiopia, Africa with
her profound lip and earlobe
plates.
 A woman from the Karen
Tribe (also known as Padaung
People) of Thailand with heavy
brass rings on the neck.
 A member of the Bagobo
people from coastal Mindanao
in the Philippines with filed
and blackened teeth.
The Self Embedded In Culture
The figure below illustrates a
hypothetical self-concept of
Mr. Juan Dela Cruz.
The PSYCHOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE
“Everything that irritates us about
others can lead us to an
understanding of ourselves” – Carl
Jung
William James – “ Me-Self and I-
Self “
 a man's self is the “sum total
of all that he can call his, not
only his body and his psychic
powers, but his clothes and
his house, his wife and
children, his ancestors and
friends, his reputation and
works, his lands and horses,
and yacht and bank-account.”
James proposed that the self has
two facets:
 The I-Self is said to be the self
in action or as subject;
- aspect of the self that
does the acting,
thinking, and feeling.
- known as the self as the
knower or perceiver.
 The Me-Self is refers to the
self as an object;
- it is that facet of the self
which is the known or
the perceived.
The ME-SELF or EMIPIRICAL
SELF is of 3 components:
-Material Self which
encompasses all of our important
possessions as well as the people we
treasure;
-Social Self involved how we
think we are viewed and regarded by
others and also our instinctive
desire to be recognized;
- Spiritual Self contains our
subjective dispositions like our self-
appraised abilities, beliefs,
attitudes, emotions,
Carl Rogers – “Real Self and Ideal
Self “
Two essential components of the
self:
The real self ; speaks of how
we genuinely appraise ourselves.
- the self that feels most
true to what and who we really are.
- may not be perfect but
it is the part of us that feel most
real.
The ideal self - denotes one’s
view of self as one wishes to be.
- it contains attributes,
usually positive, that people aspire
to possess.
Albert Bandura “ Proactive and
Agentic Self”
 advocated the social cognitive
theory of learning.
 this learning perspective
contends that human
behavior results from
vicarious learning, through the
experiences of other people.
 Self-efficacy - one’s conviction
or belief that he or she can
take on a certain task
successfully.
From there, it emerges the concept
of the self as PROACTIVE AND
AGENTIC.
SELF AS PROACTIVE is
constructive; it is optimistic that it
can get through whatever
adversities it may encounter.
AN AGENTIC SELF is one who
takes charge of his choices and
actions; it is self-reflective and self-
regulating.
Bandura views people as being more
than just mere planners and fore
thinkers.
We are agents of change; we can be
actively involved in shaping our own
lives because we are equipped with
the cognitive faculty and capacity to
do so.
We can be highly motivated and not
easily discouraged when he faced
with challenges.
An agentic and proactive self
believes that no matter how big the
problem may seem to be, he or she
can overcome it.
Murray Bowen- “Differentiated
Self”
 one of the forerunners of
family therapy and notable for
having developed a family
systems theory,
 posited on the differentiation
of selves.
- refers to the degree to
which one is able to balance:
(a) emotional and
intellectual functioning, and
(b) intimacy and
autonomy in relationship
Donald Woods Winnicott - “True
and False Selves”
 an English psychoanalyst who
conceptualized the true and
false selves.
 true self is based on our
authentic experiences as a
person.
 false self, also referred to as a
fake self or superficial self, is
our defense against the
vulnerabilities or
imperfections of our real self.

Psychological Needs
The need to have joy and
laughter in your life. The
sense that we can experience
elation and light heartedness.
 Safety
The need to feel physically
and psychologically safe. Free
from emotional and physical
threats or harm.
 Belonging
A sense that someone truly
cares about you. That you are
in a mutual and loving
relationship with another
person.
 Recognition
A sense that you are
acknowledged for what you
accomplish and who you are.
To feel significant, that you
make an impact.
 Freedom
The need to have choice in your
life, to have a sense of control
over the decisions that direct
your behavior. To be free from a
sense of external control.
 Fun
The need to have joy and
laughter in your life. The sense
that we can experience elation
and light heartedness.
 Self-Esteem
The need to feel competent &
confident. The sense that you
can achieve results, make good
decisions, and you will stand
by your principles.
 Safety
The need to feel physically and
psychologically safe. Free from
emotional and physical threats
or harm
THE SELF IN
WESTERN & EASTERN THOUGHTS
“One ship sails east and another
sails west with the same self–wind
that blow, it’s the set of the sail and
not the gale that determines the way
we go. As the winds of the sea are
the ways of fate. As we voyage along
through life, it’s the act of the soul
that determines the goal and not the
calmness of the strife.”
- Ella Wilcox
“WHO AM I?”
The Eastern world comprises of
nations in ASIAN while the Western
world consists of countries which
are geographically located in
EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA.
The perceived dichotomy between
the East and the West is not only
GEOGRAPHICAL but more of
CULTURAL as it encompasses
differences in terms of beliefs and
modes of thinking, values and ways
of life.
Divergences between the two are
apparent even in terms of
understanding concepts like truth,
justice, and the self
INDIVIDUALISTIC VERSUS
COLLECTIVE THOUGHTS
CHECK THIS OUT!
“I am John Doe, a clever basketball
player and Trainor. I used to live in
Toronto but I moved in here for new
experiences. Aside from I enjoy
dancing, I also find fulfillment in
basketball coaching. In fact, I am
one of the most amateur coaches in
basketball in our village”.
Another one:
“I am Juan Dela Cruz, a full-blooded
Ilocano. I am the youngest in a
brood of five; I also love playing
basketball and an avid fan of
Toronto Raptors”.
If you’re on the same class as the
characters above, how would you
present yourself in the group? ( Go
over your answers in our previous
lesson last time and checked it out!)
The aforementioned scenario
captures individualistic and
collectivistic orientations toward the
self which are espoused by the
Western and Eastern worldviews
respectively.
The INDIVIDUALISTIC Perspective
 views the SELF as one that is
independent from others; it is
a separate, autonomous, and
distinct entity.
  prefer to express their unique
inner attributes, abilities,
personal preferences and
achievements.
 The individualistic thought
recognizes individual
differences; it tends to prize
autonomy over collective
wisdom and effort where the
individual is a regarded a self-
made whose success and
happiness do not necessarily
depend on others, not even to
the society in general
The COLLECTIVISTIC thought
 all things are seen as
interdependent and
inseparable parts and parcels
of the larger social world.
 One of the most
distinguishing hallmarks of
the Eastern worldview is the
awareness on unity and
mutual interrelation of all
things and events in life.
 Collectivists recognize that
their identity and self-esteem
are wrapped up in their group
and so they would more likely
value promoting group
harmony and cohesion,
belonging and fitting-in.
EASTERN AND WESTERN
THOUGHTS
Western (Greek and Judeo-
Christian Traditions)
 Individualism/Fragmentary/
Dualistic: A human being has
an individualistic nature and
is an independent part of the
universe and the society. More
focused on the individual
events and the role of the
person. Emphasis is on the
“I”.
Eastern (Classical Indian and
Chinese Philosophies)
 Collectivism/Wholistic: A
human being is an integral
part of the universe and the
society. People are
fundamentally connected. all
events in the universe are
interconnected (Systematic
Approach). Emphasis is on
the “WE”.
Western (Greek and Judeo-
Christian Traditions)
 Outer-world dependent:
Searching outside yourself –
through research and analysis
 Science/evidence-based
culture: What can be
proven/measured is deemed
the truth
 Man is an element of the
Divine
Eastern (Classical Indian and
Chinese Philosophies)
 Inner-world dependent:
Searching inside yourself –
through meditation and right
living
 Evidence is meaningless;
truth is given and does not
have to be proven
 Man is a part of the cosmic
unity
Western (Greek and Judeo-
Christian Traditions)
 Life is a service (to God,
money, business, etc.)
 The journey of mankind is
linear; everything has its
beginning and end.
 Action is not necessarily a
translation of the mind.
 The concept of “Me”: the true
“me” is a part of the Divine
that need not become
apparent: it is given, does not
have to be cognizable
Eastern (Classical Indian and
Chinese Philosophies)
 Life is a journey towards
eternal realities outside the
world
 The journey of mankind is
cyclical: perception of eternal
recurrence (life after death,
reincarnation)
 The action is the extension of
the mind.
 Me- to be discovered by
liberating from the false “me”
– attachment to the material
things
We will be examining how the self
was explained by the major
philosophies of the East –
Hinduism, Buddhism,
Confucianism, Taoism. We shall
likewise explore the indigenous
conceptualization of the self based
on the Filipino culture.
The Self as Embedded in the
Oriental (EAST) Thoughts
 The EASTERN thought values
unity and harmony and being
part of the greater whole,
where everything is believed to
be connected and the
interdependent with others
and nature.
 The self is fundamentally
connected with the other
selves and is an integral part
of the universe and society.
 One’s conformity with shared
norms and values is very
important; the self must place
duties over rights.
The Self in Hinduism
 Hinduism believes that SELF
is Atman (Atman is the
innermost essence of the self
whose destiny is to be
Brahma in Nirvana).
 Attachment of the self to the
material world (maya/illusion)
leads to suffering (samsara).
 Reincarnation of the self is a
form of suffering because the
self keeps coming back to the
material-world thinking that it
is its real destiny. The self has
to liberate itself from this
ignorance by cultivating an
authentic knowledge (self-
realization) that the self has is
NOT MAYA but ATMAN.
 When the self has been
thoroughly cleansed from its
illusions, the self is filled with
the sense of well-being, and at
death, its soul is liberated
from endless rebirths
(reincarnation) and join the
universal spirit Brahma and
becomes one with Brahma.
The Self in Buddhism
 The doctrine of NON-SELF OR
ANNATA dictates that the self
is subject to the law of
changes. Everything,
including the self, is always in
constant change: born, grows,
and dies. The self is composed
of five aggregates: natter,
sensation, perception, mental
construct, and consciousness.
Each aggregate is transitory in
nature. That is why there is
no such thing as permanent
self.
 Buddhism discards the
existence of the self.
 The idea of the self is illusory.
This false belief yields harmful
thoughts of selfish desire,
“me-and-mine” mentality,
craving, attachment, ill-will,
hatred, conceit, pride, egoism,
and any other defilements and
social problems. It is the
source of all troubles in
societies.
The goal of the self is to attain
enlightenment by freeing oneself
from ignorance that causes
suffering. To eliminate ignorance
and attain enlightenment, the self
should:
1. Know the four noble truths:
- First Truth, identifies the
presence of suffering.
- Second Truth, seeks to
determine the cause of suffering.
(In Buddhism, desire and ignorance
lie at the root of suffering. By desire,
Buddhists refer to craving pleasure,
material goods, and immortality, all
of which are wants that can never
be satisfied. As a result, desiring
them can only bring suffering.
Ignorance, in comparison, relates to
not seeing the world as it actually is.
Vices, such as greed, envy, hatred
and anger, derive from this
ignorance. )
- Third Noble Truth, the
truth of the end of suffering -
suggesting either the end of
suffering in this life, on earth, or in
the spiritual life, through achieving
Nirvana. When one has achieved
Nirvana, which is a transcendent
state free from suffering and our
worldly cycle of birth and rebirth,
spiritual enlightenment has been
reached.
- Fourth Noble truth charts
the method for attaining the end of
suffering, known to Buddhists as
the Noble Eightfold Path.
2. The way to get out of suffering is
by practicing the Noble Eightfold
Path
Right Understanding,
Right Thought,
Right Speech,
Right Action,
Right Livelihood,
Right Effort,
Right Mindfulness and
Right Concentration.
Moreover, there are three themes
into which the Path is divided:
 good moral conduct
(Understanding, Thought,
Speech);
 meditation and mental
development (Action,
Livelihood, Effort), and
 wisdom or insight
(Mindfulness and
Concentration).
