During the Sultanate period in India, spanning roughly from the 13th to the 16th century,

agriculture played a pivotal role in the economy and society. This era witnessed significant
developments in agricultural production techniques, crop cultivation, irrigation systems, and land
use practices. The Sultanate rulers recognized the importance of agriculture for the sustenance
of their empire and invested in infrastructure and technology to improve productivity. One
notable innovation was the introduction of Persian wheel (Rahat), a water-lifting device that
facilitated irrigation in areas with limited water sources. This innovation revolutionized
agricultural practices, allowing farmers to cultivate crops more efficiently, especially in arid and
semi-arid regionsThis water-wheel could well claim to be called a water machine because of the
employment of the pin-drum gearing system, which made it possible for it to be worked with
animal power.
. Canal irrigation is described in the sources from the 14th century. The inspiration for the
excavation of canals may have come from central Asia. /Ghiyasuddin Tughluq (1320-25) is
reported to be the fist Sultan to dig canals for promoting agriculture. But it was under Feroz
Tughluq (1351-88), that the biggest network of canals was created in India wherein he cut two
canals from the river Yamuna carrying them to Hissar and the Ulugh-khani; one from the Kali
river in the Doab joining the Yamuna near Delhi.Canal irrigation helped greatly in the extension
of cultivation in the eastern Punjab. Moreover, the Sultanate period witnessed the adoption of
crop rotation techniques and the cultivation of new crops. Crop rotation helped maintain soil
fertility and prevented soil depletion ensuring sustainable agricultural practices. In the accounts
of Ibn Battuta he mentioned the multiplicity of crops grown and described in sufficient detail the
various crops grown in the two cropping seasons. He also suggests that in the region around
Delhi double cropping was also practiced, that is, on the same soil both the kharif and the rabi
crops were raised. Additionally, the introduction of new crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and
fruits like mangoes and melons diversified agricultural production, leading to increased yields
and economic prosperity. Despite these advancements, the agricultural sector during the
Sultanate period also faced various challenges. One significant challenge was the impact of
climatic fluctuations and natural disasters on agricultural productivity. Periodic droughts, floods,
and other extreme weather events could devastate crops and lead to food shortages, posing a
threat to agricultural sustainability and food security. Additionally, the feudal structure of the
society during the Sultanate period contributed to inequalities in landownership and access to
resources. The elite class, including the nobility and landed aristocracy, controlled vast swathes
of land, while the peasantry often struggled with landlessness and exploitation. This disparity in
land distribution hindered agricultural development and perpetuated socio-economic disparities
within society. The use of hoe or hoeing was replaced by plough centuries back. An illustration
in the Miftah-ul Fuzala, in A.D. 1460 in Malwa clearly shows the plough with an ironshare drawn
by two yoked oxen. As this metallic piece immensely helped in the tillage of comparatively
harder soil.
Overall, the Delhi Sultanate period saw a thriving agricultural sector, characterized by diverse
crops, extensive cultivation. Despite facing challenges such as climatic fluctuations and
socio-economic inequalities, this era laid the foundation for a strong agrarian base in northern
India