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Sustainable Protein Sources
This page intentionally left blank
Sustainable Protein Sources

Edited by
Sudarshan R. Nadathur
Givaudan Flavors, Cincinnati, OH, United States

Janitha P. D. Wanasundara
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon SK, Canada

Laurie Scanlin
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States

AMSTERDAM G BOSTON G HEIDELBERG G LONDON G NEW YORK G OXFORD G PARIS

SAN DIEGO G SAN FRANCISCO G SINGAPORE G SYDNEY G TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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 This book is dedicated to the memory of my father,
Dr. N.R. Ranganthan,
who instilled in me the desire to aim high and
to make a difference for the greater good B Nadathur

And to the memory of

Dr. Amanda Minnaar of the University of Pretoria,
who devoted her life to improving the nutrition of the people of Africa

And to those who work to sustain the earth B Nadathur,

Wanasundara, Scanlin
This page intentionally left blank
Contents

List of Contributors xv Part I

Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Plant Derived Proteins
Introduction xxi
2.
1. Proteins in the Diet: Challenges in
Feeding the Global Population
S.R. Nadathur, J.P.D Wanasundara and L. Scanlin
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Proteins and Their Role in Food
and Diet 1
1.2.1 Defining Proteins: Structure
Levels and Existing Classification
Systems 2
1.2.2 Protein as a Macronutrient
in Food 4
1.2.3 Protein as a Macromolecule
in Food Systems 5
1.2.4 Overview of Plant-Derived Protein
and Alternate Protein Sources 7
1.3 Sustainable Sources of Proteins 8
1.3.1 Dietary Patterns Around
the Globe 8
1.3.2 Health and Wellness Trends 9
1.3.3 Product Trends 9
1.4 Reasons to Consume Plant and Alternate
Proteins 10
1.4.1 Living on the Earth in 2050 10
1.4.2 Natural Resources for Agriculture:
Land, Water, Nitrogen 12
1.4.3 Global Warming and Climate
Change 14
1.4.4 Quality of Life 15
1.5 Meat Consumption: Why We Are
on the Current Path 15
1.6 Role of the Consumer for the
Greater Good 16
References 16
Soy Protein: Impacts, Production,
and Applications
M. Thrane, P.V. Paulsen, M.W. Orcutt and
T.M. Krieger
2.1 Introduction 23
2.2 Production 23
2.3 Soybean Protein Recovery: Protein
Isolation 24
2.4 Types of Soy Proteins and Protein
Products 26
2.5 Sustainability 26
2.5.1 Two Life Cycle Inventory Models 27
2.5.2 Cradle-to-Gate Life Cycle Impact
Assessment 28
2.5.3 Other Perspectives on
Sustainability of Soy 31
2.6 Nutritive Value 33
2.6.1 Protein Nutrition 33
2.6.2 Muscle Health 34
2.6.3 Weight Management and Satiety 35
2.6.4 Cardiovascular Health 36
2.6.5 Nutritional Relevance of
Other Seed Constituents 37
2.6.6 Protein Allergies 38
2.6.7 A Good Source of Protein
Across the Lifespan 39
2.7 Uses and Functionality 39
2.8 Application and Current Products 40
2.9 Potential New Uses, Issues, and
Challenges 40
2.9.1 Generational Flavor
Improvements 41
2.9.2 Genetic Modified and Identity
Preserved 42
2.10 Concluding Remarks 42
References 43