The Self in Confucianism
The self is a moral and social being.
Confucius was essentially
concerned with what made a good
life. Good life depends on order, and
order depends on good and just
government. If a ruler lives and
governs virtuously, virtuous people
would obey him. Virtue consists of
correct behavior, such as
benevolence, righteousness,
propriety, wisdom, and loyalty.
These virtues must guide
human relations, namely, (a)
between ruler and people; (b)
between parents and children; (c)
between husband and wife; (d)
between elder brother and younger
brother; and (e) between friends and
friend.
The self is a dot in the universe and
being a part of nature, the self must
live in accordance with the law of
nature that rules and directs the
movements of all things.
The highest achievement of
every human being is being a wise
person. As a wise person, his
highest achievement is affinity with
the universe. The happiness of the
self is found in the self’s conformity
with nature.
Confucius advocated the
active role of man in relation to
creating oneness with nature. Since
the self is the master of nature, his
duty is to actively harmonize himself
with nature by translating the
innate law of nature into action.
The Self in Taoism
- advocates what is natural and
spontaneous, simple, and
necessary.
Taoism considers the self as merely
one of the many elements of the
natural world. Tao is an
indescribable force that govern
natures.
THREE GREAT VIRTUES of Tao:
HUMILITY, FRUGALITY AND
CONTENTMENT
- the self should not strive for
learning, riches, and power;
- the self should find last
thing happiness by being, quiet,
thoughtful, and
humble.
In other word to be able to
harmonize, the self must practice
the WU-WIE or the non-interference
with the natural courses of events.
Most of the problems in the world is
caused by the self’s active
participation in creating harmony
with nature. Too much involvement
of the self in nature can lead to
destruction.
Filipino Concept of the Self
 A FILIPINO is considered
multilayered because of
foreign influences, such as
those of India, Indonesia,
Malay, Chinese, Spanish, and
American which are
embedded in our culture.
 Our understanding of the
Filipino as a self must be
based on the concepts of
PAGKATAO and LOOB.
 Pagkatao or humanities
indicates the fact that a
Filipino is a human being just
like anyone else.
 The concept of loob is
exemplified by Filipino holistic
worldview and interiority
(human heartedness) that
was according to Mercado
(1974) .
 The self is seen as a body-soul
embodiment. The present is
the continuation of the past,
and this continuity moves in a
cyclic manner that has no
beginning and no end (Gulong
ng Palad).
 A FILIPINO does not
distinguish the subject from
the object, the person from
feelings.
 Harmonious relationship is of
prime importance; this is
maintained by the value of
sensitivity.
  Interiority pertains to love,
mercy, charity, elemency, and
leniency.
 The human heartedness is
mirrored in the Filipino
concepts of kagandahang-
loob, kabutihang loob,
kalooban, which somehow
depict our interdependency
with others.
 They slow the social
dimension of the self, sharing
of the self with others in
values of pakikisama,
camaraderie, hospitality,
utang-na-loob, bayanihan
spirit, family-centeredness,
meal-centeredness, etc.
THE SELF, therefore, is a relational
being, who thinks, acts, behaves,
and decides always in accordance
with his being with others.
Unit 2
Unpacking The Self
How Do I Look Like Myself?
Have you ever faced the mirror and
asked yourself "Why do I look like
me?” science explains that our
parents are very munch
instrumental in understanding why
we look how we look.
Gregor Mendel first figured out how
genes are passed from parents to
offspring in plants, including
humans. His experiments on pea
plants showed that genes are
passed intact from generation to
generation and that traits are not
blended. Mendel’s discovery was
that it is through the genes that
traits were passed from parent to off
spring through several generations
(Cummings, 2016).
Genetics definitely has a hand on
our physical appearance.
Our biology dictates that our looks
are a result of the genes transferred
to us by our parents. From our skin
tone, hair color to our height, our
physical features are an evidence
that we are our parents’ children.
When heredity is actually at work,
we find ourselves being the mirrors
of our parents, which was the
result of their DNAs
(deoxyribonucleic acid) at work in
us, and for some, even looking like
carbon copies of them.
The Physical Self
“Make sure you don’t start seeing
yourself through the eyes of those
who don’t value you. Know your
worth even if they don’t.”
– Thema Davis
PHYSICAL SELF
 refers to the body, this
marvelous container and
complex, finely tuned,
machine with which you
interface with your
environment and fellow
beings.
 the physical self is the
concrete dimension, the
tangible aspect of the person
that can be directly observed
and examined.
Relationship Of Physical Self To The
Development Of Self-esteem
How do you evaluate people you
meet? Do you assess them based on
how they look/appear?
Do you let your physical appearance
define who you are?
Self-esteem
- is an individual’s sense of
personal worth and an acceptance
of who one is. It
- It is the value you place on
yourselves;
- how much you like or dislike
who you are.
And how do you achieve this?
 A self-help environment
reflects the belief that
autonomy and independence
are the birthright of every
child.
 Nothing renders people more
helpless than not being able
to maintain their own needs
or to take care of themselves
in basic ways.
 Self-concept is based on what
you know about yourselves,
which includes the ability to
take care of your own needs.
* To care for oneself, to feel capable
of learning, to solve problems, are all
rooted to feelings of self-esteem.
* Children’s well-being should be
developed and its foundations laid
early during the early years of
development for them to understand
themselves and others.
* Your physical attributes and
experiences impact the development
of a strong self-concept and a
positive self-esteem.
There are four (4) components of
self-esteem (Gordon, 2000):
(1) A sense of one’s own identity
(2) A sense of belonging
(connectedness)
(3) A sense of one’s own uniqueness
and
(4) A sense of self (power). A positive
sense of self is critical for young
people.
Research (Marshall, 1989) shows
that low self-image is correlated
with poor mental health, poor
academic achievement, and
delinquency.
How Beauty Is Defined Around The
World
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder,
and you don’t have to look too far to
realize that’s true.
 You’ve all done some things in
the name of beauty (eyelash
extensions, Brazilian waxes
and using tanning beds, to
name a few) that probably
seem crazy to people in
different cultures who define
beauty much differently.
 In the U.S., they may value
long, flowy hair, bronzed skin
and a face free of wrinkles,
but in other parts of the
world, pale complexions,
visible scars and shaved
heads are enviable traits.
Here, you will explore different
qualities that are considered
beautiful around the globe
 While some are
concerned with erasing
scars, Ethiopia’s Karo
tribe is creating them.
In the tribe’s eyes,
beauty is literally
skin deep: the scars
cut onto the stomachs
of women at
childhood are seen as
beautiful adornments
meant to attract men
who are husband
material
 To the Masai tribe of
Kenya, long, stretched
earlobes and low-
maintenance buzz cuts
are the ideal.
- Women are known to
shave their heads and
use everything from
elephant tusks to twigs
to pierce and stretch
their lobes to become
more attractive.
 Many Americans may
consider a lip plate a
form of body mutilation,
but to a Mursi or Suri
woman in Ethiopia, it
denotes female
maturity, signaling that
she has reached child-
bearing age.
The process includes
the removal of the two
lower front teeth before
a piercing is made to
allow a heavy clay or
wooden disk to adorn
and stretch the lower
lip. Like ear stretching,
larger and larger disks
are inserted over time to
further elongate the lip.
The larger the disk
becomes, the greater
the beauty, as it
signifies maturity,
which is an attractive
attribute to a male of
the tribe.
 Long, giraffe-like necks
are the ultimate sign of
beauty and female
elegance to the Kayan
tribe.
- At 5 years old, Kayan
women start priming
their necks with heavy
brass rings. - Each
year, more coils are
added, pushing down
their shoulders and
creating the effect of a
longer neck.
- Keep in mind that the
rings in this centuries-
old ritual can weigh up
to 22 pounds (9.98 kg).
 In various parts of Asia, Both men and women
pale, white skin is are proud to show off
revered as a sign of their procedures — a
affluence and sign of their social
attractiveness. In status and their path on
Japan, women avoid the the route to beauty
sun at all costs, while  Instead of accessorizing
skin-care products with with extravagant
whitening agents are jewelry, women in India
the norm in places like turn to nose rings,
China and Thailand. bindis and henna to
Sometimes, it’s hard to make themselves more
find products without attractive for festivals
bleaching properties and celebrations, like
 Tattooing is a sacred weddings.
ritual to the Maori Brides in particular will
people of New Zealand, often wear a dot of red
and not something powder on the face
parents warn their known as a kumkum to
teenagers they’ll one day look more beautiful.
regret. Traditionally, a  In Japan, stick straight
chisel was used to carve hair is seen as the
grooves into the skin, norm, and therefore, the
creating swirling tattoos most beautiful hair
called Tamoko. Women texture.
with tattooed lips, chins
and full blue lips are the
most beautiful. The Filipino Obsession with
 While Americans are Beauty: The Case of Xander Ford
perpetually dieting The Filipinos obsession with
and striving to be thin, beauty translates not only with
Western African women but also with men. Take the
cultures find women case of Xander Ford, previously
who are overweight to known as Marlou Arizala, a former
be the most beautiful member of Hash 5 – a teen boy band
— the more stretch which became an online sensation
marks, the better. not because of their attractiveness,
In the past, it wasn’t nor talent, but because of the
completely unheard of disgust and animosity they receive
for families in for their ‘ugly’ faces.
Mauritania to send their
daughters to “fat farms,” A Healthy Body Image, and Self-
camps that would force- esteem in Peril
feed girls 16,000 The quest for physical
calories a day to help perfection has brought us to an
them reach their ideal ordeal that will not end unless we
weight. got to the bottom of the problem.
Fuller figures are still Our society has not only placed so
the ideal, and fattening much importance on looking
camel’s and cow’s milk beautiful, but also has done a great
are go-tos for plumping job in commercializing the same.
up, but thankfully, the Perhaps, at one point in our
government now frowns lives, we have been implicitly or
upon the unpleasant explicitly criticized, or even ridiculed
force feeding. for how we look. Our standards
 Nose jobs seem like a have become so unbearable that our
staple in the image- society mocks us for looking
conscious U.S., but Iran imperfect. This has caused many of
is actually the us to lose confidence in ourselves
rhinoplasty capital of and break that one last strand of
the world. self-esteem that we do have. When
women in particular get called out
for being heavy, they are not called
as such by people to remind them to
get healthy for their own good, but
to just vilify their looks, and magnify
their imperfections. This, in turn,
results to, not only having a strong
desire for the bullied to go thin, but
with it also comes that fear gaining
weight, thus, restricting themselves
from food intake.
The Filtered Self
The advent of social media put
pressure on us to look even better.
On Instagram, the most famous
photo-sharing application known to
us to date, we post our most
physically appealing self, and more
often than not, we use filer
applications, where we can hide our
imperfections, creating, and
recreating a self that is better
approved by our online friends.
Instagram, together with the many
other photo sharing applications,
give us the freedom to alter our
looks, and present our physical
selves, not just the way we want it,
but the way our society approves it.
Today’s youngsters are sadly
the victims of such since we live at a
time when our self-approval
depends on the likes, shares, and
comments of our social media posts.
When our filtered photos look
better than the unfiltered ones, and
the virtual world agrees, we tend to
keep everything that way. There is
that possibility, however, that the
more we approve of the filtered us,
the more that we disregard our real,
unfiltered physical selves.
Powerful Peacocks
(15% of the
population) are particularly
drawn to experimentation. They
love the dynamism
Beauty, partly because looking to
advance in a dynamic
world. Particularly present in
rapid growth
of China, powerful peacocks associa
te beauty with professional
success and power.
The Seducer Foxes
(27% of the population), the
largest group in the world, love to
use cosmetics to improve
her
femininity. Foxes attractive beauty
associated with romantic and sexual
prowess, and as
using cosmetics to feel sexy.
