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Transfer of Vulgarisms in Audiovisual Translation

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 CHAPTER 5
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION

Jana Ukušová
University of Nitra (Slovakia)

Abstract

This chapter deals with an analysis of the transfer of vulgarisms in

a selected audiovisual work and the strategies used for the transfer. We
work with the original dubbed version of the French audiovisual work
Tais-toi! (2003; in English, Shut up!) and examine how vulgar expressions,
which are a reflection of specific personality traits of individual charac-
ters, are rendered in the Slovak version Drž hubu! We use the model of
changes at the expressive level of the work elaborated by A. Popovič
(1983), founder of the Nitra School of Translation, and study whether
vulgar expressions are substituted adequately (maintaining the same level
of expression), replaced by vulgar lexical units with lesser expressive val-
ue, or eventually by lexical units with higher expressive value. This anal-
ysis will allow us to formulate further conclusions about the translator’s
strategy when translating vulgarisms in the given work. This topic is of
particular interest within the Slovak audiovisual context where there is a
general tendency to tone down vulgar language in audiovisual works.

Keywords: vulgarisms, expressive level, audiovisual translation, transfer

strategies

This chapter is a part of the project UGA - Výskum audiovizuálnych diel

francúzskej proveniencie s expresívnou funkciou [Research on audiovisual works of
French origin with an expressive function].

Introduction

In this chapter, we examine a widely accepted idea that toning down ta-
boo words and swearwords seems to be a common translation practice
in dubbing all over the world (Fong 2009). In order to do so, we analyse
one of the most famous French cinematographic works – the film Tais-

129
130 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

toi! (Shut up!), which contains an impolite expression right in the title –
and its translation into Slovak. In the Slovak context, the tendency to
tone down taboo words in dubbing has been recently studied more in
depth by Račková (2018). In her work Analýza vulgarizmov v televíznom
dabingu na Slovensku (Analysis of Taboo Words in Television Dubbing in Slo-
vakia), she analysed six popular English-language movies (10 Things I
Hate About You, Beetlejuice, Big Mike, Bridesmaids, Fight Club and The Wolf of
Wall Street). She concluded that in the analysed films not all taboo words
were transferred into Slovak; the rate of transferring taboo words in the
given films was 64%, 33%, 30%, 78%, 80% and 70% respectively
(Račková 2018: 37). However, as to films translated from French into
Slovak, such an analysis is still lacking.
The first part of the chapter provides a theoretical framework, which
looks at the definition of vulgarisms in the French-Slovak bilingual con-
text, their place in audiovisual translation, the factors influencing their
usage, the film’s resumé and translator, and a typology of transfer strate-
gies. The practical part comprises both a quantitative and a qualitative
analysis of vulgarisms in the given work and discusses the transfer strat-
egies used in the adaptation.

1. Contrastive look at the definition of vulgarisms in the French

and in the Slovak context

In the principal lexicological and stylistic publications on the Slovak

language (Dolník 2007; Findra 2004; Mistrík 2004), vulgarisms have
been dealt with only marginally. This lack of profound scientific research
in the field of vulgarisms, or rather their deliberate omission from scien-
tific publications, was previously pointed out by A. Zelený et al. in their
1990 work Najkratší slovník slovenského jazyka (The Shortest Dictionary of the
Slovak Language). The situation has basically remained unchanged in the
intervening years. In the introduction, Zelený (1990: 2) states that previ-
ous dictionaries of the Slovak language had one major shortcoming: a
small part of vocabulary but, in terms of frequency of use in colloquial
speech, a significant one was either withheld from the public or present-
ed in a very limited or even distorted way.
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 131

Zelený et al. (1990: 3) further provided a categorisation of vulgarisms

based on their degree of vulgarity (and therefore their social inappropri-
ateness) and distinguished the following types:
o taboo vulgarisms – vulgarisms that do not occur in public speech
and in mass media and very rarely in the literature, e.g., chuj (re-
tard), jebať (to fuck), kokot (shithead, dick), piča (cunt) and their deriva-
tives;
o strong vulgarisms – their usage is very similar to that of taboo
vulgarisms; together with taboo vulgarisms, they are considered
inappropriate in any social situation; a representative vulgarism of
this category is the word kurva (1. fuck, 2. whore) and its derived
forms;
o vulgarisms – very rare in public situations and literature, however,
they can be used in certain social situations (simple humour and
the like), e.g., hovno (shit - noun), srať (to shit - verb), šťať (piss), riť (ass)
and all of their derivatives
o weak vulgarisms – they create a transitional degree between vul-
gar and colloquial expressions and are tolerated in colloquial
speech, e.g., prdieť (fart), etcetera.

