○ If contraction if surrounding muscles ● In infant, children and embryo, one of the

exerts pressure on the veins blood forming organs (lymphopoiesis) is

■ To prevent backflow the bone marrow
● Numerous in venous retrurn by helping to rest the ● Makes nearly all the components of the
force of gravity blood
● Soft, spongy tissue that has many blood
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM vessels and is found in the center of most
- Also known as Lymphoid System bones.
- Chief cellular components: lymphocytes ● Has 2 types: red and yellow bone
- Consists of lymph and lymphatic vessels to transport fluid marrow
- Includes a number of structures and organs containing lymphatic Bone marrow
tissue and red bone marrow
● Red bone marrow: where stem cells develop into various
types of blood cells including lymphocytes.
- Assists in circulating body fluids
- Helps defend the body against disease agents
- Returns proteins and fluid to the blood
- Carries lipids from the GIT to the blood

A. LYMPHOID ORGANS AND TISSUES

● Thymic corpuscles or Hassal’s Bodies ● Located in Peyer’s Patch
● Thymocytes: lymphocytes of the thymus ○ solitary nodules
Lymphoid nodules / ● Form in regions of frequent exposure to
Lymphoid follicles microorganisms or foreign materials
○ contribute to defense

Lymph node and ● Germinal Center of Flemming, Cortex,

Thymus associated lymphatic Medulla, Medullary Cords
vessels
● Located along the bloodstream
Hemal node / ● It is a lymph node but contains numerous
Hemolymph node RBC

● Made of Red Pulp and White Pulp

● White pulp
Spleen
○ Splenic nodule/Malphigian body
○ considered the lymphoid tissue.
 ● Red pulp
○ Billroth’s cords
○ contains all the elements of blood.

● Tonsillar crypts
○ invaginations of surface epithelium
or connective tissue
● Salivary corpuscles
○ lymphocytes that migrate out of
the tonsils and nodules.
Tonsils
B. FUNCTION OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Surveillance & Defense
● prevent disease from occurring
● recognize and fight off
○ disease-producing organisms
○ toxins

C. HISTOLOGICAL DESCRIPTOR
>Connective tissue fibers & cells
● Supporting framework: Lymphoid organs and tissues
○ reticular cells and a network of reticular fibers
● Exception: Thymus
○ supporting framework
● Other cells includes those scattered in the ■ reticuloepithelial/epithelioreticular cells
lamina propria, connective tissue, >Amorphous ground substance
Lymphocytes and
epithelium of the: ● the same with other types of connective tissue
other cells of the
○ Gastrointestinal Tract ○ Hyaluronic acid
immune system
○ Genitourinary tract (GUT) ○ Heparan sulfate
○ Respiratory tract
REMEMBER:
● Reticular cells ≠ NOT the same ≠ Reticulocytes.
○ Reticular cells synthesize reticular fibers.
○ Reticulocytes are immature RBC.
 ● Macrophages non-adhesive
○ essential functional components
○ not conspicuous because they are crowded out by Functions:
lymphocytes. ● Natural Cellular
Cytotoxicity
D. ASSOCIATIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC TISSUE ● Not dependent on
1. All serous cavities antigen activation
● Synovial, peritoneal, pleural, pericardial ● Target cells: cancer
2. Endolymphatic and perilymphatic spaces cells/ malignant cells
● Inner ear ● Antibody dependent
3. Tenon’s cavity cellular cytotoxicity
● around the eyeball (ADCC)
4. Chambers of the eye
● Anterior chamber: Aqueous humor T lymphocytes (T cells)
● Posterior chamber: Vitreous humor ● (Activated) immunocompetent cells→ thymus
5. Spaces beneath/between meninges ● Function: cellular immunity
● Ex. Subarachnoid space, epidural space ● longer life span
6. Ventricles of the brain
● 3rd ventricle, lateral ventricle, 4th ventricle 3 Types
7. Spinal Canal ● First line of defense for
Cytotoxic Killer T cellular immunity
E. CATEGORIES OF LYMPHOCYTES Lymphocytes Function:
(CTL) ● Recognize
● Chief type of Based on function ● Destroy
Small Lymphocytes lymphocytes and ● Kill foreign antigens→LYSE
● peripheral blood differentiation ● Assist B lymphocytes and
● Recirculating Helper T other T-Lymphocytes
Medium Lymphocytes immunocompetent cells Lymphocytes Produces:
in transit (THL) ● Lymphokines
● Recirculating ○ activate B & T cells
immunocompetent cells ● Suppress, regulate, control
Based on size in transit the activity of B cells and
● lymphocytes in Suppressor T other T lymphocytes
bloodstream: 5-10% Lymphocytes Regulate:
Large Lymphocytes ● large azurophilic (TSH) ● erythroid cell maturation
(Null Cells) granules ○ bone marrow
● Non-phagocytic,
 Autoimmune disease
● Absence of TSH Supporting framework of Lymph Nodes
● Immune system attack self ● dense collagenous connective tissue
Capsule
● Inner surface: elastic connective tissue
B lymphocytes (Bcells) ● collagenous fibers
● (Activated) immunocompetent cells→ bone Trabeculae/Septae ○ Capsule→lymph node
marrow ● Ampullae/alveoli: divisions of lymph nodes
○ “B” in B cells - bursa of fabricius in birds
● Variable life spans SAGITTAL SECTIONS OF LYMPH NODES
● Humoral immunity
○ production of antibodies or
immunoglobulins
● Contact with antigens→(Activated) produce:
○ immunoblasts/plasmablasts
■ Proliferate
■ Differentiate into plasma cell
Plasma cells
● produce antibodies
● memory cells of immune system
● cause allergies & bronchial asthma
● Outer peripheral area
LYMPH AND HEMOLYMPH NODES, LYMPHATIC VESSELS ● Nodules of dense lymphatic CT
○ Lymphatic nodules→ B-lymphocyte
A. LYMPH NODES
○ Deep cortex→ T-lymphocyte
Lymph nodes
Corona
● large collection of lymphocytes and lymphatic tissue
● Periphery of each nodule
○ organized into distinct organs
○ More dense
● Location: lymphatic stream w/ lymphatic vessels
Cortex Germinal Center of Flemming
● 1-25 mm in diameter (bean/round shaped) w/ granular surface
● Less dense reactive central area
● Convex surface→indented surface (hilum)
● morphologic indicator: response to antigen
○ dense to more dense lymphocytes
Hilum– where the blood vessels enter the lymph node
● Follicular dendritic cells
○ Antigen within the cortex
TYPES OF LYMPH NODES
○ Macrophage
● SEVERAL/ MULTIPLE lymphatic vessels enter
AFFERENT
the lymph node
Medulla ● Irregular cords/columns extend→hilum
● Only ONE/FEW lymphatic vessels leaves the
EFFERENT ● Lymphocytes arranged:
lymph node at the hilum
○ branching and anastomosing
 ○ In between: medullary cords (sinusoids) CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO SIZE
● domain territory of both B-cells and T-cells ● a.k.a lymphatic capillaries
○ thin-walled & freely branching
B. HEMOLYMPH NODE ○ Terminate: blindly
Hemal nodes ending/swollen/rounded ends
● Lymph nodes w/ many erythrocytes/RBCs ○ form dense networks in all tissues
○ chief cellular components ■ Communicating & anastomosing
○ outnumber the lymphocytes ● Lining: simple squamous
○ microscopic specimen appears red/pink ○ slightly larger but thinner >blood
○ Acidophilic due to RBCs capillaries
● Locations: ● NOT have regular, cylindrical forms
○ blood vessels in the retroperitoneal and retropleural spaces ● located deeper / farther away from skin
■ Vertebra of neck to pelvic inlet
○ Kidneys and the spleen Example:
■ known as pseudospleen if in spleen ● Central lacteals- solitary and aggregated
○ Blood stream Not the lymphatic stream lymphatic nodules
■ No lymphatic vessels ○ lamina propria: intestinal villi
● Function: filter lymphocytes from the peripheral blood. Small Lymphatic ● Subareolar Plexus of Sappey
Vessels ○ beneath the areola of the breast

C. LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Lymphatic vessels Medium-Sized ● thicker walls: similar layers to blood vessels
● drain and collect interstitial fluid as lymph Lymphatic Vessels ○ collagenous, elastic fibers and few
○ Intercellular spaces→blood stream smooth muscles
○ Divided:
 ■ Tunica intima, media &
adventitia (thickest)
● Have valves: but not all
○ occur in pairs on opposite sides
○ w/ free edge directed→lymph flow
○ Permanent fold in tunica intima
○ closer intervals & less dilated
● Example: cisterna chyli
TWO TRUNKS
● drains lymph from lower parts
of body (GIT)
Larger left ● Thicker walls
thoracic duct ○ Smooth muscle in
tunica media
Large-Sized ● Joins blood circulation
lymphatic Vessels ○ left subclavian vein
Smaller right ● drains the upper parts: heaD &
lymphatic neck
duct ● Joins circulation at right
subclavian & right internal
jugular vein
○ forms innominate vein
D. HISTOGENESIS
● Develops later than circulatory system
○ isolated mesenchymal clefts→ fuse→lymphatic sacs
■ Close but separate from blood vessels
■ Origin: Mesenchymal Connective Tissue
● Lymphatic vessels develop earlier than lymphatic organs
● Valves in Lymphatic vessels appear earlier than in veins
● Regeneration: vascular budding
○ Level to capillaries
● Supporting tissue: Reticular CT
○ Sinuses or sinusoids: formed by loose meshworks
■ where lymph circulates in the lymph node
Areas of sinuses/sinusoids
a) Subcapsular Sinusoids
• beneath the capsule
b) Trabecular Sinusoids
▪ along trabeculae
c) Medullary Sinusoids
▪ where lymph circulates
CLINICAL CORRELATION
● May have one RBC
Blood capillaries
○ Rounded, smooth edges
● May have a blood clot
Veins
○ thinner walls, collapsed, rounded ends
● May have remnants of blood
Arteries
○ thicker walls & rounded
● Angular: they are freely branching,
anastomosing, blindly ending
Lymphatic vessels ● Do not contain cells (makes it colorless)
● Found externally in lymph nodes
● Found internally in sinusoids
● Any enlargement of the lymph node
Lymphadenopathy
● Enlargement of the lymph node that is due to
infection and inflammation
Lymphadenitis
 ● Inflammation of the lymphatic vessels Lymphoma
● Excessive, uncontrolled proliferation of
abnormal lymphocytes
Lymphocytic ● Proliferation of abnormal lymphocytes in the
Lymphangitis leukemia bloodstream

● Characterized by enlarged lymph nodes

(lymphadenitis)
● Proliferation of macrophages which fuse
together to form giant cells called
Langerhans’ cells

Tuberculosis

● characterized by lymphadenopathy
● To metastasize, cancer cells break off from
the primary tumor and travel through the
blood or lymph to other organs
● Usually a bad sign that the cancer has or will
soon spread to other parts of the body
Metastatic Cancer of
the lymph node

● Characterized by lymphoma
Primary Cancer of
the lymph node
 HISTO
F
Topic
I
N
Transcribed by: Soph, CJ, Pearl
A
L
A-Lab | Block A | A.Y. 2022-23 CLASS CODE S

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM OVERVIEW OF THE CONDUCTING PORTION