Social butterflies
(16% of the population) enjoy the
beauty of the conversation. They
like to share their tips
friends were inspired by beautiful
women, and the feeling
of satisfaction and success
comes with a nice look. Particularly
present in Latin
America, Social butterflies have
buying beauty products to their
friends and neighbors who
are direct sellers.
Graceful swans
(23% of the
population) as subtle improvements
resulting from use of a smart beauty
products. For them, beauty leads to
confidence and
joy. Appear more graceful swans
frequently in Europe and the United
States, and they like to focus on
improving its existing beauty.
Comfortable cats
(19% of the population) are very
satisfied with their
natural beauty. although use
some beauty products are the least
likely to wait or expect
dramatic changes. more
concentrated in Europe and the
United States than in emerging
markets, comfortable chats see
some clips beauty products here
and there as a way to feel more
comfortable in their own skin.
The Spiritual Self
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
Developing Your Spirituality
You have to identify the four
sections in the gallery walk, the
‘New Model of Spirituality’ that
Andrew Wallas presented in one of
his works.
The four stages according to
Wallas, are the following:
In this corner you viewed objects
such as
• (1) a letter of a narcissistic
• (2) photo of a manipulative
classmate
• (3) self-love placards
 • (4) images of self- absorbed
people and
• (5) narcissists phrases.
This stage represents your
undeveloped spirituality; at this
point of spiritual growth, you are
manipulative and self-serving.
Though you may pretend or you
even think you are loving toward
others, you are narcissistic and
don’t really love yourself or others.
Stage 1 - Anything Goes.
In this corner you viewed objects
such as
(1) a letter of a narcissistic
(2) photo of a manipulative
classmate
(3) self-love placards
(4) images of self- absorbed people
and
(5) narcissists phrases.
This stage represents your
undeveloped spirituality; at this
point of spiritual growth, you are
manipulative and self-serving.
Though you may pretend or you
even think you are loving toward
others, you are narcissistic and
don’t really love yourself or others.
Stage 2 - Rigid
In this corner, you saw things like
(1) copy of the Ten Commandments
(2) Holy bible/ scriptures
(3) prayer books
(4) images of a prayerful family and
(5) illustrations of different religious
worship activities.
This stage is characterized by firm
set of external rules which you need
to follow.
The prescriptive nature of this
phase provides you comfort, as you
do not have to think for yourself. In
religion, you will mainly view your
God as an external, transcendent
Being. You generally need a
legalistic God, who will punish
misdeeds, to keep you from chaotic
behavior.
Stage 3 - Questioning
In this corner you found things such
as
(1) quotations about questioning
God
(2) image of an angered person
toward his God over the death of his
mother
(3) photos depicting peer pressures
(4) news clips on issues about
clergy/ priests and
(5) a question mark icon.
This is a difficult, troubling **stage
as what you have taken to be
untouchable is now being
challenged. The biggest stumbling
block in this stage is the fear that
you are falling back to Stage I and
hence you often retreat into the
perceived safety of the second stage.
Stage 4 - Free Flowing
In this corner you saw materials like
(1) image of peace and serenity
(2) quotes about happiness and
contentment
(3) the book on Purpose Driven Life
(4) sample personal reflection on
life, love and God and
(5) photos of good deeds and acts of
love.
Through the struggle and insecurity
of Stage III, either suddenly or
slowly, you emerge into the final
stage which is characterized by an
acceptance and peace with who you
are.
You discover an alignment with the
flow of life.
You recognize, not as an
intellectual concept but as a lived
experience, the true unity and
interconnectedness of all things.
It is essential to embrace each stage
of your spiritual journey and not try
to rush on to achieve the next.
Wanting to move quickly towards
enlightenment is often an ego need
rather than a spiritual one.
Embracing each stage fully and
accepting yourself as in the perfect
place in every moment of your
journey can make the process of
spiritual growth smoother and less
challenging
In like manner, Victor Frankl (1959)
theorized that we can discover
meaning in life in three different
ways:
(a) by creating a work or doing a
deed;
(what I give to life – making a
difference to the world.)
(b) by experiencing something or
encountering someone;
 (what I take from life –
experiencing the joy of living)
(c) by the attitude we take toward
unavoidable suffering and that
everything can be taken from a
man, but one thing: the last of the
human freedoms - to choose one’s
attitude in any given set of
circumstances.
(how I view life – accepting
what cannot be changed, being
positive about what can be
changed)
THE SOUL: ACCORDING TO
INDIGENOUS FILIPINOS
In understanding the spiritual self,
we also need to know the role of the
spirit of a sacred or of a God. Even
in today’s modern era, we are still
influenced by the world views on the
presence of spirits.
Let us read the article published in
Lopez Museum and Library about
how primitive Filipinos understand
the concept of soul or spirit.
The SOUL according TO THE
INDIGENOUS FILIPINO
The ‘soul’ or spirit of a person is
called:
Kaluluwa by the Tagalogs
Gimokud by the Bagobos
Makatu by the Bukidnons
Dungan by the Ilonggos when the
person is alive;
“kalag” or “detached”, “free”, when
he is dead.
Ikararuwa by the Ibanags
Kadkadduwa by the Ilokanos when
the soul is in the
Physical body and karuruwa when it
departs
 Kaluluwa, ikararuwa or
kararuwa and inikaduwa all
come from the root word
duwa, two. That is because
the soul has two existences –
one physical, where it is
connected to the human body
and its life, and the other
spiritual, where it exists on its
own.
 The Ilokano kadkadduwa
further derives from kadduwa
meaning “companion.” The
doubling of kad intensifies the
nature of the companionship
so that it means “ a constant
companion” or an
“inseparable partner,”
therefore an attached
companion of the living
person (Manuel 1989).
 The Ibanags of the Cagayan
Valley, according to Mariano
Gatan, are aware of the
distinction between body
(baggi) and soul (ikararuwa)
but not in the Western way.
 In Western Philosophy, the
soul is the principle of life in
man. Body is the matter, soul
is the form. As long as body
and soul are one unit, man is
alive.
 Death is the separation of the
soul from the body. The body
cannot stay alive without the
soul. But the soul lives
without the body.
 Freed from the body, it ceases
to experience thirst and
hunger, cold and heat. As
spirit, the soul is the opposite
of the body which is matter.
 For Filipino groups the soul is
not taken as the principle of
life. The phenomenon the
Ibanags call mekararuanan
(from the word me and
kararua means “to be rid of
the soul”) is a state in which,
because of shock, the soul
leaves the body.
 The body is alive but it is
without sense, and like a
rudderless boat has no
direction.
 For the Ibanags, the role of
the soul is to give direction
and wholeness to the man.
 But the body, as the Ibanags
conceive it can stay alive
independently of the soul,
while the soul itself, even
when separate from the body,
experiences material wants
and needs (Gatan 1981).
 The dungan or soul of the
Ilonggos, according to Alicia
 Magos (1986), is not normally
seen by the human eye.
 Sometimes, however, it comes
out of the body and takes on a
visible form such as that of an
insect (a housefly or a moth)
or a small animal like a lizard.
 That is why lolas are always
telling their children “to eat
even just a little before going
to bed.” For if the child’s
dungan “gets hungry at night,
it might go to the pot of rice in
the kitchen and be mistaken
for an insect.” And be killed.
 The dungan may leave the
body voluntarily as when the
person us asleep, according to
the Bisayans.
 When a person can see
himself in his dreams it
means that his “other self”
has left the physical body.
Among the ancient Filipinos it
was deeply impressed that a
person who was asleep should
not be awakened abruptly.
 Thus a slumbering person is
first called softly and
gradually louder and louder to
give the soul a chance to
return to the body.
 The dungan’s travel outside
the body should be free from
accidents.
 It could get trapped in a jar or
be poured out with liquid from
a vessel. Only when the soul
has safely returned home
would the owner be able to
wake up.
 Whatever happens to the
dungan happens to the
physical body as well. It is
also believed that another
cause for the voluntary
withdrawal of the soul is when
the body is badly maltreated
(Magos 1986).
 According to E. Arsenio
Manuel the folk believe that a
soul can leave the body
involuntarily too (1989).
 Among the people of
Alaminos, Laguna, when a
child gets frightened it is
believed that the kaluluwa
departs from the body.
 The babysitter or the mother
shows her concern by calling
the child’s soul back, saying
“Uli, uli, kalagyo, Maria,
magbalik ka sa bahay.” (Come
bac, come back,
namesake/soul of Maria,
return to your home/body”)
The child becomes normal
again the moment the
kaluluwa rejoins the body.
 Another involuntary departure
of the soul happens when it is
lured or captured by bad
spirits or engkantu.
 Among the Bisayans it may be
imprisoned, they say, in a
spirit cave guarded by old Tan
Mulong whose spirit dog has
one mammary gland and two
genitals.
 If the imprisonment is
temporary the person gets
listless or sick, in which case
the dungan has to be lured
out by a skillful shaman.
 If it is too deep in the cave
(such as in the third or fourth
compartment), the person
dies, says Magos. Sickness is
the temporary loss of the soul.
Its permanent loss is death.
 The dungan is ethereal –
something light and airy since
it travels with the air or the
wind.
 Prior to its entry and
habitation of a human body,
the dungan is believed to
inhabit the region above the
surface of the earth together
with other dungan.
 It awaits the time when it can
enter a body. The dungan
then takes a special interest
in the “unborn” being, usually
a relative, which it has chosen
to inhabit.
 The Bukidnons believe that
the soul or makatu already
exists before a child’s birth
but that is separate frm its
body.
 In a pregnancy ritual a
miniature cradle is hung over
the place where the pregnant
mother sleeps.
 This is where the soul of the
unborn baby is supposed to
sleep before it joins the infant
at birth (Unabia 1986).
 The Bisayans believe the soul
or dungan is not located in
any specific part of the body.
 It is also believed to grow
proportionately with the
person’s body.
 It is normally weak at the
baby’s birth, that is why
attractive babies are said to
be susceptible to usug, that is
the unintentional transfer of
disturbing vapors of a strong
body to a weak one by
holding, talking or looking at
the weaker one (Magos 1986).
 For this reason the dungan
needs protection and nurture.
 Soul-nature, the folk believe,
means the performance of
age-old spirit rituals many of
which are still followed in the
provinces today. Examples of
these are birth, illness and
death rituals consisting of
trances, prayers and animal
sacrifices.
 An adult person with a
healthy dungan properly
lodged in his physical body
should have bodily health and
well-being, intelligence and
good sense (Magos 1986).
 The Bisayan dungan has a
secondary meaning of
“willpower.” A strong dungan
is the intellectual and
psychological capacity to
dominate or persuade others
to one’s way of thinking.
 A person with a lot of
willpower is said to “have a
strong dungan.” Constant
companionship (sometimes
under the same roof) of two
people may lead to a spiritual
competition between the two
dungan and the defeat (and
sickness) of the one with the
weaker dungan (Magos 1986).
 At death the dungan leaves
the body via the nose, eyes,
ears and other orifices and
eventually goes with the air or
the wind towards the upper
regions.
 There it waits until it can find
another body to enter. The
Bagobos believe that when the
throbbing of the skull cap
ceases, the soul exits through
what used to be the fontanel.
 The Negritos believe that the
soul can exit through any
parts including the big toe.
TOPIC 5:
THE POLITICAL SELF
“Caring for myself is not self-
indulgence, it is self-
preservation, and that is an act
of political warfare.” – Audre
Lorde
A. Who is a Filipino?
Article IV Section 1 of the 1987
Constitution (Official Gazette Republic of
the Philippines) states that you are a
Filipino citizen if:
a. You were born in the Philippines;
b. Your parents are citizens of the
Philippines;
c. You were born before January 17, 1973,
of Filipino mothers, who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of
majority; and
d. You are naturalized in accordance with
law.
Being a Filipino is not reflected by
citizenship alone. The values and traits must
also be manifested.