vii
viii
3. Rice Protein and Rice Protein Products
H. Hoogenkamp, H. Kumagai
and J.P.D. Wanasundara
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Production of Rice 48
3.2.1 Land Use 48
3.2.2 Water Use 48
3.2.3 Energy Use 49
3.3 Processing of Rice and Rice Proteins 49
3.3.1 Proteins in Rice 51
3.3.2 Production of Rice Protein 53
3.4 Functional Properties and Applications 55
3.5 Allergenicity, Off Tastes, and
Antinutritional Factors 55
3.5.1 Allergenicity 55
3.5.2 Flavor Compounds and
Off Tastes 57
3.5.3 Antinutritional Factors 58
3.6 Potential New Uses and Emerging
Health Benefits 59
3.6.1 Reduction of Cholesterol and
Triacylglycerol Levels 59
3.6.2 Suppression of Hyperglycemia 59
3.6.3 Antioxidative Activity 59
3.6.4 Reduction in Hypertension 60
3.6.5 Ileum-Contracting, Antiopioid,
and Phagocytosis-Promoting
Activities 60
3.7 Concluding Remarks 60
References 61
4. Proteins From Wheat: Sustainable
Production and New Developments
in Nutrition-Based and Functional
Applications
M. Flambeau, A. Redl and F. Respondek
4.1 Introduction 67
4.1.1 Agricultural Production 67
4.1.2 Land Use 67
4.1.3 Water Use 68
4.1.4 Energy Use 68
4.1.5 Sustainability of Wheat 68
4.2 Proteins From Wheat 69
4.2.1 Gluten Extraction From Wheat 70
4.2.2 Protein Hydrolysis 70
4.3 Nutrition and Digestibility, Allergen, and
Antinutritive Aspects 71
4.3.1 Amino Acid Composition 71
4.3.2 Digestibility Data and Mechanism 72
4.3.3 Allergenicity and Intolerance
Mechanism 73
4.3.4 Antinutritive Factors 73
Contents
4.4 Protein Functionality 74
4.4.1 Solubility 74
4.4.2 Foaming 74
4.4.3 Emulsification 74
4.4.4 Satiety 74
4.5 Applications in Food and Feed 74
4.5.1 Gluten in Bread Application 74
4.5.2 Animal Nutrition 75
4.5.3 Breakfast Cereals and Pasta 75
4.5.4 Protein-Enriched Foods 75
4.5.5 Uses in Vegetable-Based Meat
Alternatives 75
4.5.6 New Product and Technology for
Wheat-Based Meat 76
4.6 Conclusion 76
References 77
5. Proteins From Sorghum and Millets
J.R.N. Taylor and J. Taylor
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 Sorghum and Millet Production:
Land, Water, and Energy Use 79
5.2.1 Production 79
5.2.2 Land-Use Efficiency 82
5.2.3 Water Efficiency 82
5.2.4 Cultivation With Legumes 83
5.2.5 Sustainable Agriculture 83
5.2.6 Cost of Grains 83
5.3 Protein Nutritive Quality 83
5.3.1 Protein Quality 84
5.3.2 Antinutrients 84
5.3.3 Protein Toxicity 86
5.3.4 Other Nutrients, Phytochemicals,
and Nutritional Quality Issues 86
5.4 Protein Types, Composition,
and Structure 87
5.4.1 Prolamin Proteins 87
5.4.2 Protein Isolation
and Functionality 87
5.4.3 Potential Applications for Kafirin 92
5.5 Sorghum and Millet Processing 92
5.5.1 Effects of Cooking on the Proteins 92
5.5.2 Milling 93
5.5.3 Malting 93
5.5.4 Lactic Acid Fermentation 94
5.5.5 Brewing and Bioethanol
Production 95
5.5.6 Compositing With Legumes 96
5.6 Developments in Improving Sorghum