When speaking of vulgarisms, we believe it is also necessary to point

out the terminological inconsistency which persists in this field. In Slo-
vak, we can find the following terms referring to vulgarisms: tabuizovaná
lexika (taboo language), nadávky (swearwords), obscénne slová (obscene words),
hrubé/neslušné slová (rude words) or even pejoratíva (pejoratives), while in
French a wide range of terms designating vulgarisms is used as well: le
grot mot (swearword), le mot tabou (taboo word), l’insulte (insult, offensive word) or
l’injure/le juron (swearword). Throughout this chapter, we primarily use the
term vulgarisms, which is probably the most common in the Slovak con-
text.
In his work Le petit livre des gros mots (2007), G. Guilleron provides, in
our opinion, a very clear distinction of all the above-mentioned French
synonymous terms. The term gros mot stands for a vulgarism that trans-
gresses politeness standards, therefore offending modesty. Guilleron
further adds that the vast majority of these vulgarisms come from the
field of sexuality, such as bite (cock) or couilles (balls), and can be consid-
ered real vulgarisms. The next term – juron – originally covered only vul-
garisms related to the religious context, using the name of God in a
132 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

blasphemous manner, e.g., nom de Dieu (for God’s sake) or bordel de Dieu
(God damn it). The scope of this group of vulgarisms was later broadened
to also include any exclamation or interjection containing swearwords,
e.g., et merde! (oh, shit!) or putain de con! (fucking idiot). The last categories of
vulgarisms distinguished by Guilleron are insulte and injure, stressing that
the dividing line between them may be sometimes blurred (in other
words, the nuance may be very minimal). While les insultes result rather
from a circumstantial attack, les injures seek to provoke. They may be cre-
ated with or without swearwords (Guilleron 2007: 5).
Lagorgette (2006: 28) further distinguishes three major types of
French vulgarisms with several subtypes, while stressing that the princi-
pal semantic mechanisms for the creation of lexicalised insults are me-
tonymy and metaphor:
a) comparisons to non-human elements – animals (cochon, vache) or
substances (merdaille, morveux);
b) comparisons to human elements – professions (prostituée), morals
(fainéant) or proper names (harpagon, castafiore);
c) attacks on inalienable elements – race (négro, bagnoule), ontotype
(connasse, salope), sexual abilities (nympho, frigide), filiation (putain, fils
de putain, fils d’imbécile, fils de chienne, bâtard) or insults by ricochet
(indiretly) (cocu).

2. Vulgarisms in audiovisual translation – yes or no?

2.1 Audiovisual translation

For the purpose of this chapter, we find it necessary to define audiovis-

ual translation as a specific type of translation. According to Chaume-
Varela (2006: 6), audiovisual translation (also referred to as screen trans-
lation or media translation) is a generic term standing in opposition to
written and oral translation, while its scope is not limited only to dub-
bing, but also covers subtitling (the other major type of audiovisual
translation), voice-over, narration, free-commentary and partial dubbing.
Another synonymous (yet, hyperonymous) term for dubbing is revoic-
ing, which also includes the process of intralingual synchronisation.
Chaume-Varela (ibid.) lists Slovakia among the countries where dub-
bing is the predominant type of audiovisual translation. This was recent-
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 133

ly confirmed by Perez–Jánošíková in their study The Rise of Subtitling in

Slovakia (2018), where they concluded that even though subtitling was
used to a large extent in the field of cinema, Slovakia still remained a
dubbing country. In line with this finding, Zahorák claims that dubbing
translation represents “the most widely used type of audiovisual transla-
tion in [the] case of movies and animated audiovisual works on Slovak
television” (2020: 46). He defines dubbing as a mediation of meaning
while simultaneously creating the original language communication illu-
sion. He stresses that many other variables (including formalities such as
the work of the translator and editor with a dialog list, the recording of
time codes, and working with two originals) may enter into the process
of achieving a linguistic and non-linguistic conformity in pronunciation
of individual replicas (ibid.).
This conformity in pronunciation (synchronisation or lip-sync) rep-
resents the most significant feature of dubbing (Chaume-Varela 2006:
7). We believe this is of significant importance in light of the use of vul-
garisms as well since it can influence the use (or non-use) of a specif-
ic vulgar word.