B. Values and Traits of a Filipino
Filipinos have their own
trademark.
When asked to describe who is
a Filipino, there are adjectives
or unique descriptions that are
automatically attached to them.
Some of the cultural values are:
1. Utang na Loob – This is a way of
showing gratitude for a favour or
assistance extended to a person, such
debt can never be fully paid and the
obligation can last for generations. It is
expected that when the grantor asks for
help, the debtor needs to return the
favour with no excuses.
2. Hiya – Filipinos are generally
dependent on what other people will
think or say about them. Social
approval, acceptance by a group and
belonging to a group play a vital role in
their life. Expressions such as
“nakakahiya,” “ano na lang ang
sasabihin nila” are oftentimes heard
from them:
3. Bahala Na – Filipinos have the
tendency to utter this expression
especially if they are about to perform a
difficult task or if they have exhausted all
possible efforts in performing a task.
This shows their belief that someone up
there will take care of the rest for things
that they are in little or no control at all.
4. Bayanihan – This term comes from
the word “bayan” which means nation,
town or community. This is a Filipino trait
of helping others without remuneration.
This is a communal trait which shows
favourable deed towards one another in
the community
5. Compadre System – It is expected
that friends over non-acquaintance are
given priority to be given a favour such
as job placement, promotion and the
like.(Panopio, Corder-McDonald, & of my parents;
Raymundo, 1995); (David & Macaraeg,
2010)
C. Role of Family, School,
Church, Peer Group and Media in
the Development of a Filipino
Identity?
1. Family – The family which is the most
basic unit of society is the first world of a
child. Here, the child develops the initial
sense of self, his/her first place of
indoctrination.
2. School – The school which is the first
formal education of a child continues
whatever was instilled by the family
during preschool age. Since most of the
waking time of the child is spent in the
school, values instilled at home are then
further crystallized. In the Philippines,
for a person finishing a degree, at least
seventeen years are spent in the school,
hence educational institution
significantly play in molding a person’s
identity.
3. Church – The child is spiritually
influenced by the church teachings. The
learnings one gets from the church
manifest on one’s views and actions to
circumstances in life.
4. Peer group – The cliché “tell me who
your friends are and I will tell you who
you are” explains how peer influence
each other. Generally, the opinion of one
becomes the stand of the whole group
and vice versa, hence the statement,
“one for all, all for one.”
5. Media – Filipinos are well-versed on
media information. Findings oPOSSf
Adel (2019) reveal that an average of
four hours and 12 minutes is spent on
social media platforms. This record
doubles the global average of two hours
and 16 minutes. Filipinos are also
regarded as world’s heaviest internet
users.
Check This!
Play and let the students sing
the Patriotic Oath
Patriotic Oath
I love the Philippines.
It is the land of my birth;
It is the home of my people.
It protects me and helps me to
be strong, happy and useful.
In return, I will heed the counsel
I will obey the rules of my
school;
I will perform the duties of a
patriotic, law-abiding citizen; I
will serve my country
unselfishly and faithfully
I will be a true Filipino in
thought, in word, and in deed.
THE MATERIAL SELF
1. The Self and our Possession
 The things we possess
define who we are.
 They manifest our being,
our personality our “self.”
 In fact they are a great
measure on our level of
either happiness or
loneliness.
Comments such as:
 “buti ka pa” (good for you)
 “sana all” (hope everybody),
 “buti na lang nakabili ako”
(good enough I was able to
buy one),
  “cannot wait to use this,”
are expressions of
satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
In a recent study, findings
revealed that:
 that lower-class students
showed high materialism
tendencies to
compensate for self-
esteem (Lia, Lua, & Xiaa,
2018).
 the study on influential
mechanism of materialism
on personal well-being
showed that materialism
has negative impact on a
person’s subjective well-
being and depression
 furthermore, materialism
influences personal well-
being via psychological
needs satisfaction (Wang,
Liu, Jiang, & Song, 2017).
Take note:
 Dependence on our
possession as definition of
ourselves are reflected on
how we purchase, care,
and worry, for the things
that we have including
the effort exerted in
acquiring them.
 The brand, color, or quality
of bags, perfumes, wrist
watches, gadgets, books,
shoes and other
possessions we have are
reflections of who we are.
 it is not the capacity to
buy, but the interest to
possess and the priority
set in having those
possessions
 The cliché, “tell me who your
friends are and I will tell you who
you are” can be translated to “tell
me what you possess and I will
tell you where you are obsessed”
The significance of the things we
possess do not lie on the thing
itself but on the memory ascribed
to it.
For instance:
- you bought the bag during your
first anniversary,
- it was a gift to yourself;
- a ring you purchased which
reminds you of a faithful friend;
- a brand of watch which
reminds you of the time spent
with your first boyfriend;
- purchasing the same brand of
perfume reminds you of a long
lost friend.
Sentimental value is greatly
valued by many hence the
difficulty in giving them up or
foregoing them.
Hoarding disorder is
characterized by the acquisition
and retention of possessions up
to the extent of impairing a
person’s life, regardless of the
value of the items (Christopher,
Moulding, & Knight, 2017).
2. Consumer Culture
 Consumer culture refers
to a marketing strategic
planning theory that
focuses on the relationship
consumers have with
certain goods and services.
 It essentially considers
consumer behavior to
certain products.
Entrepreneurs would look
for ways in order to provide
the items desired by
consumers.
 It helps target groups of
individuals who share the
same interest, desire and
need for a certain product
or services.
 Significant predictors of
materialism were celebrity
endorsement, peer group,
and TV advertisement.
 Moreover, materialism is
the significant predictor of
compulsive buying
behavior (Islama, Weia,
Sheikhb, Hameeda, &
Azamc, 2017)
The following are the signs:
 being a shopaholic,
 a panic buyer,
 buying the latest gadget,
 waiting for the latest
gadget to be out in the
market,
  competing with peers in
acquiring new products,
 buying even if it is not
necessary,
 seeking happiness in
possessing expensive
brands,
 and always desiring for
more.
 People at times are more
interested on what the
brand says and not on its
usefulness.
 They buy signature
products because the
brand speaks of the quality
of life they enjoy.
 People buy because they
are driven by the status
symbol attributed to the
things they have which in
turn favorably influences a
higher self-esteem.
1. Biological:
Hypothlamus: “I
need that”
Prefrontal Cortex:
Correct! It’s necessary
Amydala: I relate to the functional
want this
Prefrontal Cortex: Ok
2. Psychological:
a. Sigmund Freud’s concept of Id
(pleasure principle)
b. Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs
If you plan on being anything
less than you are capable of
being, you will probably be
unhappy all the days of your life.
A musician must make a music,
an artist must paint, a poet must
write, if he is to be ultimately at
peace with himself.
- Abraham Maslow
MARLOWS HIERARCHY OF
NEEDS
1. Biological & Physiological
Needs
2. Safety needs
3. Love and belongingness needs
4. Esteem Needs
5. Cognitive Needs
6. Aesthetic Needs
7. Self-actualization Needs
8. Transcendence Needs
FUNCTIONS OF MATERIAL
POSSESSIONS
 Instrumental Functions
properties of a product. For
example, a person bought
a van for family and
business use.
 Social Symbolic
Functions signify personal
qualities, social standing,
group affiliation, gender
role. For instance buying
an iPhone instead of
Samsung, Oppo, Huawei,
Vivo, or Cherry mobile
phones.
 Goods and possessions
are used to fill in or to
compensate for the
person lacks. (E.g. Even
though you are not too
smart or not qualified, so
long as you wear an
expensive watch, an
high-class pair of shoes
and you have the latest
model of cellphone.
 Reflect: Is it for real that
a person would feel good
about herself/himself if
he/she has an expensive
set of clothes? Car? Bag?
  Categorical Functions
refer to the extent to which
material possessions may
be used to communicate
group membership and
status. Example is buying
or renting condo unit in
Makati City.
 Self-expressive Functions
reflect a person’s unique
qualities, values or
attitudes. There are people
who may represent
themselves by collecting
objects with a Hello Kitty
brand. Others may express
their favorite color through
the color of their clothes,
accessories, shoes etc.
The purchase and use of material
goods depends on its specific
function and oftentimes people
may be reluctant to admit that
material things fulfill symbolic
and affective rather than
instrumental functions.
3 Dimensions or Orienting
Values (Richins, 1991)
1.Acquisition centrality :
materialists tend to place
possessions and the process of
acquiring possessions at the
center of their lives.
2.Acquisition as the pursuit of
happiness : materialists tend to
view their possessions and their
acquisition as a means of
providing the materialist with
some level of personal well-being
or satisfaction with their lives.
3.Possession-defined success :
materialists tend to base their
own and others’ success on the
number and quality of
possessions.
AS a person grows older…
•An aging person would wish
that whatever defines who
he/she is would stay with
her/him—gadgets, photos,
jewelries, appliances
•Sentimentality, memories of
friends and experiences…photo
albums give a sense of continuity
What to give or leave those who
will be left behind: accentuating
portions of their personal
histories for which they wish to
be remembered.
3 Strategies–
1.Solidifying identities –a
period of intense self-reflection,
heightened life review process
2.Accumualting artifacts –
objects that represent the
person, her accomplishments,
talents, journeys, sentiments.
3.Distributing artifacts –wills
and testaments
UNIT 3
Managing and Caring for The Self
“Self-care is giving the world the
best of you, instead of what is left of
you.”
- Katie
Reed
Learning To Become A Better
Student
 Learning to become a better
student is learning to study
smarter, not harder.
 When you study effectively,
you apply certain techniques
of time management, study
habits, self-discipline and
self-efficacy.
 Each of these techniques will
be learned in this topic. Let us
first begin with self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy
 is a construct anchored from
the Social Cognitive Theory of
Albert Bandura.
 It is associated with self-
confidence.
 Self-efficacy refers to an
individual’s belief in his or her
capacity to execute behaviors
necessary to produce specific
performance attainments.
 It reflects confidence in the
ability to exert control over
one’s own motivation,
behavior and social
environment.
 When developed, self-efficacy
positively affects all aspects of
human life.
  One possesses self-efficacy
when he/she forms positive
thoughts about
himself/herself.
 Positive self-thoughts build
our self-esteem and create in
us the inner strength to take
control of social situations.
Mastery experience
 Savor your mastery
experiences, but the key to
mastery is approaching life
with dedicated efforts and
experimenting with realistic
but challenging goals.
 According to Bandura (1997),
Easy success with little effort
can lead us to expect rapid
results, which can in turn,
make us easily succumbed to
failure
 Experiencing failure is
important so we can build
resilience to it.
 This is done by treating failure
as an opportunity to learn and
a chance to reach competence
with a different approach.
Vicarious experience
 Choosing role models who
demonstrate self-efficacious
behavior can help you develop
similar behavior.
 Priming or role-modeling is a
way of addressing
ambivalence, which is a
common problem among
young people like you.
 Ambivalence puts you into a
state of uncertainty when you
make difficult decisions.
 Contemplating on what your
role model has done to
achieve success can help you
build competence and
mastery skills.
 Seeing people similar to
oneself succeed with
consistent effort, raises the
observers’ belief in their own
abilities to succeed (Bandura,
2008).
 Role models do not
necessarily come from your
social environment, the
internet and digital resources
can provide windows into the
lives of many inspiring
models.
 However, the potency of the
persuasion depends on the
credibility, trustworthiness
and expertise of the
persuader.
Social Persuasion
 Social persuasion is about
having others directly
influence one’s self-efficacy.
 While social modeling refers to
the observation of a role-
model, social persuasion is
about having others directly
influence you by providing
opportunities for mastery
experiences in a safe manner.
 In line with social modeling,
social persuasion is choosing
the right mentor.
 When competency builds and
positive self-beliefs are
formed, self-efficacy becomes
self-fulfilling prophecy.