● Site where respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide are A. Nasal Cavity
exchanged. a. Nares
4 MAIN FUNCTIONS b. Vestibule
Pulmonary Ventilation c. Olfactory epithelium
● Work of breathing, inhale, and exhale that bring air into and out of B. Nasopharynx
the lungs C. Larynx
External Respiration D. Trachea and extrapulmonary (primary) bronchi
● Exchange of gasses between the alveoli and the pulmonary E. Intrapulmonary bronchi (secondary bronchi) / Lobular bronchu
capillaries F. Primary and terminal bronchioles
Internal Respiration
● Exchange of gasses between the peripheral circulation and the CONDUCTING PORTION
interstitial spaces and cells
Respiratory Gas Transport Nares ● Nostrils that are lined by thin skin→
● Forms by which oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported to and open to vestibule
from the pulmonary and the peripheral circulation
● 1st portion of the nasal cavity
2 ANATOMIC DIVISIONS ● Epithelial lining becomes non
keratinized
● UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT ● Respiratory epithelium:
Nasal cavity
● LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT Vestibule pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium with goblet cells
2 ANATOMIC DIVISIONS
Vibrissae
CONDUCTING PORTION ● Contained in the vestibule
● Function: to warm, moisten and filter the air before it reaches the ● Composed of thick, short hairs
respiratory components where gas exchange occurs which filter large particles from
inspired air
 Lamina Propia
● many microvilli
● Richly vascularized: many venous
● prominent terminal
plexuses
web of filaments
● Contains seromucous glands
Epistaxis Basal cells ● rest on basal lamina
○ Nosebleed but do not extend to
○ occurs when superficial the surface
venous plexuses are damaged ● regenerative for all
● excessive blowing of the the three cell types
nose
● Nose picking Bowman’s ● produce thin watery
glands secretion→
● Roof of the nasal cavity on either released to
side of the nasal septum and olfactory epithelial
superior nasal conchae surface via narrow
● Lined by tall pseudostratified ducts
columnar epithelium with olfactory ○ flushes the
cells surface in
○ supporting (sustentacular) preparation
cells and basal cells for new
● Lamina propria houses the stimuli
bowman’s glands ● odorants (the
Olfactory stimuli
Epithelium for the sense of
Olfactory ● bipolar neurons w/
cells bulbous apical smell)
projection (olfactory ● detected by
vesicle) olfactory
cilia
Olfactory ● long non motile
cilia cilia → extend to
surface of the
olfactor epithelium ● Continuous with the oropharynx
● receptors of odor ● Posterior communication of the nasal cavities
● Lined with respiratory epithelium
Supporting ● possess nuclei that Nasopharynx
● laryngopharynx =stratified squamous epithelium
(sustentac are more apically ● Lamina propria
ular) cells located ○ mucus
 ○ serous glands
○ Abundant with lymphoid tissue (pharyngeal
Functions of Clara cells:
tonsil) -adenoid when inflamed
● Divide and differentiate into
Larynx ● Connects pharynx with the trachea ciliated cells
● C shaped hyaline cartilages ● Secrete glycosaminoglycans
Trachea and ○ supplied with dense fibroelastic connective ● Metabolize airborne toxins→
Extrapulmon tissues in between carried out by cytochrome p450
ary (primary) ○ permit elongation of the trachea during enzymes
bronchi inhalation ○ abundant SER
● Respiratory Epithelium cells ● Increased toxic stress stimulates
● Arise from subdivisions of primary bronchi division to become alveolar cells
Intrapulmon ● Divide many times and give rise to segmental
ary bronchi bronchi
(secondary ● Their wall contains irregular cartilage plates
bronchi)/ ● Lined by respiratory epithelium RESPIRATORY PORTION
Lobar ● Spiraling smooth muscle bundles separate lamina ● Function: exchange of gasses takes place in this portion of the
bronchi propria from submucosa which contain submucous respiratory system
glands
● lack glands in the submucosa and their walls OVERVIEW OF THE RESPIRATORY PORTION
● contain smooth muscles rather than cartilage A. Respiratory Bronchioles
plates B. Alveolar ducts
C. Alveolar Sacs
D. Alveoli
● 1mm or less
E. Interalveolar septum
● Divide to form terminal
Primary bronchioles after entering
CONDUCTING PORTION
Bronchioles pulmonary lobules
Primary and Epithelium: ● Transition point between conducting and
terminal ● ciliated columnar with goblet cells respiratory zone
bronchioles larger airways ● Lined with simple cuboidal w/ Clara cells and
Respiratory
● →ciliated cuboidal with Clara some ciliated cells
Bronchioles
cells in the smaller passages ○ except in area interrupted by alveoli
● Distally: lining abruptly changes to simple
Terminal ● Most distal part of the conducting squamous epithelium
Bronchioles zone ● Linear passageways continuous w/ bronchioles
● Less than 0.5mm diameter ● Wall: adjacent alveoli separated by interalveolar
Alveolar
● Simple cuboidal epithelial lining septum
Ducts
containing Clara cells Lined by:
● type II pneumocytes
 ● highly attenuated simple squamous epithelium of
type I pneumocytes
Alveolar ● Expanded outpouchings of numerous alveoli at
sacs the distal ends of the ducts
● Pouchlike evaginations about 200um in diameter
in the walls of the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar
ducts and in alveolar sacs
● Houses the respiratory membrane/blood gas
barrier
Alveoli
● Separated by interalveolar septa, contain more
pores of Kohn
○ permit equalization of pressure between
alveoli
● Lined by type I pneumocytes and type II
ALVEOLAR CELLS
● In between 2 adjacent alveoli
● squamous epithelium
● Extremely thin squamous epithelium lines the
● 95% of the alveolar surface
alveolar outer surface
TYPE I ● Form part of the respiratory membrane
● Contains elastic and reticular fibers in its thicker
PNEUMOCYTES ● Form tight junctions with adjacent cells
regions
● Phagocytic
● Houses continuous capillaries in its central
● Unable to divide
(interior) region
● Cuboidal
● Contains the respiratory membrane
● Near septal intersections
○ permits the diffusion of gases between the
Interalveolar ● Bulge into alveolus
alveolar space and the blood
Septum ● Free surface contains microvilli
○ Thinnest layers are 0.2um or less
● Able to divide
○ Thicker regions measure as much as
● Can regenerate into both types of pneumocytes
0.5um across
TYPE II ● Form tight junctions with adjacent cells
● 1st layer: type I pneumocytes and a layer of
PNEUMOCYTES ● Synthesize pulmonary surfactant which is stored
surfactant lining the alveolar airspace
in cytoplasmic lamellar bodies
● 2nd layer: fused basal lamina of type I
pneumocytes and capillary endothelial cells
● Phospholipids and at least 4
● 3rd layer: endothelium of continuous capillaries
SURFACTANT proteins
within the interalveolar septum
● Forms tubular myelin
● Spreads upon production to
create a monomolecular film
over alveolar surface
● Reduces surface tension of the
 alveolar surface ● observed in premature infants (<28 weeks
● alveolar phagocytes / dust gestational age) who lack adequate amounts of
cells pulmonary surfactant
● Principal MNP of the alveolar ● characterized by labored breathing due to alveoli
surface that are difficult to expand
Hyaline
● Remove particulate matter ● ⬇surfactant = high alveolar surface tension =
membrane
ALVEOLAR trapped in the surfactant higher tendency for alveolar collapse
disease:
MACROPHAGES ● Migrate to bronchioles and ● Prevented by:
Infant
carried to the oropharynx ○ prolonging pregnancy
Respiratory
○ either swallowed or ○ administering glucocorticoids to the
distress
expectorated expectant mother a few days prior to
syndrome
● May exit via interstitial delivery
migration and leave via
lymphatic vessels Glucocorticoids
● help induce the synthesis of surfactant

CLINICAL CORRELATIONS ● destruction of alveolar walls and formation of

CONDUCTING PORTION
● marked by widespread contraction of smooth
muscles in the bronchioles
○ decrease in their diameter
● Associated with extremely difficult expiration of
air, accumulation of mucus in the passageways
and infiltration of inflammatory cells
Emphysema
● treated with drugs that stimulate sympathetic
activity
Asthma
○ cause smooth muscle relaxation
○ leasing to dilation of passageways
○ Corticosteroids- anti- inflammatory
● Taste receptors that respond to bitter tastes
when stimulated by a bitter taste cause the
bronchiolar smooth muscles to relax causing
them to dilate up to 90% of their normal volume.
cyst like sacs
○ reducing the surface area available for
gas exchange
● marked by ⬇ elasticity of the lungs
○ unable to recoil adequately during
expiration
● associated with exposure to cigarette smoke and
other substances that inhibit a1-antitrypsin
● can be a hereditary condition resulting from a
defective a1 -antitrypsin
A1-antitrypsin
● a protein that normally protects the lungs from
the action of elastase produced by alveolar
macrophages.

RESPIRATORY PORTION
 HISTO
F
URINARY SYSTEM
I
N
Transcribed by: Mau, Soph, Gerard
A
L
A-Lab | Block A | A.Y. 2022-23 CLASS CODE S

URINARY SYSTEM ○ covered by a thin fibrous capsule.