2.2 Factors influencing the use of vulgarisms in audiovisual

works

2.2.1. Target audience

In his paper Les censures dans la traduction audiovisuelle (Censorship in Audio-

visual translation), Gambier presents several reasons for censoring vulgar-
isms in the target language. He claims that, in some cases, the translator
tries to avoid offending the recipients’ sensibility, either by following the
instructions of the producer/importer/distributor or being well aware,
based on his/her feelings, visions and experiences, of the function of
his/her work and role as the translator (Gambier 2002: 213). He further
specifies that the variation in translations of the same swearword in the
same film can reflect the diversity of possible translation strategies; but it
can also show the hesitations of the producer, the distributor, the trans-
lator vis-à-vis the reception, that is to say the target audiences, with their
age, level of education, degree of understanding of the original language,
genre of feature film, etcetera (ibid: 215).
134 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

An interesting point on this matter is raised by Fong (2009: 59), who

reminds that audiovisual works represent multichannel forms of com-
munication and that, besides the dialogue, other equally important visual
and aesthetic channels are capable of generating messages in compensa-
tion. We agree with this point to a certain extent, but in our opinion it
does not fully account for the problem that, through the deliberate ton-
ing down or omitting of vulgarisms, a character’s personality becomes
intentionally altered or even manipulated.

2.2.2 Language norms

Mešková (2017: 107) points out further roles of translators: respecting

and influencing the development of the language norm and bearing re-
sponsibility for it. In relation to vulgarisms, special attention should be
paid to the protection of children and the younger generation (as will be
discussed in more detail in the next section) and to influencing them
positively rather than negatively. Another point raised by Mešková that
we find to be of particular relevance (also based on our own teaching
practice) is that young translators and students of translation studies
have a different take on the language norm than more experienced
translators. More specifically, the former tend to be more inclined to the
use of vulgarisms in audiovisual translation, arguing that vulgarisms are
an integral part of language and that language should be represented in
all of its forms. Consequently, young translators/students do not refrain
from choosing a more vulgar expression.

2.2.3. Legislation

From a legal perspective, both in Slovakia and France, the use of vulgar-
isms in audiovisual works is a part of a larger context of the protection
of minors from the undesirable effects of certain audiovisual works.
In Slovakia, the use of vulgarisms in audiovisual works is primarily
regulated by two pieces of legislation, namely Act 308/2000 Coll. on
broadcasting and retransmission and on the amendment of Act no. 195/2000 Coll.
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 135

on telecommunications33 (hereinafter referred to as “Act 308/2000 Coll.”)

and Decree 576/2007 Coll. of the Ministry of Culture of the Slovak Republic lay-
ing down details of the uniform system of labelling audiovisual works, sound recordings
of artistic performances, multimedia works, programs or other components of the pro-
gram service, and the method of its application34 (hereinafter referred to as “De-
cree 576/2007 Coll.”).
Firstly, Act 308/2000 Coll. (§ 20 – Protection of Minors, point 4)
provides that the broadcaster of a programme service is obliged to take
into account the age appropriateness of the programmes and other
components of the programme service for minors and to ensure their
airtime in accordance with conditions laid down in a specific regulation.
Secondly, this is further specified in Decree 589/2007 Coll., which
defines four types of audiovisual works: audiovisual works inappropriate
up to 7 years of age; audiovisual works inappropriate up to 12 years of
age; audiovisual works inappropriate up to 15 years of age, and audio-
visual works inappropriate up to 18 years of age. Based on their defini-
tion, age inappropriateness is made up by several components (such as
violence, sexual scenes, nudity, racism, discrimination, etcetera), while, in
the case of the last three types of audiovisual works, vulgarisms are also
included among these components in the following way:
a) audiovisual works inappropriate up to 12 years of age (number
12 in a red circle) – verbal aggression or expressive phrase which, in
view of their contextual occurrence, frequency of occurrence, manner
and form of their processing or representation, and in view of the na-
ture, type, artistic and moral message of the work or programme, can be
considered appropriate to the age group of minors from 12 years of age;
b) audiovisual works inappropriate up to 15 years of age (number
15 in a red circle) – verbal aggression or expressive words, vulgar ex-
pressions, vulgar gestures, obscene expressions or obscene gestures
which, in view of their contextual occurrence, frequency of occurrence,
manner and form of their processing or representation and in view of
the nature, type, artistic and moral message of the work or programme,
can be considered appropriate to the age group of minors from 15 years of age;

33 https://www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-

predpisy/SK/ZZ/2000/308/20160101.html (last accessed on: 18/01/2021).

34 https://www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-

predpisy/SK/ZZ/2007/589/20080101.html (last accessed on: 18/01/2021).

136 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

c) audiovisual works inappropriate up to 18 years of age (number

18 in a red circle) – vulgar expression, vulgar gestures, obscene expres-
sions or obscene gestures.