and Millet Protein Quality 97
5.6.1 Sorghum 97
5.6.2 Millets 99
5.7 Conclusion 99
References 99
Contents
6. Protein From Oat: Structure, Processes,
Functionality, and Nutrition
O.E. Mäkinen, N. Sozer, D. Ercili-Cura
and K. Poutanen
6.1 Introduction 105
6.2 Oat as a Protein Crop 105
6.2.1 Land Use 105
6.2.2 Water Use 106
6.2.3 Energy Use 106
6.2.4 Health Aspects of Oats 106
6.3 Localization and Structure of Oat
Proteins 107
6.3.1 Protein in the Oat Grain 107
6.3.2 Oat Protein Fractions 107
6.3.3 Nutritional Properties and
Suitability for Celiac Patients 109
6.4 Manufacture of Oat Protein Isolates
and Concentrates 111
6.4.1 Wet Methods 111
6.4.2 Dry Methods 111
6.5 Functionality and Potential Uses 112
6.5.1 Functional Characteristics of Oat
Protein 112
6.5.2 Applications of Oat Protein 114
6.6 Future Outlook 115
References 115
7. Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa L.)
Proteins: Composition, Structure,
Enzymatic Modification, and
Functional or Bioactive Properties
R.E. Aluko
7.1 General Overview 121
7.1.1 Growing Regions and Yield 121
7.1.2 Land Use 122
7.1.3 Water Use 122
7.1.4 Energy Use and Cost 122
7.1.5 Plant and Seed 122
7.1.6 Seed Composition and Protein
Quality 123
7.2 Major Seed Proteins 123
7.2.1 Globulin 123
7.2.2 Albumin 124
7.2.3 Sulfur-Rich Proteins 124
7.2.4 Allergenicity 125
7.3 Functional Properties of Hemp
Seed Protein Products 125
7.3.1 Defatted Flour 125
7.3.2 Protein Concentrates 126
7.3.3 Protein Isolates 127
ix
7.4 Bioactive Properties of Hemp
Seed Proteins and Peptides 128
7.4.1 Renal Disease Modulation 128
7.4.2 Antioxidant 129
7.4.3 Antihypertensive 129
7.5 Concluding Remarks 131
References 132
8. Protein From Flaxseed
(Linum usitatissimum L.)
H.K. Marambe and J.P.D. Wanasundara
8.1 Introduction 133
8.1.1 Plant and Seeds 133
8.1.2 Chemical Composition 134
8.2 Sustainability of Flax:
Land, Water, and Energy Use 134
8.2.1 Land Use 134
8.2.2 Water Use 135
8.2.3 Energy Use 135
8.3 Processing of Proteins and Types
of Products From Flaxseed 135
8.4 Nutritive Value of Flaxseed Proteins 138
8.4.1 Amino Acids and Proteins 138
8.4.2 Allergenicity of Flaxseed Proteins 139
8.5 Uses and Functionality of Flaxseed
Protein 139
8.6 Application and Current Products 140
8.7 Potential New Uses, Issues, and
Challenges 141
8.8 Concluding Remarks 142
References 142
9. Pea: A Sustainable Vegetable
Protein Crop
M.C. Tulbek, R.S.H. Lam, Y.(C.) Wang,
P. Asavajaru and A. Lam
9.1 Introduction 145
9.1.1 Cultivation 145
9.1.2 Cultivars 146
9.2 Sustainability, Energy, and Water Use 146
9.3 Processing of Peas 147
9.4 Nutritive Value of Peas 150
9.4.1 Major Components 150
9.4.2 Minerals and Vitamins 152
9.4.3 Antinutritive Factors 152
9.4.4 Bioavailability 153
9.4.5 Allergenicity 154
9.4.6 Off-Tastes 154
9.5 Uses and Functionality 155
9.5.1 Whole Peas 155
9.5.2 Split Peas 156
x Contents