Urinary system ● Contains: the renal artery, vein, & pelvis that become
● major excretory system of the body. the urethra.
● Consists of: ○ Surrounded by the renal sinus
○ two kidneys- large bean-shaped organs ● upper expanded end of the ureter
■ Functional unit: uriniferous tubules ● divides into:
● Nephron- subdivided into renal corpuscle and Renal Pelvis ○ Major calyces - 2-3; form smaller branches
renal tubules. ○ Minor calyces - smaller branches of the Major
● Collecting duct- empty the filtered contents. calyces
■ retroperitoneally adjacent to the posterior body wall. Renal cortex ● outer darker region w/ corpuscle and CS of tubules
○ two ureters
● renal pyramids
○ urinary bladder
Renal ○ inner layer of 8-12 conical structures
○ single urethra
medulla ● renal columns
● Function:
○ extensions that separates cortex
○ Regulation of the balance between water and electrolytes
Renal lobe ● pyramid + cortical tissue
○ Excretion of metabolic wastes, in urine
○ base and sides
○ Excretion of many bioactive substances
○ Regulation of arterial blood pressure→ out renin ● Central medullary ray and cortical tissue→ extend to
○ Secretion of erythropoietin Renal lobule interlobular artery
■ stimulates erythrocyte production in red marrow ● nephrons drain→collecting tubule of medullary ray
○ Conversion of the steroid prohormone vitamin D/calcitriol Medullary ● Striations: medulla→cortex
○ Gluconeogenesis during starvation rays
● tip of the renal papilla
PARTS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM Renal papilla ● projects into a minor calyx
○ collects urine in pyramids.
KIDNEYS ● Connective tissue compartment
Renal ● Scanty in the cortex
Hilum ● concave medial border
interstitium ○ <10% of the cortical volume
○ nerves enter, ureter exits, & blood and lymph
○ 20% of the medullary volume
○ vessels enter and exit
 ● fibroblasts & mononuclear cells (macrophages) PARTS OF BOWMAN CAPSULE
2 additional cell types: Parietal ● Simple squamous epithelium
● Pericytes - along blood vessels Renal layer ○ lines the outer wall of bowman
○ supply the loops of Henle corpuscle capsule
● Interstitial cells - long processes that extend toward ● A.k.a glomerular epithelium
(and encircle) capillaries and tubules in the medulla. ● modified simple squamous
○ Medullipin I Visceral epithelium→podocytes
■ vasodepressor hormone→medullipin II layer ○ Lines inner wall of the Bowman
in the liver capsule
○ Medullipin II - vasodilator that acts to reduce ● envelops the glomerular capillaries
blood pressure
Bowman ● A.k.a capsular space/urinary space
space ● narrow chalice-shaped cavity
NEPHRONS ● ultrafiltrate passes
Consist of: Vascular ● Afferent glomerular arteriole enters
● Renal corpuscle pole ● efferent glomerular arteriole
● Proximal tubule- proximal convoluted tubule and the pars recta leaves→glomerulus.
● Thin descending limb of Henle loop Urinary pole ● Capsular space→lumen of the
● Henle loop proximal convoluted tubule.
● Thin ascending limb of Henle loop
● Distal tubule- pars recta of distal tubule, short macula densa, &
Podocytes
distal convoluted tubule
● modified epithelial cells
Note:
● visceral layer of Bowman capsule
● pars recta of the proximal tubule = descending thick limb of Henle
● synthesize glomerular endothelial growth factor
loop
○ facilitates the formation and maintenance of
● pars recta of the distal tubule = ascending thick limb of Henle loop.
the glomerular endothelial cells.
● Pedicels
CLASSIFICATION ○ arising from other primary processes.
Cortical ● near the capsule ○ surfaces facing bowman space coated w/
Mid-cortical ● between the other two podocalyxin
● near the corticomedullary junction ■ protein thought to assist in maintaining
Juxtamedullary ● longer loops of Henle than cortical or mid-cortical organization and shape
● establish the interstitial concentration gradient in ● Filtration slits
medulla. ○ Elongated spaces about 40nm in width
between adjacent pedicels
● Consists of the glomerulus and Bowman capsule ■ Filtration slit diaphragm
● Where filtration of blood occurs ● bridges each filtration slit
● principal structure for the
 filtration of proteins. 3 distinct zones
○ extracellular portion of the transmembrane Lamina rara ● an electron-lucent zone
protein nephrin externa ● adjacent to the podocyte epithelium.
■ contacts the extracellular portion of Lamina densa ● thicker, electron-dense intermediate
nephrin from the adjacent pedicel zone of amorphous material
Lamina rara ● electron-lucent zone
Interna ● adjacent to capillary endothelium

● Tuft of capillaries→ extend to Bowman capsule
● Glomerular endothelial cells
○ Form the inner layer of the capillary walls
○ thin cytoplasm that is thicker around the
nucleus,
■ where most organelles are located
○ Possess large fenestrae (60-90 nm in
diameter)
Renal ■ lack of thin diaphragms
glomerulus ● span the openings in other
fenestrated capillaries
● Basal lamina
○ Between the podocytes and the glomerular
endothelial cells
○ manufactured by both cell populations.
○ unusually thick (0.15-0.5 um)
● Mesangium
○ interstitial tissue between glomerular
capillaries
○ Composed of mesangial cells
■ phagocytose large protein molecules
and debris
● may accumulate during filtration
or in certain disease states
■ Can also contract
● decreasing the surface area
available for filtration
■ Receptor for aniotensin II & atrial
natriuretic peptide
■ manufacture platelet-derived growth
factor, endothelins, interleukin-1, and
prostaglandin E2
● Composed of:
○ Fenestrated endothelium of glomerular
capillaries
○ Basal lamina (laminae rarae and lamina densa)
○ Filtration slit diaphragm
■ Bridging the filtration slits between
adjacent pedicels
Renal ● Function:
filtration ○ permits passage of water, ions, and small
barrier molecules
■ bloodstream→capsular space
○ prevents large & negatively charged proteins
○ forms ultrafiltrate of blood plasma→Bowman
space
 absorption.
● Lamina rarae - contain heparin sulfate ● Prominent interdigitations; interlock adjacent cells
○ polyanionic glycosaminoglycan that assists in ● Numerous mitochondria in vasal region→Na+ out
restricting the passage of negatively charged Proximal of the tubule.
proteins into the Bowman space. convoluted ● Apically situated occluding junctions
● Lamina densa tubule ○ block the paracellular pathway.
○ type IV collagen ( a3, a4, and a5 chains rather ○ glucose transporters, Na+K+ -ATPase
the a1 and a.z chains present in most) pump,
○ Perlacan ● Basolateral cell membrane→Na +K+ -ATPase pump
○ Laminin & basal cell membrane→glucose and amino acid
○ Entactin transporters.
○ Agrin ● primary cilium→flow and composition of the
■ act as a selective macromolecular filter ultrafiltrate.
■ Prevent large protein molecules (>
69,000 Da) → Bowman space.
Function:
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS ● drains the Bowman space→urinal pole(renal
Glomerulonephritis corpuscle)
● Nephritis characterized by inflammation of the glomeruli. ● resorbs from the glomerular filtrate
● secondary to a streptococcal infection ● exchanges H+ at interstitium for HC03- at filtrate
● result from immune or autoimmune disorders. ● Secretes creatinine at the filtrate
● associated w/ hematuria, proteinuria, and oliguria
● acute, subacute, and chronic TYPES OF LOOP OF HENLE
○ chronic form, in which the destruction of glomeruli Descending ● pars recta of the proximal tubule
continues→ renal failure & death thick limb of the ● simple cuboidal epithelium that
Chronic Renal Failure Henle loop has a prominent brush border
● blood flow to the kidneys is reduced→decrease in glomerular ● resorb, exchange, and secrete
filtration & tubular ischemia. Loop of Henle ● lined by simple squamous
● associated w/ hyalinization in glomeruli and atrophy of tubules, epithelial cells
● marked by acidosis, hyperkalemia, uremia ● W/ few short microvilli.
● chronic renal failure→neurological problems, coma, and death ● nuclei bulge into the lumen
Thin limb of the
Henle loop *In juxtamedullary nephrons
● single layer of irregularly shaped cuboidal to ● divided into three distinct
columnar epithelial cells portions:
● Microvilli forming prominent brush border. ○ Descending thin limb
Rules: ■ Aquaporin l
● Apical canaliculi, vesicles, and vacuoles→protein channels
 ■ Permeable ● ADH causes the epithelial cells (mainly the
○ Henle loop principal cells) of the collecting tubule to add
■ similar-> ascending aquaporin 2, 3, 4
thin limb ● →increased blood pressure
■ mostly
impermeable COMPONENTS
○ Ascending thin limb ● modified smooth muscle
■ almost ○ Exhibit protein secreting
impermeable Juxtaglomerular cells
■ sodium and cells ● Location: afferent arteriole
chloride channels, ● synthesize renin→store:
■ urea enters the secretory granules
lumen ● closely packed epithelial
Basis: cells→distal tubule
● 4 diff simple squamous epithelial Macula densa ● closely packed nuclei appear as
● Organelle content cells dense spot
● Depth of tight junctions ● monitor the osmolarity and
● Permeability volume of the fluid
● pars recta of the distal tubule ● Transmit info to JG cells
● cuboidal epithelial cells w/ few ● A.k.a polkissen (pole cushion) or
microvilli Extraglomerular lacis cells
● Manufacture uromodulin mesangial cells ● afferent and efferent glomerular
Ascending thick (Tamm-Horsfall glycoprotein) arterioles
limb of the ○ Reduces kidney stone form ● function?
Henle loop ○ Modulates urine
concentration ● continuous with the macula densa
● establishes a gradient of Distal ● Same as ascending thick limb of the Henle loop
osmolarity→medulla convoluted ● shorter and has a wider lumen; lacks brush border
● returns to the renal corpuscle tubule ● resorbs Na+ from the filtrate & actively transports
to renal interstitium→ aldosterone
● maintains blood pressure ● transfers K+, NH4 +, and H+ filtrate→interstitium.
● Stimuli: decrease in extracellular fluid volume ● short segment between the distal convoluted
○ decrease in blood pressure tubule and the collecting tubule
Juxtaglomerul ○ decrease in sodium Connecting Epithelium:
ar apparatus ● Renin acts on angiotensinogen by cleaving 10 tubule ● Principal cells- many infoldings of the basal
amino acids plasma membrane
● Aldosterone stimulates→ distal convoluted tubule ○ remove Na+ from the filtrate→secrete K+
→remove Na + and Cr. ● Intercalated cells- apical vesicles and mitochondria
 ○ remove K+ from the filtrate→secrete H+ ○ region at the apex of each renal pyramid
Collecting ● embryological origin diff from nephrons ○ 10 to 25 openings; urine exits→minor calyx
tubules ● segments in both the cortex and medulla
Cortical collecting tubules
● within medullary rays; some in cortical labyrinth.
● simple cuboidal epithelium