As we can see from the above-mentioned classification of audiovisu-

al works, vulgarisms are to a certain level allowed in each category. In
the first two categories, they must be appropriate to the target age group
(12 or 15 years of age) while, in the third one, they are not limited in any
way. We find this classification rather vague, but in general, we could
represent the use of vulgarisms in these three categories – starting from
the first one (12-year-olds) to the last one (18-year-olds) – in the follow-
ing way: weak vulgarisms – medium vulgarisms – strong vulgarisms.
The Decree further specifies the so-called “time curtain”, i.e., a limi-
tation of airtime for films labelled as inappropriate for minors up to 15
years of age and up to 18 years of age. Programmes labelled as inappro-
priate for minors up to 15 years of age can be broadcast from 8 p.m. to
6 a.m. (§ 4 point 3) and those labelled as inappropriate for minors up to
18 years of age from 10 p.m. to 6 a.m. (§ 4 point 1).
As to the French legislation, the most recent classification of audio-
visual works can be found in Recommendation No 2005-5 of 7 June 2005 for
television service providers concerning youth signalling and the classification of pro-
grams35 (hereinafter referred to as “Recommendation No 2005”). Its arti-
cle 2 establishes five degrees of programmes acceptability in terms of
children and adolescents protection:
a) category I – programmes for all public;
b) category II (white round pictogram with a black 10) –
programmes not recommended for children under 10 years of
age;
c) category III (white round pictogram with a black 12): pro-
grammes not recommended/forbidden for children under 12
years of age;

https://www.csa.fr/Reguler/Espace-juridique/Les-textes-reglementaires-
35

du-CSA/Les-deliberations-et-recommandations-du-CSA/Recommandations-
et-deliberations-du-CSA-relatives-a-la-protection-des-
mineurs/Recommandation-du-7-juin-2005-aux-editeurs-de-services-de-
television-concernant-la-signaletique-jeunesse-et-la-classification-des-
programmes (last accessed on: 18/01/2021).
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 137

d) category IV (white round pictogram with a black 16): pro-

grammes not recommended/forbidden for children under 16
years of age;
e) category V (white round pictogram with a black 18): programmes
not recommended/forbidden for children under 18 years of age.

As in Slovakia, the airtime for these categories of programmes is also

regulated. The airtime of programmes belonging to category II is left up
to the editor’s assessment. Programmes of category III cannot in general
be broadcasted before 8.30 p.m. for cinema channels and pay-per-view
services and before 10 p.m. for other television services. Programmes of
category IV can be aired only after 8.30 p.m. for cinema channels and
pay-per-view services and after 10.30 p.m. for other television services,
while category V programmes have to be broadcasted in accordance
with Recommendation no. 2004-7. However, no specific reference is
made to the use of vulgarisms.
If we want to classify the film Tais-toi! in terms of age admissibility,
for the French version, we find two age indications: legal age – 10 years;
suggested age – 12 years.36 The Slovak version was marked as inappro-
priate up to 12 years of age. This age indication can provide important
insights into what type of vulgarisms are likely to occur in the Slovak
translation; as specified above, appropriate to the age group of minors from 12
years of age; i.e., not the strongest vulgarisms, but primarily the weaker
ones.

3. Film’s resumé

The main protagonists of the film are Quentin, a very simple-minded

small-time bank robber (played by Gérard Depardieu), and Ruby (played
by Jean Reno), a criminal wishing to revenge the death of his lover (and
the wife of his boss Vogel), killed by Vogel after discovering their affair.
Their paths cross in prison and, thanks to Quentin’s plan, they manage
to escape. Once outside, Ruby cannot get rid of Quentin, who considers

36http://www.filmages.ch/films/detail/items/6481.html (last accessed on:

18/01/2021).
138 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

him his best friend and dreams of opening a bistro called “Aux deux
amis”. Thereafter, they experience a series of adventures including hid-
ing from the police or getting involved in a car chase with Vogel’s hired
assassins. Quentin and Ruby’s relationship is not only the driving force
of the plot, but also leads to the very amusing situations they find them-
selves in.37

3.1. Translator of the film

We would also like to very briefly introduce the translator of the Slovak
dubbed version of this film. The film was translated into Slovak by
well-known and experienced translator and editor Jasna Navrátilová,
who has translated many audiovisual works from English and French,
among the most popular being Sherlock Holmes, The King’s Speech, Qu’est-ce
qu’on a fait au Bon Dieu (Serial Bad Weddings), Flic, and Tout Simplement (The
Bastille Killer).

4. Transfer strategies of vulgarisms

4.1 Vulgarisms as cultural units

Alsharhan (2020: 10) claims that the study of taboo languages is often
approached from the cultural point of view because it can be considered
a part of a given culture. He states that this recently resulted in a number
of studies in which authors adopted the translation strategies of cultural
terms introduced by Díaz-Cintas and Remael (2007) and Pedersen
(2011) since they provide a reliable baseline for establishing a list of sub-
titling strategies of taboo language.
In their work Audiovisual translation: Subtitling (2007), Díaz-Cintas and
Remael put forward these nine subtitling strategies:

https://www.allocine.fr/film/fichefilm_gen_cfilm=48382.html (last ac-

37

cessed on: 18/01/2021).

TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 139

1) loan (word is borrowed from the source text to the target lan-
guage since no translation exists or both the original and target
language use the same word);
2) calque (literal translation of a source word to the target language);
3) explicitation – use of a more general (hypernym) or more specific
translation (hyponym);
4) substitution (applied in the case of time-space constraints);
5) transposition (substitution of a source cultural concept with a
target cultural concept);
6) lexical recreation (creation of a new word or neologism);
7) compensation (compensation for a specific translation problem
in another location);
8) omission (elimination of a translation problem);
9) addition (adding further information to facilitate comprehen-
sion).

After examining Pedersen’s translation strategies of extralinguistic

cultural references – ECR (2011: 157-69), we may infer a certain level of
overlapping with the above-mentioned strategies. Pedersen’s strategies
of specification and generalisation more or less correspond to the strate-
gy of explicitation and he also lists strategies of substitution and omis-
sion. ‘New’ strategies in Pedersen’s list include retention (ECR is re-
tained unchanged or slightly adjusted to meet the target language stand-
ards), direct translation (rendering ECR in the target text after making
obligatory shifts due to differences between two languages – calques –
or after making non-obligatory changes) and official equivalent (com-
mon translation or the one enforced by an administrative authority).
We are well aware of the fact that these strategies were elaborated ei-
ther for subtitling (Díaz-Cintas–Remael) or extralinguistic cultural refer-
ences (Pedersen), and not for the transfer of vulgar words in dubbing,
presenting several specific features which need to be taken into consid-
eration (see part 2.1). However, we agree with Alsharhan (2020: 10) that
the above-mentioned strategies provide a solid foundation for examin-
ing transfer strategies of vulgarisms in audiovisual translation.
140 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

4.2 Vulgarisms as expressive units

In this chapter, we decided to approach vulgarisms primarily as linguistic

units with an expressive (stylistic) value, while examining the expressive
(stylistic) shift which may occur during their translation into the target
language. In the present case, this approach seems also suitable since
some of French vulgar expressions (such as merde, putain, bordel, etcetera)
can also carry a very expressive value. Mešková (2017: 102-03), in her
paper on Translation of Vulgarisms in Mass Media, analysed selected French
television films and concluded that not much attention is paid to the
meaning of vulgar expressions by translators. This can sometimes result
in an incorrect translation of vulgarisms, i.e., choosing a non-
corresponding target equivalent. Mešková further claims that original
and translated vulgarisms do not correspond in terms of their degree of
vulgarity since translators do not take into consideration all of the nu-
ances of their meaning and the context in which they are used. She illus-
trates this point with the example of the words putain and merde, proba-
bly the most known and widely used French vulgarisms, which are usu-
ally translated by a vulgar expression in the target language, even though
they also have a strong colloquial usage. We find this point very relevant
since the given vulgarisms were highly represented in the film we ana-
lysed, therefore, we will have a closer look at all of their meanings (and
the meanings of their related expressions putain de and merde de), as pro-
vided in the online Larousse dictionary.
As to the first vulgarism (putain),38 Larousse lists two usages marked
as vulgar: a prostitute and a debauched woman, without morality. How-
ever, below these meanings, we can find the colloquial usage of this
word (Putain!) which is used to express an exclamation of anger, aston-
ishment, etcetera: Putain! elle est super ta bagnole! The usage of the related
expression putain de39 is also marked as very colloquial – which causes
anger, exasperation: Ce putain de bus est en retard.

38 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/putain/65181?q=pu-

tain#64448 (last accessed on: 20/11/2020).

39 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/putain/65182/locution?

q=putain+de#165671 (last accessed on: 20/11/2020).

TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 141

Larousse lists four different usages of the word merde,40 with only one
of them categorised as vulgar (large excrement of man and some ani-
mals) and the rest as very colloquial (boredom/difficulty, worthless be-
ing or thing, and toxic product). The related expression de merde is used
to denote something bad, hateful, or embarrassing: Cette route de merde!

4.2.1 Popovič’s model of changes at the expressive level

Based on the above, we believe that, in the present case, an analysis of

vulgarisms on the axis stylistically marked – stylistically unmarked linguistic
units would better account for a more accurate examination of all of their
expressive nuances, including a strong colloquial usage to express anger,
astonishment or even embarrassment. Therefore, we consider the mod-
el of changes at the expressive (stylistic) level of the work elaborated by
A. Popovič (1983: 204) a suitable framework to conduct such an analysis
of vulgarisms. Popovič distinguishes three main lines of relations be-
tween expressive qualities of the original and translated work:
1) expressive (stylistic) match – adequate capturing of semantic in-
variant which can be achieved by:
a) substitution – functional replacement of non-translatable units
(such as fraseologisms and cultural items, etcetera) with units
characterised by a more or less the same expressive value
b) inversion – functional relocation of expressive value in the trans-
lated text, either within a sentence or larger units of text
2) expressive (stylistic) amplification – emphasising expressive quali-
ties of the original, it manifests itself in greater subjectivity and
expressivity of the translated text and can be achieved by:
a) expressive (stylistic) typisation – overemphasising characteristic
expressive qualities of the original
b) expressive (stylistic) individualisation – overstressing unique ex-
pressive qualities of the original which makes translator’s expres-
sive idiolect too visible

40 https://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/merde/50601?q=merde

#50489 (last accessed on: 20/11/2020).