9.5.3 Pea Flour 156 10.10 Health Aspects of Lupin 177

9.5.4 Pea Proteins 156 10.10.1 Cholesterol 178
9.5.5 Pea Starch 157 10.10.2 Bowel Function 178
9.5.6 Pea Fiber 158 10.10.3 Satiety and Glucose Blood
9.6 Applications and Current Products 159 Level 178
9.6.1 Baked Goods 159 10.10.4 Blood Pressure 179
9.6.2 Pasta and Noodle 159 10.10.5 Other Health Effects 179
9.6.3 Extruded Snacks 160 10.11 Conclusion 179
9.6.4 Meat and Meat Analogs 161 References 180
9.7 Health Benefits of Peas 161
9.8 Conclusion 161
11. Lentil: Revival of Poor Man’s Meat
References 162
A. Samaranayaka
10. Lupin: An Important Protein
11.1 Introduction 185
and Nutrient Source 11.2 Sustainability 185
M. van de Noort 11.2.1 Land Use 185
11.2.2 Water Use 186
10.1 Introduction 165
11.2.3 Energy Use 187
10.1.1 Cultivation of Lupinus
11.2.4 Diseases Affecting Lentil Plant 187
Species 165
11.3 Lentil Proteins: Characterization and
10.2 Sustainability 166
Processing Into Concentrates and
10.2.1 Land Use 166
Isolates 187
10.2.2 Water Use 166
11.3.1 Characterization 187
10.2.3 Energy Use 167
11.3.2 Processing Into Protein
10.3 Food (Protein) Dependence
Concentrates or Isolates 187
of the EU 168
11.4 Nutritional Value, Antinutrients, and
10.4 Processing of Lupin 168
Allergenicity 188
10.4.1 Flour 168
11.4.1 Nutritive Value 188
10.4.2 Concentrate 168
11.4.2 Phytochemicals 189
10.4.3 Isolates 169
11.4.3 Protein Quality 189
10.5 Nutritive Value 169
11.4.4 Antinutritional Factors
10.5.1 Protein 170
and Protein Digestibility 190
10.5.2 Fats 170
11.4.5 Allergenicity 191
10.5.3 Carbohydrates 170
11.5 Applications and Current Products 191
10.5.4 Minerals and Vitamins 171
11.6 Protein Functionality 192
10.5.5 Evaluation of the Protein Quality
11.7 Health Properties 192
and Digestibility of Lupin 171
11.7.1 Bioactive Peptides 192
10.6 Antinutritive Factors and
11.7.2 Chronic Diseases 193
Allergenicity 172
11.8 Off-Flavors Associated With Lentil Flour
10.6.1 Antinutritive Factors 172
and Lentil Protein Ingredients 193
10.6.2 Off-Tastes 174
11.9 Conclusion 193
10.6.3 Allergenicity 174
References 194
10.7 Uses and Functionality 174
10.7.1 Lupin Flour 174
10.7.2 Lupin Protein Concentrate 175 12. Underutilized Protein Resources
10.7.3 Lupin Protein Isolate 175 From African Legumes
10.8 Application/Current Products 175
M. Gulzar and A. Minnaar
10.8.1 Bakery Applications 175
10.8.2 Egg Replacement in Baked 12.1 Introduction 197
Goods 175 12.2 Marama Beans 197
10.8.3 Application of Lupin Protein 12.2.1 Introduction (Land, Water,
Concentrate in Batters 176 Sustainability) 197
10.9 Current Food Products 176 12.2.2 Composition of Marama
10.9.1 Nutritional Applications 176 Beans 199
Contents
12.2.3 Composition of Marama
Proteins 199
12.2.4 Protein Isolation 199
12.2.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity,
and Antinutritive Factors 200
12.2.6 Current and Future Uses and
Applications 201
12.2.7 Off-Tastes Associated With Marama
Beans 202
12.2.8 Issues and Challenges 202
12.3 Bambara Groundnut 202
12.3.1 Introduction (Land, Water,
Sustainability) 202
12.3.2 Composition of Bambara
Groundnut 203
12.3.3 Composition of Bambara
Proteins 203
12.3.4 Protein Isolation 203
12.3.5 Nutritive Value, Allergenicity,
and Antinutritive Factors 204
12.3.6 Current and Future Uses and
Applications 204
12.3.7 Off-Tastes Associated With
Bambara Groundnut 205
12.3.8 Issues and Challenges 205
12.4 Conclusion 206
References 206
13. Peanut Products as a Protein Source:
Production, Nutrition, and
Environmental Impact
H.N. Sandefur, J.A. McCarty, E.C. Boles
and M.D. Matlock
13.1 Introduction 209
13.2 Environmental Impact and