Emotional States
 Emotional states or
physiological states are also
sources of efficacy
information.
 Powerful emotional arousal
such as anxiety can effectively
alter individual’s beliefs about
their capabilities.
 People may view a state of
arousal as an energizing
factor that can contribute to a
successful performance, or
they may view their state of
arousal as completely
disabling.
How To Improve Your Self-efficacy:
By: Madhuleena Roy Chowdhury
1. Set your goals above your
abilities.
 In setting your goals, keep in
mind your three personal
zones - your panic zone,
comfort zone and stretch
zone.
Your panic zone
 constitutes everything that is
outside your abilities.
 Trying to do such things will
decrease your self-efficacy and
might lead to panic.
Your comfort zone
  are all things that you like to
do.
 Being in your comfort zone
allows you to do things
skillfully.
 By staying in your comfort
zone, you may maintain your
self-efficacy but you might not
be able to improve it.
 If you continuously stay on
your comfort zone, you might
not be able to explore
opportunities for growth.
Your stretch zone
 is where you are supposed to
be.
 You stretch zone consists of
all things that are challenging
but possible to achieve.
 These are the things within
your reach yet make you feel
uncomfortable.
 Being in your stretch builds
your self-efficacy.
 You need to set goals above
your abilities to build your
self-confidence.
 Achieving high goals can do
wonders to your self-efficacy
2. Simplify your goals into small
pieces
 People with low self-efficacy
imagine that tasks are harder
than they are.
 Hence, they do not make an
effort or even plan to complete
it.
 When this becomes a cycle,
the goals or plans that you
have set for yourself remain
as a plan.
 Tasks are harder if you fail to
make the few steps to
complete them.
 The core to developing your
confidence in building your
skills is to learn how to break
your goals into smaller pieces.
 What does this mean? Learn
to cut from your list the
unessential ones and focus on
the more manageable ones.
 Select those that will make
you feel comfortable and
confident in reaching
3. Focus on the main goals.
 It was emphasized earlier on
that to develop self-efficacy,
you need to set your goals and
simplify them.
 If you were to improve self-
efficacy, try to look at your
bigger goals and make a plan.
 But before making a plan,
believe in your abilities first.
 A person with high self-
efficacy will identify his/her
priorities and works hard to
achieve the main goal.
4. Think positive
 Keeping this attitude will help
you overcome all obstacles.
This is not like being like
“superman” or “wonder
woman” but it is how you can
reframe negative thoughts
into positive ones.
5. Take control of your life.
Improving One’s Study Habits:
If you want to succeed in school, try
to apply the following techniques:
1. Plan when you are going
to study.
 Set a fixed schedule for
studying. Students who
whimsically and sporadically
study do not perform well as
those who have set a study
schedule. Even if you are all
caught up in your studies,
following a schedule will help
you manage your time well.
2. Never cram.
Successful students typically space
their work schedule into shorter
periods of time. Spacing your study
sessions will reduce the risk of
forgetting during written
examinations.
3. Set a specific for each study
session.
Simply studying without direction is
not effective. You need to know what
exactly you want to accomplish each
study session. Each specific study
objective must in harmony with
your overall academic goal.
4. Never procrastinate your
planned study session.
Successful students Do Not
Procrastinate. Procrastination leads
to rushing and rushing
consequently leads to errors.
5. Start with the most difficult
subject.
When you give more time in
studying the most difficult subject,
it would be faster to work on the
less difficult ones; thus enabling you
to complete the work.
6. Make sure you are not
distracted while studying.
Free yourself from any form of
distraction. When you are distracted
while studying, you will lose your
train of thought and unable to
focus. Both will lead to poor and
ineffective study habits.
7. Join study groups.
Working in groups will benefit you
in three ways:
1) get help from others when
you are struggling to
understand a concept,
2) complete assignments more
quickly,
3) teach others.
Effective students use groups
effectively.
8. Review your notes, schoolwork
and assignments over the
weekend.
Reviewing what you have learned for
the week over the weekend will
make your long-term-memory
system work more efficiently.
Our long-term memory system
keeps information for longer storage
and use.
Forgetting is less likely to happen
during examinations when
information are stored in our long-
term memory.
THE DIGITAL SELF
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF
“Overloading attention shrinks
mental control. Life immersed in
digital distractions a near constant
cognitive overload. And that
overload wears out self- control.” –
Daniel Goleman
 Your digital self is the
personality you use when
you’re online.
 Some of you at this point
maybe maintaining one or
more online identities that are
distinct from your “real world”
selves; or if not, some of you
may have a single online self
that is more or less the same
as the one they live in the real
world.
I, ME, MYSELF AND MY USER ID
ONLINE IDENTITY
Given that your online behavior
makes a huge impact on how you
present your digital self, it’s
important to always use social
media with care and consistency—
always make yourself aware of how
your personal brand can be affected
by what you say and post.
Always assume that potential
people will often perform an online
search, so make sure that
everything they find about you is
positive and professional.
SELECTIVE SELF PRESENTATION
AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
 Let’s face it, like Sasha in the
episode you watched, most
often you try to impress
others – to put your best foot
forward, to try to look good
and always into new trends,
and to always get people to
like you even if it means you
need to lie, to pretend and to
create fictitious self of yours.
 However, selective self-
presentation and impression
management is very important
in the development and
maintenance of your social
relationships, and it is
critically important for you to
gain self-confidence and pride.
 But your success in social
relationships and your
triumph as a person requires
a delicate balance of self
presentation and impression
management.
 It is with this reason that you
need to monitor and control
how you appear to others.
 But never forget that you also
need to be straightforward
and ‘authentic’.
 ON THE OTHER SIDE OF THE
DISCUSSION
◦ IMPACT AND BOUNDARIES OF
ONLINE INTERACTIONS ON THE
SELF
◦ As digital natives, the emergence
of gadgets and your frequent
online acts are known to have
been interfering your daily lives to
a huge extent.
◦ You almost rely fully on modern
technologies to accomplish any
task. Your social media account
is a face of modern technology
that found its way in your life,
which for sure have both positive
and negative effects on you.
◦ The next activity will give you a
glimpse on some of the negative
impacts online undertakings
bring into our lives.

The Sexual Self

Part 1
“Sex is something you do.
Sexuality is something you are.”
– Anna Freud
Sexual self-concept refers to the
totality of yourself as a sexual being,
including positive and negative
concepts and feelings.
3 Dimensions of Sexual self concept
( according to theorists )
 Sexual Self-Esteem
 Sexual Depression, and
 Sexual Preoccupation
sexual self-concept may be a good
indicator of what kinds of
relationships we tend to get into,
and how we tend to behave within
relationships, with an emphasis on
sexual satisfaction.
DEVELOPMENT OF PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY SEXUAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Primary Sexual Characteristics
 are the physical
characteristics directly
involved in reproduction, such
as the sex organs.
 sex organs show a major
physical change during
puberty – its growth and
development make up the
primary sexual
characteristics.
 Primary sexual characteristics
are there from birth (for
example, penises vs. vaginas).
Male Reproductive Organ
 The male gonads (testes),
which are located in the
scrotum (sac), outside the
body, are only approximately
10% of their mature size at
the age of fourteen years.
 Rapid growth occurs for a
year or two, after which
growth slows down; the testes
are fully developed by the age
of twenty or twenty-one.
 The penis accelerates in
growth shortly after the rapid
growth of the testes begins.
 At first, the growth is seen in
length, followed by a gradual
increase in circumference.
 Nocturnal emissions (wet
dreams) are spontaneous
orgasms during sleep that
includes ejaculation for a
male.
 This can be seen when boys
have a sexually exciting
dream, when they have a full
bladder, are constipated,
when wearing tight
undergarments, or when they
are too warmly covered.
Female Reproductive Organ
 For the female: the
ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, cervix, vaginal
canal, Bartholin’s and
Skenes glands, vagina,
clitoris, and clitoral hood
are all considered as sex
organs.
 All parts of the female
reproductive system grow
during puberty, but in
different rates.
 The uterus weighs 5.3
grams with the average
eleven- or twelve-year-old
girl; by the age of sixteen,
the average weight is 43
grams.
 the sex organs grow
rapidly.
 The menarche, or first
menstrual flow, is the first
real sign of sexual
maturation in girls
 This starts a series of
regular discharges of
blood, mucus, and
broken-down cell tissue
from the uterus that
occurs every 28 days until
the menopause, in the late
forties or early fifties.
Secondary Sexual
Characteristics
The appearance of secondary sexual
characteristics makes one “sexually
appealing”.
BOYS
 Hair
Pubic hair appears about one
year after the testes and penis
have started to increase in
size. Axillary and facial hair
appears when the pubic hair
has almost completed its
growth, as does body hair. At
first, all hair is scanty, lightly
pigmented, and fine in
texture. Later it becomes
darker, coarser, more
luxuriant, and slightly kinky.
 Skin
The skin becomes coarser,
less transparent, and sallow
in color, and the pores
enlarge.
 Glands
The sebaceous, or oil-
producing, glands in the skin
 enlarge and become more
active, which may cause acne.
The apocrine glands in the
armpits start to function, and
perspiration increases as
puberty progresses.
 Muscles
The muscles increase
markedly in size and strength,
thus giving shape to the arms,
legs, and shoulders.
 Voice
Voice changes begin after
some pubic hair has
appeared. The voice becomes
husky and later drops in
pitch, increases in volume,
and acquires a pleasant tone.
Voice breaks are common
when maturing is rapid.
 Breast Knots
Slight knobs around the male
mammary glands appear
between the ages of twelve
and fourteen. These last for
several weeks and then
decreases in number and size.
GIRLS
 Hair
Pubic hair appears after hip
and breast development is
well underway. Axillary hair
begins to appear after the
menarche, as does facial hair.
Body hair appears on the
limbs late in puberty. All hair
except facial hair is straight
and slightly pigmented at first
and then becomes more
luxuriant, coarser, darker,
and slightly kinky.
 Skin
The skin becomes coarser,
less transparent, and sallow
in color, and the pores enlarge
 Glands
The sebaceous and apocrine
glands become more active as
puberty progresses. Clogging
of the sebaceous glands can
cause acne, while the
apocrine glands in the
armpits produce perspiration,
which is especially heavy and
pungent just before and
during menstrual period.
 Muscles
The muscles increase in size
and strength, especially in the
middle of puberty and toward
the end, thus giving shape to
the shoulders, arms, and legs.
 Voice
The voice becomes fuller and
more melodious. Huskiness
and breaks in the voice are
rare among girls.
 Breasts
Shortly after the hips start to
enlarge, the breasts begin to
develop. The nipples enlarge
and protrude and, as the
mammary gland develops, the
breast become larger and
rounder.
 Hips
The hips become wider and
rounder as a result of the
enlargement of the pelvic bone
and the development of
subcutaneous fat.
Sexual awakening takes place
through the different parts of
your body where they lead to
sexual stimulation due to
their sensitivity to touch.
Erogenous Zones Of The
Human Body
– sensitive areas on the body that
cause sexual arousal when they are
touched
FEMALE EROGENOUS ZONES
1. Clitoris – this is the female body
part contributing most to sexual
arousal. It is extremely sensitive due
to nerve endings. Research shows
that stimulating the clitoris is the
fastest and easiest way for many
women to achieve orgasm through
pressure and vibration.
2. Vagina – it is where the “G-spot”
is located. The interior of the vagina
contain nerve endings, and women
report that deep stimulation leads to
more intense orgasms. The outer
edge of the vagina, on the other
hand, tends to respond to light
touch.
3. Cervix – located at the lower end
of the uterus, has its own feel-good
nerve pathways. In fact, some
research suggests that the vagina,
clitoris, and cervix all respond
separately and distinctly to sexual
stimuli. Nerves in the cervix respond
most to pressure stimulation, but
light touch has been shown to elicit
a response as well
4. Mouth and Lips – surveys found
kissing to be more important in
relationship-building than in sexual
arousal. Studies suggest that many
women rank the lips and mouth
highly as erogenous areas.