TWO TYPES OF EPITHELIUM

Principal (light) ● round central nucleus
cells ● single primary cilium
● Concentrate urine.
Intercalated ● less numerous
(dark) cells ● possess microplicae (folds) on
apical surface & apical
cytoplasmic vesicles.
TYPES:
● a-intercalated cells
○ release H + ions to tubular
lumen and reabsorb HCO3
○ acidifying urine thru H+
and H+/K+ exchanger
○ possess hydrogen pumps
● β-intercalated cells
○ release HC03- ions to EXCRETORY PASSAGES
tubular lumen & reabsorb ● include the minor and major calyces and the renal pelvis
acid ● possess a three-layer wall
○ Alkalize urine ○ mucosa of transitional epithelium (except in the urethra)
○ HC03- pumps ■ lamina propria of connective tissue
○ muscularis (smooth muscle)
○ adventitia
Medullary ● Outer medulla; similar to cortical collecting tubules
collecting ○ Both principal and intercalated cells ● Kidney (renal pelvis)→conveys urine→urinary
tubules. ● Inner medulla bladder
○ Only principal ● Thicker transitional epithelium
Ureter ○ more cell layers >renal calyces
Papillary ● large collecting tubules; 200-300 in diameter
● Upper ⅔ two-layer muscularis
collecting ● from converging smaller tubules
○ inner longitudinal smooth muscle
tubules/ ducts ● Simple columnar epithelium w/ single primary
○ outer circular layer smooth muscle
of Bellini cilium
● Lower ⅓ outer longitudinal layer smooth muscle
● empty at the area cribrosa
 ● contracts muscle layers→peristaltic waves
○ Enter bladder in spurts
● Transitional epithelium; differ relaxed (empty) and
distended states
● thin lamina propria→fibroelastic CT
● Three-layer muscularis

EPITHELIUM
● five to six cell layers thick
Relaxed bladder ● rounded superficial
Urinary bladder. dome-shaped
● bulge into the lumen.
● three to four cell layers thick
● squamous superficial cells
Distended ● thinner and larger luminal surface
bladder ○ insertion of elliptical
vesicles→ luminal
plasma membrane of
surface cells.

bioactive substance
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGAN follicles ● composed of a primary oocyte
○ enveloped by a single layer of flat follicular
Introduction cells
● Gonad ● All in arrested development, but active when:
○ gland responsible for the formation of the gamete. ○ Until transforming growth factor β
● Duct system superfamily
○ series of passages through which the gamete would ○ Some are "recruited"-FSH
traverse when released by ejaculation.
PARTS
● prominent, acentric,
vesicular-appearing nucleus
Primary (germinal vesicle)
oocytes: ● Possess a single nucleolus
● many Golgi complexes, mitochondria,
RER, annulate lamellae, and cortical
granules
○ Under the plasmalemma
● arrested in prophase
○ by paracrine Oocyte
Maturation Inhibitors (OMI)
○ Fetal life to 40 yrs