Sustainability 209
13.2.1 Climate Change Impacts 209
13.2.2 Water Use Impacts 211
13.2.3 Land Use Impacts 212
13.3 Peanut Cultivation and Production 213
13.3.1 Production Regions 213
13.3.2 Cultivation Techniques 213
13.4 Peanut Processing 214
13.4.1 Peanut Drying 214
13.4.2 Grading 214
13.4.3 Shelling 215
13.4.4 Product Processing 215
13.5 Uses, Functionality, and Current
Products 215
13.6 Nutritional Value 216
13.6.1 Calories, Fats, Protein,
Carbohydrates 216
xi
13.6.2 Amino Acids and Protein 217
13.6.3 Micronutrients 218
13.6.4 Taste Profiles and Allergenicity 219
13.7 Conclusions 219
Acknowledgments 220
References 220
14. Quinoa as a Sustainable Protein
Source: Production, Nutrition,
and Processing
L. Scanlin and K.A. Lewis
14.1 Introduction 223
14.2 Production of Quinoa 224
14.2.1 Growing Regions and Yields 224
14.2.2 Land Use 225
14.2.3 Water Use 225
14.2.4 Energy Use and Cost 225
14.3 Morphology 225
14.4 Nutritional Quality 226
14.4.1 Protein Content 226
14.4.2 Protein Quality 226
14.4.3 Protein Digestibility 228
14.4.4 Macro- and Micronutrients and
Phytochemicals 229
14.4.5 Antinutritional Factors and
Allergenicity 230
14.5 Processing Methods 230
14.5.1 Quinoa Seed From “Farm to
Fork” 230
14.5.2 QPCs and Isolates 231
14.6 Quinoa Protein Functionality,
Off-Tastes, and Challenges 233
14.7 Concluding Remarks and Future
Research Needs 234
References 235
15. Amaranth Part 1—Sustainable Crop for
the 21st Century: Food Properties and
Nutraceuticals for Improving
Human Health
D. Orona-Tamayo and O. Paredes-López
15.1 Introduction 239
15.2 Nutritional Components in Amaranth 240
15.3 Amaranth Proteins and Amino
Acids for Human Nutrition 242
15.4 Bioactive Peptides Related to
Antihypertensive Functions 244
15.5 Antioxidant Capacities of Amaranth
Peptides 247
15.6 Potential Uses of Amaranth Proteins
in the Food Industry 248
xii
15.7 Genetic Engineering of Amaranth
Proteins 249
15.8 Concluding Remarks 251
Acknowledgments 251
References 251
16. Amaranth Part 2—Sustainability,
Processing, and Applications
of Amaranth
D.K. Santra and R. Schoenlechner
16.1 Sustainability of Amaranth Production 257
16.1.1 Origin and Distribution 257
16.1.2 Production and Yield 257
16.1.3 Land, Water, and Energy Uses 258
16.1.4 Harvesting 259
16.1.5 Postharvest Processing
(Cleaning and Storage) 259
16.1.6 Production Cost 260
16.2 Processing of Amaranth 260
16.2.1 Milling and Fractionation 260
16.2.2 Wet Milling for Production of
Starch-Rich, Fiber-Rich, or
Protein-Rich Fractions (Protein
Concentrates and Isolates) 261
16.3 Food Applications 262
References 263
17. Chia—The New Golden Seed
for the 21st Century: Nutraceutical
Properties and Technological Uses
D. Orona-Tamayo, M.E. Valverde
and O. Paredes-López
17.1 Introduction 265
17.2 Sustainability of Chia 265
17.2.1 Production 265
17.2.2 Land Use 266
17.2.3 Water Use 266
17.2.4 Energy Use 267
17.3 Consumption of Chia 267
17.4 Nutritional Value 268
17.4.1 Fiber 268
17.4.2 Lipids 268
17.4.3 Phenolic Compounds 268
17.4.4 Protein Content and Amino
Acids 269
17.4.5 Polyphenols, Oil, and Peptides
With Antioxidant Capacity 274
17.5 Chia Compounds Significant
to the Food Industry 275
17.5.1 Antioxidant Properties 276
17.5.2 Health Benefits 276
17.5.3 Functional Benefits 276
Contents
17.6 The Future of Chia Seeds: Molecular
Engineering and Gene Editing 277
17.7 Concluding Remarks 278
Acknowledgments 278
References 278
Part II
Upcoming Sources of Proteins
18. Proteins From Canola/Rapeseed:
Current Status
J.P.D. Wanasundara, S. Tan, A.M. Alashi,
F. Pudel and C. Blanchard
18.1 Introduction 285
18.2 Production of C/RS 285