142 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

3) expressive (stylistic) attenuation – weakening expressive qualities

of the original and can be achieved by:
a) expressive (stylistic) nivelisation – deprivation of the translated
text of the original’s expressive qualities
b) expressive (stylistic) loss – loss of expressive qualities of the orig-
inal in translation.

Based on the above-mentioned model, we deduce five strategies used to

transfer vulgarisms as units with an expressive (stylistic) value:
1) adequate stylistic transfer of vulgarism – replacing the origi-
nal vulgarism with a target vulgarism with the same expressive
value;
2) stylistic compensation of vulgarism – compensating for the
expressive value of the original vulgarism at a different place in
the sentence or by different means to maintain the same expres-
sivity of the text;
3) stylistic amplification of vulgarism – replacing the original
vulgarism with a target vulgarism with greater expressive value or
translating a non-vulgar original expression with a vulgarism in
the target language;
4) stylistic attenuation of vulgarism – replacing the original vul-
garism with a target vulgarism with lesser expressive value;
5) omission of vulgarism – complete omission of the original vul-
garism without using any means to compensate for the loss of
expressivity.

5. Methodology

As to the methodology of this chapter, firstly, we compiled a parallel

corpus of French and Slovak lines from the film Tais-toi! that contained
vulgar expressions. We did not have at our disposal the dialogue sheets
of the film since, in Slovakia, they are considered confidential and in
general, translators are not allowed to make them accessible, even if it is
for the purpose of a comparative linguistic analysis. This made the task
slightly more difficult, since we had to carefully watch and listen to the
film (several times) to note down the lines where vulgar words occurred.
However, French subtitles were also very helpful. Vulgar expressions
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 143

were subsequently analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. They

were extracted manually due to a number of reasons. First of all, the aim
of the study was not to search for specific vulgarisms, but to identify all
varieties of vulgarisms present in the film in any form. An automated
search for specific vulgarisms was not therefore a suitable method. Sec-
ondly, we also identified occurrences of French lines that did not con-
tain an explicit vulgarism, but that were translated into Slovak by a vul-
gar expression. In order not to leave out any vulgar word occurrence,
manual extraction seemed the most effective method. Thirdly, we com-
piled a final table of all the identified vulgar expressions containing
source (French) and target (Slovak) lines with highlighted vulgarisms
and the translation strategy used. An extract of the final table is provided
below:

Type of trans-
No. Source text Target text
lation strategy
adequate stylistic
Je t’attends enfoiré, tu ne me Čakám ťa, hajzeľ, aj
transfer
fais pas peur et elle t’attends ona ťa čaká, budete
66 +
aussi, vous serez enterrés cote a prdieť do hliny vedľa
stylistic
cote, je te promets. seba.
amplification

Table 1: Extract of final table with identified and analysed vulgarisms

6. Quantitative analysis

In the film’s original version, we identified a total amount of 104 vulgar-

isms. The most frequent vulgar expressions were respectively con/connard
(28 occurences), merde (19 occurences), and putain (13 occurences). All of
the identified vulgarisms are represented in Figure 1 with their respective
numbers of occurences.
144 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

Figure 1: Number of occurrences of vulgarisms and examples of impoliteness

identified in the original French version of the film Tais-toi!
s’en foutre, rien péter,
à débil; 1 demeuré; 1 minable; 1
péteur; 3 cul; 2
foutre; 0
chier; 3 ordure; 1
fesse; 3
tais-toi; 4 enfoiré; 3
emmerder; 2
bordel; 5

gueule; 5 con,
connard;
putain; 13 28

abruti, abrutir; 7
merde, 19

con, connard putain merde

abruti, abrutir gueule bordel
tais-toi enfoiré chier
s’en foutre, rien à foutre fesse péter, péteur
cul débil demeuré
minable ordure emmerder

The translation strategies used will be discussed in more detail in the

following pages. However, in this section, we provide a summary of all
of the strategies used and their number of instances. The two most rep-
resented strategies were adequate transfer of vulgarism and its stylistic
compensation.