OVARIES
Ovaries Follicular ● Attach=desmosomes
● covered by a simple cuboidal epithelium called the germinal cells: ● Separate=basal lamina
epithelium.
● a capsule, the tunica albuginea ● Primordial and primary follicles are NOT
○ dense, irregular collagenous connective tissue. dependent on FSH
● subdivided into a cortex and a medulla Stimulate:
○ not sharply delineated ● epidermal growth factor
● insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
Growing ● activin
DIVISIONS: OVARIAN CORTEX
follicles ● Ca2 + ions
Consists of:
● ovarian follicles (diff stages of development) ● FSH (some)
● connective tissue stroma
○ respond to hormonal stimuli. Primary follicles
Primordial ● basic reproductive units ● from primordial follicles
 Uni-laminar ● single layer of cuboidal follicular ○ induce granulosa cell
primary follicles cells proliferation.
○ Surrounds oocytes Secondary ● dependent on FSH
● from unilaminar follicles (antral) follicles ● BMP-15 and GDF-9
○ proliferation of follicular ○ Primary → secondary
cells due to activin. follicle
● several layers of granulosa cells. ● Liquor folliculi
○ secrete stem cell factor ○ exudate of plasma
(kit-ligand) ○ Contain: activin,
○ responsible for growth of estradiol, follistatin,
the primary oocyte inhibin, progesterone, and
○ Binding to theca interna oocyte maturation
Stromal cells inhibitor.
● inner cellular layer (theca Granulosa and theca interna cells
Multilaminar interna) ● LH receptors→ plasma
primary follicles ○ Separated by basal membrane
lamina ● FSH receptors→ celll membrane
○ Androstenedione Oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI)
■ suppress LH ● Synthesize by granulosa cells
■ penetrates basal ● prevents the oocyte to 125 um in
lamina→ diameter
granulosa cells ● Antrum- single large cavity
■ Aromatase (male) ○ fluid-filled spaces that
→ estradiol (fem) coalesce
● outer fibro-muscular layer (theca Graafian ● Dominant Graafian follicle
externa). (mature) follicle ○ secondary follicle to
○ collagenous connective ovulate.
tissue enriched smooth ● FSH independent
muscle ● manufactures the inhibin
○ Nourish the theca interna ○ shuts off FSH in
Activin basophils in anterior
● product of the primary oocyte pituitary gland
● Promotes release of FSH & its ○ Cause atresia to follicles
binding. ● measures 2.5 um in diameter
Primary oocyte ● Stigma- large bulge in ovary
● bone morphogenic protein 15 surface
(BMP-15) and growth ● Cumulus oophorus
differentiation factor 9 (GDF-9) ○ Small mound of
 granulosa cells
○ projects hyaluronic
acid-rich liquor folliculi→
antrum
● Membrana granulosa
○ granulosa cells lines
antrum
Zona pellucida
● Surround granulosa cells
● pellucid = transparent
● transparent, but thick,
glycoprotein membrane
● supports communication during
oogenesis
○ oocytes→follicle cells
● protects oocytes & embryos
● regulates interactions eggs and
sperm during fertilization
Corona radiata
● contacting the zona pellucida
● outer layer of of granulosa cells
● form around a developing oocyte
Ovulation- occurs in response to the LH surge.
● Pituitary→ LH Surge→
● Maturation promoting factor→ activate primary
oocyte → complete its first meiotic division →
form secondary oocyte and the first polar body.
● Trigger Second meiotic→ local meiosis-inducing
factors
○ Inhibited by metaphase.
● secondary oocyte and corona radiata cells leave
the ruptured follicle→ fimbriated oviduct
● Corpus hemorrhagicum→corpus luteum of
menstruation
○ temporary structure (weeks)→degenerate
to corpus albicans
Corpus hemorrhagicum→corpus luteum of
●
pregnancy
○ functional for several months→degenerate
to corpus albicans
Time Period of Folliculogenesis
● primordial follicle recruited for a year for ovulation
○ 290 days→secondary follicle
○ 60 days→ fully ovulated
● Formed remnants of the gaarian follicle
● Blood clot→former antrum; cumulus oophorus
leaves the ovary
○ Disposed by macrophages w/ other cellular
Corpus debris
hemorrhagi ● Converted into the corpus luteum after the
cum disposal of macrophages
○ Conversion if aided by estrogens, prolactin,
LH, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG),
and insulin-like growth factors I and II
(IGF-I and IGF–11)
● Formed from the corpus hemorrhagicum
● Composed of granulosa lutein cell (modified
granulosa cells) and theca lutein cells (modified
theca interna cells)
● Richly vascularized temporary endocrine gland
dependent on LH
COMPOSITION
Granulosa ● large (30um in diameter) and pale
Corpus
lutein cells cells with an abundant smooth
luteum
endoplasmic reticulum (SER), RER,
many mitochondria, a well
developed Golgi complex, and lipid
droplets.
● derived from cells of the
membrana granulosa
● manufacture progesterone and
convert androgens formed by the
theca lutein cells into estrogens.
 Theca lutein ● small (15um in diameter) cells
cells concentrated along the periphery
of the corpus luteum
● derived from cells of the theca
interna
● manufacture progesterone and
androgens and small amounts of
estrogen
● Remnant of the degenerated corpus luteum due to
hypoxic conditions from an overabundance of
collagen manufactured by fibroblasts Luteinizing
Corpus
● Becomes a small scar on the surface of the ovary hormone-r
albicans
after the granulosa lutein and theca lutein cells are
attacked by tumor necrosis factor a, driving them
to apoptosis
● Follicles (in various stages of maturation) that are
undergoing degeneration
● The remaining graafian and secondary follicles
Atretic
degenerate due to inhibin released by the ovulating
follicles
dominant graafian follicle, shutting off FSH
production by the basophils of the anterior pituitary
gland
OVARIAN MEDULLA
Consists of:
● Large blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers
- arranged in loose connective tissue stroma
● Small number of estrogen-secreting interstitial cells
● Few androgen-secreting hilar cells. Additional notes:
HORMONAL REGULATION
● Control of follicle maturation and ovulation
● Part of the unilaminar primary follicles
Primary ● Secretes activin
oocyte - facilitates proliferation of granulosa cells.
● Also known as gonadotropin releasing hormone
or GnRH
● Comes from the hypothalamus
● Causes the release of the FSH and LH
- from pars distalis of the pituitary gland.
FSH ● stimulates the growth and
development of secondary ovarian
follicles (not on the early stage)
● stimulates appearance of LH receptors
on the granulosa cell plasmalemma
LH Surge of LH:
● Triggers the primary oocyte of the
dominant graafian follicle to complete
eleasing meiosis I and to enter meiosis II.
hormone - arrested at metaphase
(LHRH) ● Dominant graafian follicle no longer
becomes FSH dependent and
releases the hormone inhibin that
shuts off FSH release by the anterior
pituitary
- causing atresia of all
developing FSH-dependent
follicles
● Initiates ovulation of the secondary
oocyte from the graafian follicle.
● Promotes formation of the corpus
luteum
● Granulosa cells secrete stem cell factor (kit-ligand) and binds to:
a. kit ligand receptors on the surface of the primary oocyte
plasmalemma
- responsible for growth of the primary oocyte
b. kit ligand receptors on the surface of the theca interna cell
membranes
- Facilitates organization of kit-ligands around the
developing follicle
 ● Both the normal development of the primary follicle and the - triggers the release of FSH from the
conversion from primary to secondary follicles is greatly dependent pituitary, thus reinitiating the menstrual
on: cycle.
a. BMP-15 (bone morphogenetic protein 15)
b. GDF-9 (growth differentiation factor 9). Additional notes:
● Regulation of FSH and LH are influenced by: In each menstrual cycle
a. Theca interna cells manufacture androgens ● only about five maturing follicles reach the graafian follicle stage
- converted to estrogens by granulosa cells ● usually only the dominant follicle undergoes ovulation