18.2.1 Land Use 286
18.2.2 Water Use 286
18.2.3 Energy Use 286
18.3 Proteins of C/RS 286
18.3.1 Chemical Composition
of the Seed 286
18.3.2 Protein Types of C/RS 288
18.4 Processes of Protein Product
Preparation 289
18.4.1 Significant Considerations 289
18.4.2 Involving Aqueous
Alkaline Conditions 290
18.4.3 Processes Targeting Specific
Seed Protein Types/Fractions 291
18.4.4 Combination of Chemical
and Physical Methods 292
18.5 Nutritional Value 292
18.5.1 Amino Acid Composition 292
18.5.2 Digestibility in Human
and Animal Models and
the Processing Effects 293
18.6 Antinutritional Factors of C/RS 294
18.6.1 Glucosinolates 294
18.6.2 Phytates 295
18.6.3 Phenolics 295
18.6.4 Carbohydrates and Fiber 295
18.7 Allergenicity of C/RS Proteins 296
18.8 Functional Properties
of Protein Products 296
18.8.1 Solubility 296
18.8.2 Emulsifying Properties 296
18.8.3 Heat-Induced Gel
Formation Ability 297
18.8.4 Foaming Properties 297
18.9 Applications and Current
Products 297
Contents
18.9.1 Potential Food Applications as
Protein Supplements or Bulk
Proteins 297
18.10 Potential New Uses, Issues,
and Challenges 298
18.10.1 New Uses 298
18.10.2 Issues and Challenges 299
18.11 Off-Tastes Associated With Using
Oilseed Proteins 299
18.12 Concluding Remarks 300
References 300
19. Mycoprotein: A Healthy New Protein
With a Low Environmental Impact
T. Finnigan, L. Needham and C. Abbott
19.1 Origins and Discovery of Mycoprotein
19.2 Food Safety and the Regulatory
Framework 305
19.3 Cultivation and Processing of
Mycoprotein 306
19.3.1 Fungal Fermentation
Technology 306
19.3.2 Mycoprotein and the Creation
of Meat-Like Texture 309
19.3.3 Process Variables That Impact
Quality 312
19.3.4 Creation of Granular
Comminute Texture 313
19.3.5 Fat Mimetics 313
19.4 Nutritional Characteristics of
Mycoprotein 313
19.4.1 Nutritional Properties 313
19.4.2 Nutrition Research 316
19.5 Mycoprotein and Environmental
Impact 317
19.5.1 Environmental Impact 318
19.5.2 How Low Can We Go? 322
References 323
20. Heterotrophic Microalgae: A Scalable
and Sustainable Protein Source
B. Klamczynska and W.D. Mooney
20.1 Introduction 327
20.2 Chlorella Classification 327
20.3 Production 328
20.4 Sustainability Profile 329
20.4.1 Case Study: TerraVia Inc. 329
20.4.2 A Low Environmental Impact 330
20.4.3 Climate Change Adaptation and
Resilience 333
xiii
20.5 Nutritional Value and Safety 333
20.5.1 Nutritional Value 333
20.5.2 Safety 335
20.6 Properties and Applications
of Whole Algae Protein 335
20.7 Consumer Acceptance 336
20.8 Future Developments 337
20.9 Conclusion 338
References 338
21. Edible Insects: A Neglected
and Promising Food Source
A. Van Huis and F.V. Dunkel
21.1 Introduction 341
21.2 Ethno-Entomology 342
21.3 Environment 343
305 21.4 Farming Insects 344
21.5 Nutrition 345
21.5.1 Protein Content and Amino
Acids 345
21.5.2 Fats and Fatty Acids 346
21.5.3 Chitin 346
21.5.4 Minerals 346
21.5.5 Vitamins 346
21.6 Consumer Attitudes 347
21.7 Food Safety 348
21.8 Processing and Marketing 349
21.9 Legislation 350
21.10 The Way Forward 351
References 352
Part III
Consumers and Sustainability
22. Meat Reduction and Plant-Based Food:
Replacement of Meat: Nutritional,
Health, and Social Aspects
M. Neacsu, D. McBey and A.M. Johnstone
22.1 Transition Towards Plant-Based Protein
Supplementations 359
22.2 Plant Protein Sources: Nutritional
Adequacy Aspects 360
22.3 Plant-Based Protein Sources:
Health and Wellbeing Aspects 363
22.3.1 Systemic and Gut Health
Impacts 363
22.3.2 Satiety and Weight
Management 364
22.4 Meat Replacement: Social Aspects 367
22.4.1 The Complexity of Food Choice 367
xiv Contents