Translation strategy Number of instances

Adequate stylistic transfer of vulgarism 52
Stylistic compensation of vulgarism 27
Stylistic amplification of vulgarism 9
Stylistic attenuation of vulgarism 11
Omission of vulgarism 12
Table 2: Total number of strategies implemented to translate vulgarisms in
the film Tais-toi!
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 145

7. Qualitative analysis

In this part, we will provide representative examples of French-Slovak

pairs of extracted vulgarisms for each translation strategy, we will further
analyse them and complement this analysis with a brief introduction of
the context. The pairs of lines are given in tables with an indication of
time and English translation.

7.1 Adequate stylistic transfer of vulgarism

The first translation strategy is the adequate stylistic transfer of the origi-
nal vulgarism, i.e., its replacement with a target vulgarism with a (more
or less) similar expressive value.

Ferme ta gueule, je veux manger Drž hubu, chcem sa v pokoji

05:29
tranquille. najesť.
English
Shut up, I want to eat quietly. Shut up, I want to eat quietly.
translation

The above-mentioned example relates to a French sentence with a

literal translation into Slovak (both sentences are identical in meaning).
The line was extracted from a dialogue between Quentin and another
prisoner who is eating biscuits, but Quentin does not want to leave him
eat quietly and tries to keep the conversation going. The prisoner shouts
out in anger the sentence: Ferme ta gueule, je veux manger tranquille. As
regards the vulgar expression used, the Slovak equivalent of ferme ta
gueule – drž hubu [shut up] has the same expressive value, therefore,
we can classify this strategy as an adequate stylistic transfer.

26:07 Merde! Sráči!

English
Shit! Arseholes!
translation

The second example in this category consists of the vulgar word

merde [shit/fuck/crap] which was one of the most used vulgarisms in the
film. In the given example, it was translated into Slovak as sráči [arse-
holes]. We believe that this translation was reached after taking into ac-
146 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

count the context: it is said repeatedly by one patient at the psychiatric

hospital, walking around in the hospital’s garden and shouting merde
[sráči!] for no apparent reason (probably thinking of the patients in the
hospital). Apart from the given example, the word merde was translated
in the film also as do riti [shit/fuck/crap], which is the most common Slo-
vak translation of this vulgarism.

7.2 Stylistic compensation of vulgarism

01:19:57 Oh, putain ! Panebože!

English
Oh, fuck! Oh, my God!
translation

This is the very last line of the film and denotes Ruby’s reaction
when Quentin says to the policemen that they have to set him and Ruby
free (after killing Vogel) because they have big plans together (Quentin
dreams about opening a bistro with Ruby). Ruby is not at all fond of this
idea, he rolls his eyes and exclaims: Oh, putain! [Oh, fuck]. This was trans-
lated into Slovak with the interjection Panebože! [Oh, my God!] and it per-
fectly expresses that Ruby is terrified at the idea of any further coopera-
tion with Quentin in the future. Therefore, we can categorise this strate-
gy as compensating for the given vulgarism with a lexical unit with an
expressive value.
Throughout the film, the same vulgarism (putain) was translated by a
variety of expressive lexical items, as means of compensation, e.g., ty
kokso [oh, crap] as an expression of great astonishment/surprise, To je pár-
ik. [What a couple!] – the sentence type and the word párik (a diminutive
of pár [couple]) denote an ironic nuance (said by two young boys when
they see Quentin and Ruby dressed as old women) – or Ja odpadnem! [I’ll
pass out!] as an expression of surprise when we cannot believe something
(to be true, for example). The expressive value of merde was also com-
pensated for with the translations Kriste [Christ] or Ježiši [Jesus].

Tu vas te balader en Zorro,

31:00 Chceš sa hrať na Zorra, frajer?
connard ?
English Are you going to walk around as Do you want to play to Zorro,
translation Zorro, arsehole? jackanapes?
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 147

The speaker of the line Tu vas te balader en Zorro, connard? [Are you go-
ing to walk around as Zorro, arsehole?] is Ruby, who addresses it (rather
ironically) to Quentin. While on the run from the police, they hide in a
shop with goods for celebrations, parties and decorations. They need to
change their clothes (they are still wearing pyjamas and blue coats from
the psychiatric hospital); however, the only thing they have in the shop
is a Zorro costume for children (a black mask, a hat and a black coat).
Quentin asks the shop owner if he does not have a bigger size; that is
why Ruby calls him connard [arsehole]. This vulgarism was not rendered
into Slovak by an equivalent vulgar word. Instead, it was compensated
for by a word with an expressive (stylistic) value – frajer [jackanapes].
Hence, we classified this strategy as stylistic compensation.

7.3 Stylistic amplification of vulgarism

Stylistic amplification of vulgarism is a translation consisting in either

replacing an original vulgar expression with a stronger target vulgarism
or translating a non-vulgar original expression with a vulgar expression
in the target language. This strategy was the least frequently used.