b. Granulosa cells
- also secrete inhibin, follistatin, and activin, all of OVIDUCTS
which (in addition to estrogen) regulate FSH Oviducts
secretion. ● Each of the two oviducts is about 12 cm in length
c. By approximately day 14 of the menstrual cycle ● Divided into 4 regions
- estrogen blood levels are sufficiently high to
facilitate a sudden, brief surge of LH REGIONS OF THE OVIDUCTS
● has a fimbriated end
CORPEUS LUTEUM Infundibulum
a. Progesterone ● Longest region of the oviducts (7 cm in length)
- Major hormone secreted by corpus luteum Ampulla
● most common site of fertilization
inhibits the release of LH by suppressing Isthmus ● narrow region
the release of LHRH ● traverses the wall of the uterus
- Promotes the development of the uterine Intramural
Luteal ● wall of each oviduct consists of a mucosa,
endometrium portion
hormones muscularis, and serosa.
b. Estrogen
- inhibits the release of FSH by suppressing MUCOSA OF THE OVIDUCTS
the release of LHRH
c. Relaxin
- extensive longitudinal folds in the infundibulum
- facilitates parturition
- degree of folding progressively decreases in the remaining three
Syncytiotrophoblast of the developing placenta
manufactures: regions of the oviduct
a. human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
In the - maintains the corpus luteum of pregnancy EPITHELIUM OF THE OVIDUCTS
event of for about 3 months - Simple columnar
pregnancy - time the placenta takes over the production - Consists of peg cells and ciliated cells
of progesterone, estrogen, and relaxin ● secrete a nutrient-rich medium that nourishes
b. human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS) the spermatozoa (and preimplantation embryo),
In the ● Neither LH nor hCG is present Peg cells as well as cytokines
absence of ● Corpus luteum begins to atrophy. - cytokines aid in the capacitation of
pregnancy ● Lack of estrogen and progesterone spermatozoa
 ● the presence of progesterone increases the ● thick superficial
number of peg cells. layer→sloughed
● possess many cilia Functional ● reestablished monthly
- beat mostly toward the lumen of the layer ○ result of hormonal
uterus (functionalis) changes→ menstrual
Ciliated cells ● presence of estrogen increases number of cilia cycle.
and intensity of their motion ● deeper layer
● aid in the transport of the developing embryo to Basal layer ● <1 mm in thickness
the uterus (basalis) ● preserved during menstruation.
LAMINA PROPRIA OF THE OVIDUCTS ● two types of arteries
consists of: ● vessels in stratum vasculare of
● loose connective tissue the myometrium:
● reticular fibers, fibroblasts, mast cells, and lymphoid cells. Endometrial ● Colled arteries -
MUSCULARIS OF THE OVIDUCTS vascular undergo cyclic changes
● By contracting rhythmically, assists in moving the developing supply ● Straight arteries - do not
embryo toward the uterus undergo cyclic changes
SEROSA OF THE OVIDUCTS
● composed of a simple squamous epithelium overlying a thin ● thick smooth muscle tunic of the uterus
connective tissue layer ● Composed: inner and outer longitudinal layers
● covers the outer surface of the oviduct and a thick middle circular layer/stratum
vasculare.
UTERUS ● thickens at pregnancy→ hypertrophy &
Uterus hyperplasia
Myometrium
Consists of 3 regions: ● End of preggy→develops many gap junctions
● Fundus ○ coordinate contraction during parturition
■ oxytocin and by prostaglandins
● Body (corpus)
● After preggy→myometrium shrinks
● Cervix
○ smooth muscle cells lack
UTERINE WALL LAYERS estrogen→apoptosis
● Composed of an epithelial lining and a gland-rich ● Present over surfaces of the uterus bulging into
connective tissue stroma the peritoneal cavity
● Undergoes hormone-modulated cyclic alterations Serosa
● Adventitia - present along the retroperitoneal
Endometriu during the menstrual cycle surfaces of the uterus
m ● Thickness varies from less than 1 mm to 7 mm
● Lined by a simple columnar epithelium containing
CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
secretory and ciliated cells
Endometriosis
LAYERS
● Condition wherein pelvic peritoneal cavity contains uterine
endometrial tissue
 ● Associated with hormone-induced changes in the ectopic
endometrium during the menstrual cycle
● As the endometrium is shed, bleeding occurs in the peritoneal
cavity
- causes severe pain and the formation of cysts and
adhesions
● may lead to sterility
- due to ovaries and oviducts becoming deformed and
embedded in scar tissue
● factors that contribute to the occurrence of endometriosis are not
known
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
- begins on the day menstrual bleeding appears
- during the cycle, blood levels of estrogen, progesterone, FSH, and
LH are very low
● Days 1-4
● characterized by a hemorrhagic discharge
(menses) of the functional layer of the
endometrium
● It is triggered by spasms of contraction and
relaxation of the coiled arteries
- caused by low levels of progesterone and
estrogen
- long-term (2-3 days) vasoconstriction of
these arteries causes ischemia and
eventual necrosis
Menstrual
- Vasoconstriction is followed by sudden,
phase
intermittent vasodilation of the coiled
arteries
● blood clotting is inhibited
● basal layer is supplied by short straight vessels
that do not undergo prolonged vasoconstriction
- not sloughed and does not become necrotic
Vasodilation
● floods stroma with blood
● detaches the functional layer
● dislodges the necrotic tissue
● Days 4 to 14
● involves renewal of the entire functional layer,
including the repair of glands, connective tissue,
and vascular elements (specifically, the coiled
arteries)
● the levels of estrogen (principal hormone
responsible for the stage of proliferation) in the
blood continue to rise
○ The epithelium that lines the luminal
Proliferativ surface of the uterus is renewed by mitotic
activity of cells remaining in the uterine
e
glands of the basal layer of the
(follicular)
endometrium.
phase
○ Glands are straight and lined by a simple
columnar epithelium.
○ Stromal cells divide, accumulate glycogen,
and enlarge.
○ Coiled arteries extend approximately
two-thirds of the way into the endometrium.
● At the end of this phase, the endometrium is
approximately 3 mm in
thickness.
● Days 15-28
● begins shortly after ovulation
● characterized by a thickening of the endometrium
- resulting from edema and secretion by the
endometrial glands
● Principal hormones: progesterone and estrogen
(to a certain degree)
Secretory ● Glands become coiled
(luteal) - their lumina become filled with a secretion
phase of glycoprotein material and glycogen
- their cells accumulate large amounts of
glycogen, in the basal aspect of their
cytoplasm
● Coiled arteries become not only more highly coiled
but also longer
- extending into the superficial aspects of the
functional layer
 ● At the end, the endometrium is somewhat
edematous (approximately 6 to 7 mm in thickness)
FORDA PREGGY
Fertilization
● within the ampulla of the oviduct
● Occurs when:
○ spermatozoan penetrates the corona radiata & zona
pellucida; &
○ pierces the plasma membrane of a secondary oocyte
1. Sperm needs:
○ Maturation- occur in male; travels only in a circular fashion.
○ Capacitation- occur in female;
■ Sperm can’t→ prostate-manufactured
fertilization-promoting peptide (FPP) too high
■ Sperm can→ inside female; FPP diluted by the
vaginal secretions
■ Cholesterol→ removed in acrosomal
plasmalemma→ less rigid
■ Special Ca2+ ion channels open
■ intra-flagellar calcium induce camp→ hyperactivity
○ Hyperactivity- ability to swim faster & vigorously
2. Sperm is capacitated→ can fertilize egg thru acrosome reaction
→bind to Zona Pellucida Binding protein 3 (ZP3)
○ Acrin-released from the acrosome
■ reduce the viscosity of the zona pellucida
■ Sperm reach/fusion secondary oocyte