22.4.2 Changing the Diet of a Nation 368 24.5 Sociological Pathways for
22.4.3 Decreasing Meat Consumption 369 More Sustainable Protein Options 399
22.5 Overall Concluding Remarks 370 24.6 Conclusion 405
References 370 References 406

23. Flavors, Taste Preferences, and the

Consumer: Taste Modulation and 25. Feeding the Globe Nutritious
Influencing Change in Dietary Food in 2050: Obligations
Patterns for a Sustainable Earth and Ethical Choices
S.R. Nadathur, J.P.D. Wanasundara and L. Scanlin
S.R. Nadathur and M. Carolan
25.1 Closing Commentary 409
23.1 Consumers: Dietary and Purchase
25.2 Sustainable Protein Sources 409
Habits 377
25.2.1 Current State of Protein
23.2 Flavor and Taste 378
Production 409
23.2.1 Physiology of Taste 378
25.2.2 Change in Consumption
23.3 Why We Eat What We Eat: Taste
Patterns, Especially Meat
Preferences and Influences 379
and the Western Diet 411
23.3.1 Genetics and Food Choices 380
25.2.3 Are We Consuming
23.3.2 Our Upbringing and Cultural
Too Much Protein? 412
Influence on Food Choices 380
25.2.4 Diet Change, Consumers,
23.3.3 Affording a Healthy Diet 382
and Policies 412
23.3.4 Ice Cream, Broccoli, or Nuts? 382
25.2.5 Challenges With Diet Change 413
23.4 Sustainable Protein Sources
25.3 Environmentally Friendly
in Foods and their Challenges 383
Food Options 413
23.4.1 Off-Tastes Associated
25.3.1 Meat Alternates 413
With Plant Proteins 383
25.3.2 Newer Sources of Protein 414
23.4.2 Role of Flavors in Modulating
25.4 Relevance of Big Food Manufacturers 415
Off-Notes in Protein-Based
25.5 Production of More Food
Products 384
From the Same Land
23.4.3 Binding of Flavors by Proteins 384
(and Alternate Farming Methods) 415
23.5 Introduction of New Foods
25.5.1 Agriculture and Climate
and Changing Consumer Habits 385
Change: Crop Adaptation 416
23.6 Conclusions 386
25.5.2 Are GMO’s Necessary
Disclaimer 386
to Feed the World? 416
References 386
25.6 Reduction in Food Waste 417
25.7 Using Microbiomes to Our Advantage 417
24. Food Security and Policy 25.8 Sustainable Future Populations 418
M. Carolan 25.9 Moral Obligations and
Questions People Need to Debate 419
24.1 Introduction 391
Disclaimer 420
24.2 Livestock: Facts and Trends 392
References 420
24.3 Rethinking Food Security 395
24.4 Growing Homogeneity in
Global Food Supplies 398 Index 423
List of Contributors
C. Abbott, Quorn Foods, North Yorkshire, United
Kingdom
A.M. Alashi, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada
R.E. Aluko, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB,
Canada
P. Asavajaru, AGT Foods, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
C. Blanchard, ARC ITTC for Functional Grains, Charles
Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia
E.C. Boles, Paradigm Sustainability Solutions,
Fayetteville, AR, United States
M. Carolan, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, CO,
United States
F.V. Dunkel, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT,
United States
D. Ercili-Cura, VTT Technical Research Centre of
Finland, Espoo, Finland
T. Finnigan, Quorn Foods, North Yorkshire, United
Kingdom
M. Flambeau, Tereos, Marckolsheim, France
M. Gulzar, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria,
South Africa
H. Hoogenkamp, RiceBran Technologies Inc.,
Scottsdale, AZ, United States
A.M. Johnstone, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen,
United Kingdom
B. Klamczynska, TerraVia Holdings Inc., South San
Francisco, CA, United States
T.M. Krieger, DuPont Engineering Research & K. Poutanen, VTT Technical Research Centre of
Technology, Wilmington, DE, United States
H. Kumagai, Nihon University, Fujisawa-shi, Japan
A. Lam, AGT Foods, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
R.S.H. Lam, AGT Foods, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
K.A. Lewis, Food Industry Professional Consultant,
Littleton, CO, United States
O.E. Mäkinen, VTT Technical Research Centre of
Finland, Espoo, Finland
H.K. Marambe, Agriculture Research Branch,
Saskatchewan Ministry of Agriculture, Regina, SK,
Canada
M.D. Matlock, University of Arkansas Office for
Sustainability, Fayetteville, AR, United States
D. McBey, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United
Kingdom
J.A. McCarty, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR,
United States
A. Minnaar, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, Pretoria,
South Africa
W.D. Mooney, TerraVia Holdings Inc., South San
Francisco, CA, United States
S.R. Nadathur, Givaudan Flavors, Cincinnati, OH,
United States
M. Neacsu, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United
Kingdom
L. Needham, Quorn Foods, North Yorkshire, United
Kingdom
M.W. Orcutt, Solae, LLC, St. Louis, MO, United States
D. Orona-Tamayo, Centro de Investigación y de
Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Mexico
O. Paredes-López, Centro de Investigación y de
Estudios Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Mexico;
Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
P.V. Paulsen, Solae, LLC, St. Louis, MO, United States
Finland, Espoo, Finland
F. Pudel, Pilot Pflanzenöltechnologie Magdeburg e.V.,
Magdeburg, Germany
A. Redl, Tereos, Marckolsheim, France
F. Respondek, Tereos, Marckolsheim, France
A. Samaranayaka, POS Bio-Sciences, Saskatoon, SK,
Canada
xv
xvi List of Contributors

H.N. Sandefur, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, J.R.N. Taylor, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South
AR, United States Africa
D.K. Santra, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, M. Thrane, DuPont Nutrition Biosciences ApS,
Scottsbluff, NE, United States Brabrand, Denmark
L. Scanlin, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, M.C. Tulbek, AGT Foods, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
United States M.E. Valverde, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios
R. Schoenlechner, University of Natural Resources and Avanzados del IPN, Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria M. van de Noort, MFH Pulses, Rotterdam, The
N. Sozer, VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland, Netherlands
Espoo, Finland A. Van Huis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The
S. Tan, ARC ITTC for Functional Grains, Charles Sturt Netherlands
University, Wagga Wagga, NSW, Australia J.P.D. Wanasundara, Agriculture and Agri-Food
J. Taylor, University of Pretoria, Hatfield, South Canada, Saskatoon SK, Canada
Africa Y.(C.) Wang, AGT Foods, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
6 Proteins in the Diet: Challenges in Feeding the Global Population

TABLE 1.1 Examples of Functional Properties and Their Relationships With Physicochemical Properties of Proteins
and Sensory Properties Provided in Foods

Functional Mechanism and Example Food System Example Protein Sensory Property
Property Physicochemical
Property of Protein
Solubility Hydrophilicity, charge and Milk, protein-rich Dairy, soy, almond, Flavor, taste,
ionization of surface beverages, nondairy milks rice, proteins mouthfeel, turbidity
residues, H-bonding