Il me semble que j’avais fait le tour

A mne sa zdá, že som ťa prekukol
du ton personnage, Vogel, mais en
33:32 ty hajzeľ, tým, že si zabil Sandru,
tuant Sandra tu es allé plus loin
si zašiel priďaleko.
que je pouvais imaginer.
It seems to me that I had a good
And it seems to me that I saw
English read on your character, Vogel; but
through you, you bastard; by kill-
translation by killing Sandra, you went further
ing Sandra you went too far.
than I could imagine.

In the above-mentioned example, the Slovak translation contains a

vulgar word hajzeľ [bastard, son of a bitch], which is not present in the orig-
inal French line. This line comes from a dialogue between the main pro-
tagonist Ruby and the bad guy – Vogel. Ruby feels hatred for Vogel for
killing his lover Sandra, who was at the same time Vogel’s wife. We be-
lieve that Ruby’s angry state of mind and the angry tone of his voice
were the reasons why the translator opted for a vulgar word hajzeľ in-
stead of simply using his name – Vogel (both words have the same
148 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

number of syllables and similar vowel sounds (o, a, e) which is, from the
viewpoint of lip-sync, a positive translation strategy).

52:29 Tu prends une baffe. Dostaneš po papuli.

English
You take a slap. He will smash your face in.
translation

The Slovak translation uses explicitly the word papuľa [literally mouth
of an animal], even though the original line does not contain a word with
a vulgar expressive value – we find here the word une baffe [slap]. Hence,
we classified this strategy as stylistic amplification of vulgarism as well.

7.4 Stylistic attenuation of vulgarism

The opposite strategy of stylistic amplification of vulgarism is that of

stylistic attenuation. This means that the target vulgarism carries a less
expressive value, although the vulgar expressive value is not completely
lost in translation.

54:32 Tu me fait chier. Štveš ma.

English
You piss me off. You annoy me.
translation

The example above contains the French verb chier [piss off] which is
transferred into Slovak by a milder (but still vulgar) expression štveš ma,
instead of serieš ma [you piss me off]. We can therefore speak of stylistic at-
tenuation strategy.

1:15:30 Enfoiré ! Chmuľo!

English
Arsehole! Dolt!
translation

The second example in this category relates to the word enfoi-

ré [arsehole] which was rendered into Slovak by the word chmuľo [dolt],
thus carrying a less expressive vulgar nuance. This strategy can also be
classified as stylistic attenuation.
TRANSFER OF VULGARISMS IN AUDIOVISUAL TRANSLATION 149

7.5 Omission of vulgarism

The two following lines are examples of the deliberate omission of vul-
garisms in the target language.

57:43 Il m’a salué, putain. Pozdravil ma.

English
He fucking waved to me. He waved to me.
translation

The sentence Il m’a salué, putain. [He fucking waved to me.] is taken
from the scene where Quentin and Ruby steal a police car and, as they
pass another police officer with the siren turned on, he waves to them.
However, the word putain is not transferred into the Slovak translation
and nor is it compensated for by any means, hence, it is completely lost
in translation.

Tu resembles a un cul, Podobáš sa na riť, ale s jednou

05:51
mais t'as qu'une fesse. polovičkou.
You look like an ass,
English You look like an ass,
but you have only one side of the
translation but only with one half.
ass.

This second example comes from a conversation between Quentin

and another prisoner, who chews with only half of his mouth; therefore,
Quentin compares him to an ass, but with only one side of the ass. In
the French line, we identified two vulgarisms – cul and fesse [ass] –
while only the first one was transferred into Slovak. The second vulgar-
ism was left out in the Slovak version. However, the meaning of the
sentence is not altered.

8. Concluding remarks

The aim of this chapter was to identify vulgarisms in the film Tais-toi!
and to classify the strategies used for their transfer into Slovak. We
found that the two most frequent strategies were adequate transfer of
vulgarism (52 occurrences) and its stylistic compensation (27 oc-
curences), which leads us to the conclusion that the tendency of toning
 150 JANA UKUŠOVÁ

down vulgar expressions in dubbing did not apply in the present audio-
visual work (strategies of stylistic attenuation and omission of vulgarism
were represented to a lesser extent – 11 and 12 occurrences, respective-
ly). In our opinion, this can be accounted for mainly by the fact that the
work did not contain the strongest vulgarisms (since it was only marked
as inappropriate for children up to 12 years of age). As to the overall
strategy of the translator, we may conclude that the majority of vulgar-
isms were either transferred by equivalent vulgarisms with the same val-
ue or compensated for with an expressive lexical unit, therefore the
characters’ personality traits resulting from their way of speaking were
not significantly altered. Lastly, we also found that Slovak vulgarisms
were more varied that the French ones.

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