● Due to fertilin (sperm) & CD9 molecules and
integrins (2nd oocyte plasmalemma)
3. Secondary oocyte respond→cortical reaction→second meiotic
division→ form female pronucleus.
○ Cortical granules fuse & release enzymes in zona pellucida.
■ Preventing polyspermy
○ Entry of spermatozoon's nucleus (male pronucleus) and
centrosome
■ Triggers second meiotic division→ forming the
second polar body→ovum/female pronucleus
○ Zygote forms- a diploid cell
■ undergoes its first mitotic division.
■ Centrosomes from dad
■ Mitochondria from mom
IMPLANTATION
1 Zygote:
● undergoes mitotic cell division (known as cleavage during
the early stages of embryogenesis)
● transformed into a multicellular structure called a morula,
which requires about 3 days to travel through the oviduct and
enter the uterus
2 Conceptus:
● acquires a fluid-filled cavity and becomes a blastocyst
3 Blastocyst:
● implants in the endometrium
● is surrounded by an inner cellular layer, the cytotrophoblast,
and an outer multinucleated layer, the syncytiotrophoblast
4 Syncytiotrophoblast:
● further invades the endometrium by the sixth day after
fertilization, beginning the start of placental formation
OTHER PARTS OF WOMAN
Cervix ● does not participate in menstruation; secretions
change
○ Cervical wall- dense collagenous CT, w/
numerous elastic fibers & few smooth muscle
cells.
● Simple columnar (mucus-secreting) continuous w/
vagina
● Stratified squamous nonkeratinized- for inferior
portion
● Branched cervical glands secrete a serous fluid
 ○ Facilitates the entry of spermatozoa ● cytotrophoblasts and syncytiotrophoblasts
○ During preggy→produce a thick, viscous form the chorion
secretion that hinders the entry of ● chorion develops into the chorionic plate
spermatozoa - gives rise to the chorionic villi
● Prior parturition- cervix dilates and softens ● endometrium of the uterus forms the decidua
○ lysis of collagen fiber bundles→hormone c. Decidua has 3 regions:
relaxin 1. Decidua basalis - forms the majority of the
● Transient structure maternal portion of the placenta
● Consisting of a maternal portion and a fetal portion 2. Decidua capsularis
● permits the exchange of various materials between 3. Decidua parietalis
Placenta the maternal and fetal circulatory systems d. Maternal blood vessels invade the decidua basalis
- occurs without mixing of the two separate - forming large blood-filled spaces known as
blood supplies. lacunae.
● produces estrogen e. Chorionic villi of the developing fetus
● become vascularized
Secreted by the placenta ● capillary beds form within the villi
a. Progesterone - grow into the lacunae
b. Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG) - receive nutrients and oxygen for the
c. Chorionic thyrotropin fetus
d. Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin (hCS) - deliver waste products and carbon
e. Lactogenic dioxide into the maternal blood of the
f. Growth-promoting hormone lacunae
g. Endothelial growth factor f. Placental barrier
h. IGF-I and II ● where transfer of nutrients and waste
i. Fibroblast growth factor products occurs
j. Colony-stimulating factor ● interposed between the maternal blood and
k. Platelet-derived growth factor fetal blood
l. Tumor necrosis growth factor ● narrowest placental barrier is composed of:
m. Relaxin 1. Endothelial cells of the fetal capillaries
n. Leptin 2. Basal lamina of the fetal capillary
o. Interleukins l endothelium
3. Basal lamina of the cytotrophoblasts
Placenta 4. Cytotrophoblasts
a. At birth 5. Syncytiotrophoblasts
● 18 cm in diameter and 2.5 cm thick
● Weight: 600 g ● fibromuscular canal w/ 3 layers
b. As placenta begins development ● Circumscribed by skeletal muscle sphincter at
external orifice
 ● Lubed by: ● two small, cylindrical erectile
Vagina ○ Secretions from cervix bodies
○ seepage of the extracellular fluid→ vascular ● Terminate at:
supply of lamina propria Clitoris ○ prepuce-covered glans
clitoridis
3 LAYERS ● Many Meissner corpuscles +
● thick, stratified squamous pacinian corpuscles
nonkeratinized + fibroelastic CT
(lamina propria) ● Identical for both genders (1st decade of life)
Inner ● contains glycogen→produce lactic ● Puberty: FEMALES
mucosa acid ○ Flow of estrogens, progesterone, and
○ lowers the pH during the lactogenic hormone induces mammary gland
follicular phase to:
○ inhibits invasion by pathogens Mammary ■ enlarge and develop a system of
● irregularly arranged layers of smooth Glands lobules and terminal ductules
Middle muscle + elastic fibers ■ Increase in the connective tissue mass
muscularis ○ thin inner circular layer and a deposit of adipose tissue.
○ thicker outer longitudinal layer
External ● fibroelastic connective tissue ● Mammary gland of POSTPUBERTAL FEMALE:
adventitia ● attaches the vagina composed of numerous compound tubuloalveolar
glands
○ With own lactiferous sinus and a duct that
● fat-laden folds of skin; opens at the apex of the nipple.
Labia majora ● Hair, sebaceous, and sweat glands
are present ● In adult and nonpregnant women
● folds of skin ● Composed of lactiferous sinuses
○ possess a highly vascular Resting and ducts
Labia minora CT w/ elastic fibers (nonlactating) ● Lined by a stratified cuboidal
● lack hair follicles Mammary epithelium, with a basal layer
● numerous sebaceous glands→ to Glands consisting of scattered
surface myoepithelial cells
External ● space between the two labia ● Basal Lamina:
Genitalia minora ○ Separates the epithelial
(Vulva) Vestibule ● Glands of Bartholin + minor components from the
vestibular glands underlying stroma.
○ mucus-secreting glands in
urethra & clitoris ● Enlarged during pregnancy (due to
 development of alveoli)
● ALVEOLAR CELLS
○ Line the alveoli of active
mammary glands
○ Surrounded by an
incomplete layer of
myoepithelial cells.
○ Richly endowed with RER
Active and contain several Golgi
(lactating) complexes, numerous
Mammary mitochondria, lipid
Glands droplets, and vesicles
containing milk protein
(caseins) and lactose.
● Secretion by Alveolar Cells
○ Lipids are released into
the lumen, via the
apocrine mode of
secretion
○ Proteins and sugars are
released into the alveolar
lumen, via the merocrine
mode of secretion
(exocytosis).
Nipple ● Dense, irregular collagenous
connective tissue
● interlaced with smooth muscle
fibers that act as a sphincter
● Contains openings of the
lactiferous ducts
● Surrounded by pigmented skin
(areola)
○ More deeply pigmented
during and subsequent to
pregnancy
○ Contains the areolar
glands (of Montgomery)
Secretions of the Mammary Glands
● Colostrum
○ Protein-rich yellowish fluid
○ during the first few days
after birth
○ Rich in cells (lymphocytes,
monocytes), lactalbumin,
fat soluble vitamins, and
minerals, and
immunoglobulin A (IgA)
● Milk
○ Secreted by the third and
fourth day after birth
○ Consists of proteins
(caseins, IgA, lactalbumin),
lipid droplets, and lactose
■ Released from the
mammary glands
via milk ejection
reflex
○ Response to a variety of
external stimuli related to
sucking
■ Involves release of
oxytocin (from
axons in the pars
nervosa of the
pituitary gland),
■ induces
contraction of the
myoepithelial
cells= milk into the
larger ducts and
 out of the breast

CLINICAL CORRELATIONS
In a Papanicolaou (Pap) smear
● epithelial cells are scraped from the lining of the cervix (or vagina)
- examined to detect cervical cancer
● shows variation in cell populations with stages of the menstrual
cycle

Carcinoma of the cervix

● originates from stratified squamous non keratinized epithelial cells
● may be contained within the epithelium and not invade the
underlying stroma (carcinoma in situ)
● may penetrate the basal lamina and metastasize to other parts of
the body (invasive carcinoma).
● occurs at a relatively high frequency
● can be cured by surgery if discovered early ( by Pap smear), before
it becomes invasive