5. Neck - according to a large
international survey of women, both
the nape and back of the neck are
among the top 10 erogenous zones.
One study found that the neck is
very sensitive to light touch,
especially among people with low
body fat. Another study found that
women with spinal cord injury can
get pretty turned on by neck
stimulation alone.
6. Breasts and Nipples – both men
and women have breasts for
evolutionary purposes especially
women; and they play a role in
sexual arousal as well. Nipple
stimulation sets fireworks off in the
same region of the brain that
processes sensations from the
clitoris and vagina. Just as with the
clitoris, pressure and vibration
stimulate them.
7. Ears – are super sensitive to
touch, probably due to a large
number of nerve endings
MALE EROGENOUS ZONES
1. Penis - both survey and lab-
based scientific experiments
demonstrate that penile stimulation
significantly contributes to sexual
satisfaction. And while this can be a
sensitive subject, circumcision
doesn’t appear to decrease
sensation or sexual satisfaction.
2. Mouth and Lips – they are highly
sensitive; male lips respond to light
touch, temperature, or pressure.
Kissing also triggers a release of
hormones involved in intimacy –
especially oxytocin, the so-called
“love hormone.”
3. Scrotum
- it is one of men’s most notable
erogenous zones. Lots of
nerves mean that this area is
super-sensitive to touch.
4. Neck – while touching the neck
doesn’t appear to be quite as much
of a turn-on for men as for women,
it’s still ranked pretty highly on the
erogenous zones list. The neck has
great sensitivity to low-frequency
vibration, making it a prime spot for
light erotic touch.
5. Nipples – as with women, men
rank nipples as a definite hot spot.
While male nipples don’t appear to
serve any real purpose (they’re
basically by-products of evolution),
that doesn’t mean they’re totally
useless – they still have plenty of
nerve endings.
6. Perineum – is the area between
the anus and scrotum and is
hooked up to perineal nerves, which
help convey sensations of sexual
pleasure from the genitals to the
brain.
7. Ears – highly sensitive to touch
because of a high number of
sensory receptors on the skin, the
ears are ranked just behind the
scrotum for body parts that help
men orgasm when touched or
otherwise stimulated.
UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN
SEXUAL RESPONSE
“Falling in love is stronger than
the sex drive” (Fisher, 2005, p.
60).
 Media show numerous
concepts about sex, lust, and
desire, which could be
explicitly or implicitly
embedded in ads, magazines,
movies, TV shows, radio
programs, games, etc.
 The portrayal on sex are left
for the general public to
process. If the audiences are
not high media literate,
concepts of healthy-safe sex,
morality, and even love could
be blurred and become double
standard.
• Sex is also at times
called “love making” giving
 premium to the act being
based on and done out of love.
Science, like it always does,
tries to explain the thing we
call love. Despite the many
efforts, it admits not being
able to identify the exact
reason why we fall in love with
a specific person.
• However, it is able to
give reasonable bases and
glimpses of what happens
inside our brain in the stages
of love. It also gives us tip on
how to keep the chemistry
alive.
Diversity of Sexual
Orientation
 We will always have our
own personal stand, belief,
and preference and it is just
logical to expect others to
have their own. Being able to
respect diversity, can help in
effective, ethical, relational,
and professional
communication.
 Sexual orientation refers
to our sexual preferences
towards males, females, or
both (Cole, 2009; Kin, 2014).
Most of us already have
awareness of the existence of
diverse sexual behaviors due
to a person’s sexual
preference. We may not be
able to fully understand but
we have to give respect.
Gender identity is one’s
concept of being male, female,
both, or neither and is
“entirely determined by
socialization (nurture), not
biological factors (nature)”
(King, 2014, p. 361).
In the acronym LGBT which
stands for lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender,
“LGB” pertains to sexual
orientation” (“Lesbian, gay,”
2018). Below are some types
of sexual orientations:
TYPES OF SEXUAL ORIENTATION
• HOMOSEXUAL (gay/lesbian) -
“Sexually attracted to members
of the same sex” (King, 2014, p.
376)
• BISEXUAL - “Sexually attracted
to people of both sexes” (King,
2014, p. 376)
• HETEROSEXUAL (Straight) -
“Sexually attracted to members
of the opposite sex” (King, 2014,
p. 376)
• PANSEXUAL/OMNISEXUAL -
Can be sexually attracted to
any sex or gender identity
• ASEXUAL - Not sexually
attracted to any sex or gender
The “T” in LGBT, which stands
for transgender or gender non-
conforming, pertains to gender
identity. “Some who do not
identify as either male or
female prefer the term
“genderqueer” (Lesbian, gay,”
2018, para. 2). Below are some
types of gender identity
(“Dimensions of Gender,”
2017):
• CISGENDER / CIS –
“gender identity consistent is
with the sex they were assigned
at birth”
• TRANSGENDER / TRANS
- “gender identity consistent is
with the sex they were assigned
at birth”
• AGENDER - “people who
do not identify with any gender”
• NON – BINARY - •
“people who “do not
identify strictly as a boy or a girl
– they could identify as both, or
neither, or as another gender
entirely”
• A transgender is different
from a transsexual.
• A transsexual is one who
transitions from one sex to
another through undergoing
several surgical procedures.
• Though we may have
experienced “having feelings
towards or fantasies about
people of the same sex, it doesn’t
mean you are gay or bisexual, it
can be part of emerging sexual
awareness” (Code, 2009, p. 12).
• Sexual orientation,
sexual behavior, and gender
identity are independent
concepts. All could be fluid or
changing.
 • We may have the
freedom to choose to whom we
engage sex with and with how
many, but if we are not careful
and discerning, we cannot and
will never be able to choose or
limit the number of unpleasant
irreversible long term
consequences it can bring to
our live, to people who matter
most to us, and even to the
society we are part of.
Desire and sexuality cannot
be separated.
Libido is a person's overall
sexual drive or desire for
sexual activity.
Libido is influenced by
biological, psychological, and
social factors (Wikipedia).
Understanding your sexual self
will lead you to a better view
of your sexuality – making you
responsible and educated with
your actions and decisions.
The Brain
Its Role and Function in the
Human Sexual Response
• Our brains are involved
in all steps of sexual behavior
and in all its variations, from
feelings of sexual desire and
partner choice, to arousal,
orgasm and even post-coital
cuddling (Clark, 2014).
• The brain impacts the
sequence of physical and
emotional changes that occur
as a person participates in
sexually stimulating activities
(Wiley, 2015).
• The brain is responsible
in translating nerve impulses
from the skin into pleasurable
sensations.
• It controls nerves and
muscles used during sexual
activity. It regulates the
release of hormones, which
are believed to be the
physiological origin of sexual
desire.
4 hierarchically organized,
interacting levels of BRAIN
1. The brain stem
The evolutionarily oldest
structure; controls primitive
responses associated with
sexual behavior and facial
expressions; contains circuits for
many emotions, including
love/attachment, joy, and sexual
excitement (Lewis, 2005).
2. The hypothalamus
It controls most body systems
by regulating the production of
hormones in response to both
internal and environmental events;
it controls the pituitary gland, which
is the master gland that controls all
the other endocrine glands in the
body; the hypothalamus plays a key
role in connecting the endocrine
system with the nervous system.
3. The limbic system
It mediates learning, memory, and
emotion; it contains the:
a. Amygdala – helps generate
associations between experiences
and emotions – Was this an
experience that felt good, that
resulted in a good meal, or a loving
touch? Or was this an experience
that produced fear or pain?
b. Hippocampus – located near the
amygdala, it plays an important role
in organizing and storing memories
for events.
*** The amygdala and hippocampus
seem to work together, so that
emotions associated with past
experiences influence the storage
and retrieval of specific memories.
The Cerebral Cortex is made up of
tightly packed neurons and is the
wrinkly, outermost layer that
surrounds the brain.
It is also responsible for higher
thought processes including speech
and decision making.
The cortex is divided into four
different lobes:
a. frontal lobe – for cognitive
functions and control of voluntary
movement/activity
b. parietal lobe – processes
information about temperature,
taste, touch and movement
c. temporal lobe – processes
memories, integrating them with
sensations of taste, sound, sight
and touch
d. occipital lobe – primarily
responsible for vision
The Sexual Response Cycle
Your sexual motivation –
libido, is your overall sexual
drive or desire for sexual
activity.
• This is affected by biological,
psychological, and social
factors.
• A person’s ability to engage in
sexual behaviors is controlled
and influenced by
• sex hormones,
• social factors –
work and family,
• internal
psychological
factors –
personality and
stress,
• medical
conditions,
• medications,
• pregnancy, and
• relationship
issues.
According to William Masters
and Virginia Johnson, the
SEXUAL RESPONSE CYCLE is
a model that describes the
physiological responses that
take place during sexual activity.
According to the cycle, it
consists of four phases:
1. Excitement – the
intrinsic (inner)
motivation to pursue sex
arises; it includes
increased heart rate,
blood pressure, and
muscle tension;
2. Plateau – sets the stage
for orgasm; heart rate
quickens, blood pressure
rises, muscle tension
increases, and breathing
becomes faster;
3. Orgasm – the release of
tension; also known as
the “climax or peak” of
the sexual excitement;
heart rate increases
dramatically, blood
pressure rise, breathing
becomes rapid and
shallow, muscles
throughout the body
contract, and perspiration
is evident; there is an
intense, pleasant, or
pleasurable psychological
feeling associated with
the release of sexual
tension; and
4. Resolution – the return
to the unaroused state
before the cycle begins
again; heart rate, blood
pressure, and breathing
return to normal state,
and muscle tension
decreases
Now that you are aware of your
body’s sexual responses and
behaviors, your knowledge of
these intimate reactions should
lead you to your appreciation of
your body, mind, and sexuality.
Ways of Dealing with Sexual
Energies
• Sexual energy is a life-
energy.
• Your sexual impulses have
the power to influence so
much of what you do, how
you act, and the choices
that you make. It takes
part in your everyday
dealings in the field of
human interaction.
• Sex, as one of the greatest
motivational forces in life,
if not properly controlled,
can lead to great
destruction.
• Knowing your sexual self
is to empower you to put
into good "use" and avoid
"abuse" in all your male
and female relationships
and interactions
• SEX, is not the only
method of releasing your
sexual energy.
You can convert your sexual
energy into productive energy.
The following are ways on how to
deal with your sexual energies:
1. Repression – involves
keeping certain thoughts,
feelings, or urges out of
conscious awareness. The
goal of this is to keep
unacceptable desires or
thoughts out of the
conscious mind in order
to prevent or minimize
feelings of anxiety
*** Repression is subconscious.
2. Suppression – the person
consciously and
deliberately pushes down
any thoughts that leads
to feelings of anxiety.
ex. An older man has sexual
feelings towards a teenager and
quickly suppresses the thought.
***Suppression is conscious.
3. Sublimation - allows us
to act out unacceptable
impulses by converting
these behaviors into a
more acceptable form.
ex. A person experiencing
sexual urges/thoughts
might take up sports as a
means of expressing these
forces.
4. Genital satisfaction –
giving in to one’s sexual
desires through sexual
gratification; it includes
sexual intercourse – the
likes of premarital sex,
marital sex, and
extramarital sex.
5. Integration – integrate
one’s sexual energies into
friendships, marriage,
vocation, and all levels of
relationships.
How do we prevent premarital
sex?
• Sex comes with responsibility.
• Premarital sex in young
adults is an act out of curiosity,
making them unaware of the
consequences of this behavior –
committing a mortal sin with
your God, early/unwanted
pregnancy, the gossips and
condemnations from the
community/society, and the risk
of acquiring sexually transmitted
infections or HIV/AIDS.
• Adolescence should be a time
to form oneself as a mature and
responsible individual being, and
not at all a time to rush into
procreation.
So, how do we prevent premarital
sex?
One of the ways to prevent
premarital sex is to start from
educating and empowering yourself
– learning the truths about sex and
evaluating the consequences of
premarital sex.
• In the pleasure of a moment,
you can be blinded by your
sexual desire.
• In the moment of lust and
passion, your future can be
destroyed.
• In the moment of foolishness
and self-gratification, your
bright future can turn into
darkness.
• Sex should be saved as a gift
for marriage.
• “Why save sex for marriage” is
really a question of
understanding God’s purpose
and design for sex.
We can choose to do things God’s
way, and experience the beauty of
His plan, or we can choose to do
things our way, and experience
harm and destruction
(Proverbs 16:25)
The Chemistry Of Love: The Science
Behind Lust, Attraction, And
Companionship
According to anthropology
professor Helen Fisher, there
are three stages of falling
in love.
•
Attraction (Falling in love) –
involves romantic or passionate
love, characterized by euphoria;
physical symptoms of falling in
love include loss of appetite,
inability to sleep, lack of
concentration, wet palms, and
 butterflies in the stomach.
• direction or outcomes expected of
Attachment (Staying together)
- the predominant factor in long-
term relationships. While lust
and attraction are pretty much
exclusive to romantic
entanglements, attachment
mediates friendships, parent-
infant bonding, social cordiality,
and many other intimacies as
well.
• Diversity Of Sexual Behavior
• Sexual Orientation
• a. Heterosexuals - sexually
attracted to people of the
opposite sex; commonly referred
to as straight;
• b. Homosexuals - sexually
attracted to people of their own
sex; gay or lesbian;
• c. Bisexuals - sexually attracted
not exclusively to people of one
particular gender; attracted to
both men and women;
• Gender identity
• a. Transgender - denoting or
relating to a person whose sense
of personal identity and gender
does not correspond with their
birth sex;
• b. Cisgender - denoting or
relating to a person whose sense
of personal identity and gender
corresponds with their birth sex;
Related minorities – intersex,
gathered under the acronyms:
• a. LGBT or LGBTI – lesbian,
gay, bisexual,
transgender/transsexual people,
and sometimes intersex people
UNFINISHED ITONG SEXUAL
SELF, BROWSE NIYO NA LANG
YUNG PPT. IF AYAW NIYO, EDI
WAG.
Unit 3: Topic 2
Setting Goals for Success
“If you want to have a happy life, tie
it to a goal not to people or things.”
- Albert Einstein
Goal setting is our way of
establishing concise and relevant
targets or goals to which oblige us to
perform a certain task at a specific
us.
This chapter will help you set your
own goals to better guide you on the
things you ought to do to attain a
gainful learning experiences.
The Concept of Motivation
 Motivation is defined as
the psychological forces
that determine the
direction of people’s
behavior, their level of
effort and their level of
persistence (Osland, J.,
Kolb, D., Rubin, I., &
Turner, M., 2007).
 It is an internal state that
directs individuals toward
certain goals and
objectives.
 The sources of motivation
are both intrinsic and
extrinsic.
 Intrinsic motivation
brings about happiness
and pleasure from the
things we do.
 We are intrinsically
motivated when we like
doing things even if there
are no material rewards or
incentives that follow.
 Extrinsic motivation
involves performing the
behavior because of the
consequences it brings.
 Money, gifts and other
material rewards are
examples of extrinsic
motivators.
Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
Maslow's theory presents his
hierarchy of needs in a pyramid
shape, with basic needs at the
bottom of the pyramid and more
high-level, intangible needs at the
top. A person can only move on to
addressing the higher-level needs
when their basic needs are
adequately fulfilled.
What Are the 5 Levels of Maslow’s
Hierarchy of Needs?
 Physiological needs: The first
of the id-driven lower needs
on Maslow's hierarchy are
physiological needs. These
most basic human survival
needs include food and water,
sufficient rest, clothing and
shelter, overall health, and
reproduction. Maslow states
that these basic physiological
needs must be addressed
before humans move on to the
next level of fulfillment.
 Safety needs: Next among the
lower-level needs is safety.
Safety needs include
protection from violence and
theft, emotional stability and
well-being, health security,
and financial security.
 Love and belonging needs:
The social needs on the third
level of Maslow’s hierarchy
relate to human interaction
and are the last of the so-
called lower needs. Among
these needs are friendships
and family bonds—both with
biological family (parents,
siblings, children) and chosen
family (spouses and partners).
Physical and emotional
intimacy ranging from sexual
relationships to intimate
emotional bonds are
important to achieving a
feeling of elevated kinship.
Additionally, membership in
social groups contributes to
meeting this need, from
belonging to a team of
coworkers to forging an
identity in a union, club, or
group of hobbyists.
 Esteem needs: The higher
needs, beginning with esteem,
are ego-driven needs. The
primary elements of esteem
are self-respect (the belief that
you are valuable and
deserving of dignity) and self-
esteem (confidence in your
potential for personal growth
and accomplishments).
Maslow specifically notes that
self-esteem can be broken into
two types: esteem which is
based on respect and
acknowledgment from others,
and esteem which is based on
your own self-assessment.
Self-confidence and
independence stem from this
latter type of self-esteem.
 Self-actualization needs:
Self-actualization describes
the fulfillment of your full
potential as a person.
Sometimes called self-
fulfillment needs, self-
actualization needs occupy
the highest spot on Maslow's
pyramid. Self-actualization
needs include education, skill
development—the refining of
talents in areas such as
music, athletics, design,
cooking, and gardening—
caring for others, and broader
goals like learning a new
language, traveling to new
places, and winning awards.
Deficiency Needs vs. Growth
Needs on Maslow’s Hierarchy
 Maslow referred to self-
actualization as a “growth
need,” and he separated it
from the lower four levels on
his hierarchy, which he called
“deficiency needs.”
 According to his theory, if you
fail to meet your deficiency
needs, you’ll experience
harmful or unpleasant
results. Conditions ranging
from illness and starvation up
through loneliness and self-
 doubt are the byproducts of
unmet deficiency needs.
 By contrast, self-actualization
needs can make you happier,
but you are not harmed when
these needs go unfulfilled.
 Thus, self-actualization needs
only become a priority when
the other four foundational
needs are met.
McClelland’s Need Theory.
 McClelland’s theory of needs
is one such theory that
explains this process of
motivation by breaking down
what and how needs are and
how they have to be
approached.
 David McClelland was an
American Psychologist who
developed his theory of
needs or Achievement
Theory of Motivation which
revolves around three
important aspects, namely,
Achievement, Power And
Affiliation.
This motivational theory states that
the needs for achievement, power,
and affiliation significantly
influence the behavior of an
individual, which is useful to
understand from a managerial
context.
Need For Achievement
 The need for achievement as
the name itself suggests is the
urge to achieve something in
what you do. If you are a
lawyer it is the need to win
cases and be recognized, if
you are a painter it is the
need to paint a famous
painting. It is the need that
drives a person to work and
even struggle for the objective
that he wants to achieve.
People who possess high
achievement needs are people
who always work to excel by
particularly avoiding low
reward low-risk situations
and difficult to achieve high-
risk situations.
 Such people avoid low-risk
situations because of the lack
of a real challenge and their
understanding that such
achievement is not genuine.
 They also avoid high-risk
situations because they
perceive and understand it to
be more about luck and
chance and not about one’s
own effort. The more the
achievements they make the
higher their performance
because of higher levels of
motivation
 These people find innovative
clever ways to achieve goals
and consider their
achievement a better reward
than financial ones. They take
calculated decision and
always appreciate feedback
and usually works alone.
 The individuals motivated by
needs for achievement usually
have a strong desire of setting
up difficult objectives and
accomplishing them.
 Their preference is to work in
a results-oriented work
environment and always
appreciate any feedback on
their work.
 Achievement based
individuals take calculated
risks to reach their goals and
may circumvent both high-
risk and low-risk situations.
 They often prefer working
alone. This personality type
believes in a hierarchical
structure derived primarily by
work-based achievements.
Need For Power
 The need for power is the
desire within a person to hold
control and authority over
another person and influence
and change their decision in
accordance with his own
needs or desires.
 The need to enhance their
self-esteem and reputation
drives these people and they
desire their views and ideas to
be accepted and implemented
over the views and ideas over
others.
 These people are strong
leaders and can be best suited
to leading positions.
 They either belong to Personal
or Institutional power
motivator groups.
 If they are a personal power
motivator they would have the
need to control others and an
institutional power motivator
seeks to lead and coordinate a
team towards an end.
 Individuals motivated by the
need for power have a desire
to control and influence
others.
 Competition motivates them
and they enjoy winning
arguments.
 Status and recognition is
something they aspire for and
do not like being on the losing
side.
 They are self-disciplined and
expect the same from their
peers and teams.
 They do not mind playing a
zero-sum game, where, for
one person to win, another
must lose and collaboration is
not an option.
 This motivational type is
accompanied by needs for
personal prestige, and better
personal status.
Need For Affiliation
 The a person to have
interpersonal and social
relation surge of hips with
others or a particular set of
people.
 They seek to work in groups
by creating friendly and
lasting relationships and has
the urge to be liked by others.
 They tend to like collaborating
with others to competing with
them and usually avoids high-
risk situations and
uncertainty
 The individuals motivated by
the need for affiliation
prefer being part of a group.
 They like spending their
time socializing and
maintaining relationships
and possess a strong desire
to be loved and accepted.
 These individuals stick to
basics and play by the books
without feeling a need to
change things, primarily
due to a fear of being
rejected.
 People in this group tend to
adhere to the norms of the
culture in that workplace
and typically do not change
the norms of the workplace
for fear of rejection.
 Collaboration is the way to
work for the competition
remains secondary.
 They are not risk seekers
and are more cautious in their
approach.
 These individuals work
effectively in roles based on
social interactions, for
instance, client service and
other customer interaction
positions.

Goal-Setting Theory
 Goal-setting theory refers to
the effects of setting goals on
subsequent performance.
Researcher Edwin Locke
found that individuals who set
specific, difficult goals
performed better than those
who set general, easy goals.
 Locke proposed five basic
principles of goal-setting:
clarity, challenge,
commitment, feedback, and
task complexity.
Effective goal-setting principles:
Clarity. A clear, measurable goal is
more achievable than one that is
poorly defined. In other words, be
specific! The most effective goals
have a specific timeline for
completion.
Challenge. The goal must have a
decent level of difficulty in order to
motivate you to strive toward the
goal.
Commitment. Put deliberate effort
into meeting this goal. Share your
goal with someone else in order to
increase your accountability to meet
that goal.
Effective goal-setting principles:
Feedback. Set up a method to
receive information on your progress
toward a goal. If losing 30 pounds in
four months turns out to be too
hard, it is better to adjust the
difficulty of your goal mid-way
through the timeline than to give up
entirely.
Task complexity. If a goal is
especially complex, make sure you
give yourself enough time to
overcome the learning curve
involved in completing the task. In
other words, if a goal is really tough,
make sure you give yourself some
padding to give you the best chance
at succeeding
The research on goal-setting
showed the following significant
results:
1) specific goals increase
performance,
2) in the workplace, difficult goals
that are accepted by individuals
result in higher performance,
3) feedback leads to higher
performance than no feedback, and
4) people are committed to goals
that are made public and that they
themselves set.
Goals should be challenging but
feasible. This will encourage
achievement.
Unit III: TOPIC 3
TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S
HEALTH
“The greatest weapon against stress
is our ability to choose one thought
over another”
- William James
Health is the ability to adapt and
manage physical, mental and social
challenges throughout life (WHO,
2001).
It is further defined as a state of
complete physical, mental and
social well-being and not merely the
absence of any disease of infirmary
(WHO, 2001).
To be able to meet the challenges of
student life, one must be physically,
mentally and psychologically fit.
In this chapter, you’ll learn the
different ways on how to take care of
your over-all wellbeing.
LET’S LEARN
Stress is a part of day-to-day living.
Anytime we face a stressor, a
number of physiological responses
kick in.
Known collectively as fight-or-flight
responses, bodily changes such as
increased heart beat and elevated
blood pressure prepare the body to
either face the threat or flee from it.
The sympathetic system also
stimulates the release of a number
of hormones like epinephrine or
norepinephrine that prepares the
body to react.
As noted by Rice (1988), two major
perspectives have influenced our
views of health and illness:
First is THE BIOMEDICAL
TRADITION, which developed over
time as people sought to gain
knowledge about illness and health.
The biomedical tradition arose from
the Hippocratic tradition of humoral
theory of disease and treatment.
However, biomedical theories
focused on anatomy, “germ theory’,
and ultimately genetics in their
attempt to define and understand
illness.
Biomedical model
The biomedical model of medicine
has been around since the mid-19th
century as the predominant model
used by physicians in diagnosing
diseases.
According to the biomedical model,
health constitutes the freedom from
disease, pain, or defect, making the
normal human condition "healthy."
The model's focus on the physical
processes (for example, pathology,
biochemistry and physiology of a
disease) does not take into account
the role of social factors or
individual subjectivity. Unlike the
biopsychosocial model, the
biomedical model does not consider
the diagnosis, which affects the
treatment of the patient, to be the
result of a negotiation between
doctor and patient.
The biomedical model of health
focuses on purely biological factors
and excludes psychological,
environmental, and social
influences. It is considered to be the
leading modern way for health care
professionals to diagnose and treat
a condition in most Western
countries
A second major influence on our
views of health and illness is the
PSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE
(Rice, 1998 cited by Trull,2008).
For centuries, medical literature has
recognized that psychological and
social processes may either cause or
influence illness and disease.
By 1940’s, this broad generalization
was integrated in the field of
psychosomatic medicine.
The biopsychosocial model is an
interdisciplinary model that looks at
the interconnection between biology,
psychology, and socio-
environmental factors.
The model specifically examines how
these aspects play a role in topics
ranging from health and disease
models to human development.
This model was developed by George
L. Engel in 1977 and is the first of
its kind to employ this type of
multifaceted thinking.
The biopsychosocial model has
received criticism about its
limitations, but continues to carry
influence in the fields of psychology,
health, medicine, and human
development.
One application of the
biopsychosocial model within health
and medicine relates to pain, such
that several factors outside an
individual's health may affect
their perception of pain.
For example, a 2019 study linked
genetic and biopsychosocial factors
to increased post-operative shoulder
pain. Future studies are needed to
model and further explore the
relationship between
biopsychosocial factors and pain.

One particular advantage of
applying the biopsychosocial model
to developmental psychology is that
it allows for an intersection
within the nature versus nurture
debate.
This model provides developmental
psychologists a theoretical basis
for the interplay of both
hereditary and psychosocial
factors on an individuals'
development
The Biopsychosocial Model of
Health
This model is an integration of the
biomedical and psychosocial
perspectives.
Biopsychosocial model holds that
illness and health are a function of
biological, psychological and social
influences
We turn now to a discussion on how
stress affects our health
STRESS AND HEALTH
The physiological effect of stress on
the body involves a complex chain of
events.
The stress process as shown by the
Interactionist View holds that the
perception of stress causes the
sympathetic nervous system, a
system responsible for mobilizing
body resource in urgent
situations, to stimulate the
adrenal gland (Ader & Cohen, 2007
cited by Trull,2008)).
This results in the production of
catecholamines (epinephrine and
norepinephrine) whose effects on
the body include increased in heart
rate, rate of respiration, blood flow,
and muscle strength.
Stress also causes the pituitary
gland to release the
adrenocorticotropic hormone
(ACTH), and ACTH stimulates the
adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland
to secrete glucocorticoids.
The most important glucocorticoid
where tress is concerned is cortisol.
Cortisol is a hormone that
mobilizes the body’s sources.
Although responses of the body to
stress can be helpful, severe stress
and prolonged activation of these
systems can have adverse effects on
body organs, mental functions and
the immune system.
Stress can affect the immune
system so that it cannot effectively
destroy viruses, bacteria, tumors
and irregular cells.
Years ago, Ader and Cohen (1975)
presented evidence suggesting that
the nervous system and the immune
system interact and are
interdependent by demonstrating
that immune system responses in
rats could be classically
conditioned.
This initial report eventually led to a
number of studies investigating the
relationship between physiological
factors (reactions to stress) and
immune system response (Brannon
& Feist, 2004 cited by Trull, 2008).
In any case, stress does appear to
be an important influence on health
and illness.
Personality Factors of Health and
illness
Personality characteristics can
directly or indirectly affect health
and illness in many ways.
According to Friedman & Booth-
Kewley, (1987 cited by Trull, 2008)),
the following factors may result from
disease processes:
a) personality features may lead to
unhealthy behaviors;
b) personality may directly affect
disease through physiological
mechanisms;
c) underlying biological variable may
relate to both personality and
disease;
d) several causes and feedback
loops may affect the relationship
between personality and disease.
The most widely studied association
between personality trait/behavior
pattern and illness is that between
Type A behavior and coronary
heart disease (Friedman and
Rosenmann, 1974 cited by Trull,
2008).
These scientists identified a set of
discriminating personality
characteristics and behaviors and
proposed that these constitute a
Type A behavior pattern.
Glass (1977 cited in Trull, 2008)
describes Type A individuals as
those who tend to:
a. Perceive time quickly
b. Show a deteriorating performance
on tasks that require a delayed
responding
c. Work near maximum capacity
even when there is no time deadline
d. Arrive early for appointments
e. Become aggressive and hostile
when frustrated
f. Report less fatigue and fewer
physical symptoms
g. Are intensely motivated to master
their physical and social
environments and to maintain
control.
In an important methodological and
conceptual analysis of the research
examining hostility and health, T.W.
Smith ( cited by Trull, 2009)
presented several theoretical models
that might explain the link between
hostility and health.
The psychophysiological reactivity
model posts that hostile
individuals experience larger
increases in heart rate, blood
pressure, and stress-related
hormones in response to potential
stressors.
This model proposes that hostile
individuals are more likely to
experience stressful psychosocial
environment because they have
higher levels of mistrust and are
scanning their environments for
possible future mistreatment.
Coping With Stress
In the previous topic, we mentioned
that stress is a part of our existence.
It may have some NEGATIVE OR
POSITIVE effect on us. POSITIVE
outcome of stress is called eustress
while its NEGATIVE consequence is
distress
Coping has two functions:
1) manage the problem causing the
distress,
2) to regulate the emotions of
distress (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984
as cited in Michenbaum, 1986, Teh
& Macapagal, 1999)
We all know that people who seem
to be able to handle severe stress
extremely well are resilient.
RESILIENCE is the ability to bounce
back from difficult times with
renewed vigor (Hoeksema, 2007).
Coping with stress involves how one
interprets events.
People who tend to have
pessimistic style are more
vulnerable to stress (Peterson et.al,
1998 cited by Hoeksema, 2014).
PESSIMISM may contribute to poor
health by causing chronic arousal of
the body’s flight or fight response,
resulting in physiological damage.
Moreover, pessimistic outlook may
lead individuals to engage in
unhealthy behaviors.
The two major styles of coping are
avoidance coping and positive
coping.
Avoidance Coping is denying that
you are ill or facing other stresses.
Studies show that avoidance coping
has been linked to several related
problems such as greater pain after
surgery (Rosenberger et.al., 2004
cited by Hoeksema, 2007)), lower
adherence to medical regimens and
subsequently poorer health in HIV
positive individuals (Weaver at.al.,
2005 cited by Hoeksema, 2007)).
In contrast, Expressing Negative
Affect such as talking to someone
about important issues in one’s life
appear to have positive effects on
health.
Additionally, understanding and
finding meaning from life events
reduce the physiological strain
associated with chronic negative
emotions (Hoeksema, 2014).
In contrast, Expressing Negative
Affect such as talking to someone
about important issues in one’s life
appear to have positive effects on
health.
Additionally, understanding and
finding meaning from life events
reduce the physiological strain
associated with chronic negative
emotions (Hoeksema, 2014).
Positive coping strategy on the
other hand involves seeking help or
support from others.
Studies have found that positive
strategies lead to positive health
outcomes on the microlevel
measures such as the immune
system activity to the macrolevel
such as progression of major
diseases (Hoeksema,2014).
Self-Compassion
Self-compassion is a construct
drawn from Buddhist Psychology.
It refers to a way of relating to the
self with kindness (Abrams, 2017).
It is how we treat ourselves with
kindness, warmth and acceptance.
Research has shown that there is a
positive correlation between self-
compassion and well-being.
Self-Compassion
People who have self-compassion
also have greater social
connectedness, emotional
intelligence, happiness and over
all life satisfaction.
Self-compassion has also been
shown to have a negative correlation
with anxiety, depression, shame and
fear of failure.
Ravi Shah (cited by Adams 2017)
believes that self-compassion is
critical for healthy self-esteem
and resilience.
Following are ways of developing
self-compassion (Abrams, 2017)
1. Treat yourself as you would a
small child.
2. Practice mindfulness or being in a
state of nonjudgmental
awareness.
3. Remember that you are not alone.
4. Give yourself permission to be
imperfect.
Unit III: TOPIC 3
TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S
HEALTH
Relax and Soothe Yourself
 We have different ways of
coping with stress.
 One method is through
relaxation techniques.
 Included here are some simple
relaxation techniques that
utilize our five senses of smell,
sight, hearing, taste and
touch.
Try to explore the list and see what
really works for you.
Self-soothing Using Your Sense of
Smell
___Burn scented candles or incense
in your room. Find a scent that is ____________________________________
pleasing to you. ___
___Wear scented oils, perfume, or
cologne that makes you feel happy, Self-Soothing Your Sense of Taste
confident and happy. ___Enjoy your favorite meal.
___Cut out perfumed cards and ___Carry gums, lollipop or candies
carry them with you in your wallet. with you to eat when you are upset.
___Go some place where the scent is ___Drink something soothing such
pleasing to you, like a bakery or a as tea, coffee, or hot chocolate.
restaurant. ___Buy a piece of ripe and juicy
___Bake or cook your own food that fresh fruit and then eat it slowly.
has a pleasing smell. ___Other ideas
___Lie down in the park and smell _____________________________
the grass and outdoor smells.
___Hug someone whose makes you ____________________________________
feel calm. __
___Other
ideas______________________________ Self-Soothing Your Sense of
_____ Touch
___Carry something soft or velvety in
____________________________________ your pocket to touch when you need
________ to.
___Take a hot or cold shower and
Self-Soothing Your Sense of enjoy the feelings of the water falling
Vision on your skin.
___ Go through magazines and ___Get a massage.
books. ___Play with your pat.
___Find a place that is soothing for ___Wear your most comfortable
you to look at, a park or a museum. clothes.
___Go to the bookstore and find a ___Other ideas
collection of photographs or ______________________________
paintings.
___Draw or paint your picture or ____________________________________
work on a coloring book. __
___Carry a picture of someone you
admire or like.
___Other Understanding The Self
ideas______________________________
___ is being
WHO YOU ARE
____________________________________ WHO AM I
_____
I AM… WHO I AM
Self-Soothing Your Sense of
Hearing
___ Listen to soothing music.
___Listen to books on tape or
compact discs.
___Turn on the television and just
listen.
___Listen on a gentle talk show.
___Open your window and listen to
the peaceful sounds outside.
___Listen to a recording of a
relaxation exercise.
___Listen to a sound of trickling
water.
___Other
ideas______________________________
_