Viscosity Hydrodynamic size and Soups, gravies, salad Gelatin, soy, egg Taste, consistency,
shape, H-bonding dressings, desserts mouthfeel

Water binding H-bonding, ionic hydration Comminuted meats, Muscle, egg, cereal, soy Texture, consistency
low-fat meat products, proteins
bakery products

Gelation (heat- Water entrapment and Emulsified meat products, Muscle, egg, dairy, and Mouthfeel, texture,
induced) immbolization, network bakery products, puddings many seed proteins grittiness,
formation, thermal smoothness
aggregation

Cohesion and Hydrophic-, ionic- and Emulsified meats, pasta and Muscle, egg, dairy, and Stickiness,
adhesion H-bonding noodles, bakery products, several seed proteins chewiness,
extruded snacks particulate

Elasticity Hydrophobic bonding, Meat products, leavened Muscle proteins, gluten Texture, crispiness,
disulfide cross-linking bakery products, extruded protein, casein chewiness
products

Emulsification Adsorption and film Comminuted meats, cakes, Muscle, egg, dairy, and Mouthfeel, flavor,
formation in oil
water soups, salad dressings, several seed proteins smoothness
interface, hydrophobicity nondairy milks, desserts
and hydrophilicity

Foaming Adsorption and film Ice cream, cakes, whipped Dairy, egg, and certain Mouthfeel,
formation in air
water toppings, mousses, desserts seed proteins smoothness,
interface, hydrophilicity frizziness
and hydrophobicity

Fat and flavor Hydrophobic bonding, Flavored milks, protein-rich Dairy, egg, muscle, and Flavor, odor,
binding entrapment beverages, emulsified many seed proteins smoothness
meats, bakery products,
sauces and gravies

Source: Adapted from Damodaran, S. (1997). Food proteins: An overview. In: S. Damodaran & A. Paraf (Eds.), Food proteins and their applications
(pp. 1
24). New York, NY: Marcel Dekker Inc (Damodaran, 1997).

Proteins from different sources manifest different functionalities. One example is the gluten proteins of wheat, which
are known for extensibility which is useful in dough formation by trapping air and CO2, which increase dough volume
and create a porous structure in baked bread. Another example is that of egg white proteins, well-known to coagulate
into a soft or firm solid with heat, and are capable of stabilizing air
water interfaces that create stable foams upon
whipping. It is possible to relate essential functionalities of food proteins to the molecular structure and the interactions
of protein with solvent and other molecules under given conditions. Establishing structure
function relationships of
food protein enables us to relate or categorize proteins in relation to food functionalities. The structure
function rela-
tionship of food proteins for the nonbiological functions was first modeled by Nakai and group (Nakai, 1983; Nakai &
Li-Chan, 1993) for various animal proteins. Later, Kumosinski, Brown, and Farrell (1991a,b) using casein (κ- and
α s-1) showed that primary sequences of these proteins can be employed in modeling unrefined secondary and 3-D
structures and prediction of structure
function relationships relevant in food applications. Use of bioinformatics data of
food crops to predict functionality of seed storage proteins was recently (Withana-Gamage & Wanasundara, 2012) dem-
onstrated by modeling and examining the structure of five known soybean glycinins (a 11S seed storage protein) using
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 From an open space, or square, several passages led into the
hills, affording admission to the cave dwellers’ abodes, which are all
of similar construction to that already mentioned. I was allotted
quarters in one of the caves, and stepped from the outer air into the
hill through a wooden gate on heavy hinges, and proceeded through
a long passage, cut in the rocks, a little over a man’s height. On
either side were excavated large stalls for horses, the covered way
ending in an open square court with perpendicular walls some thirty
feet high and about the same in width. From this court one steps into
symmetrical caves with vaulted roofs.
In the underground guest-chamber I stretched myself comfortably
on a couch covered with handsome carpets from Kairwan. A table
and some chairs completed the furniture of this room, specially set
apart for European guests. The Khalifa is rich, very rich, so that he
can permit himself this luxury, though it is but seldom that he has a
European visitor. He told me with pride that General Boulanger had
in his time been his guest.
After my long ride I required rest; the doors in the yard were
therefore closed, so that it was quite dark in my room. The flies did
not worry me, and I had quite a refreshing sleep until I was
awakened by the neighing of the horses in the passages. A little later
the light streamed in through my door; a figure stepped in, and for a
moment it was again dark whilst the newcomer passed through the
doorway.
It was the Khalifa; behind him came Hamed and several other
persons, sons or people of the house.
I expressed my pleasure at being the guest of so hospitable a
man, and the Khalifa responded with compliments. Coffee was
served, and the party grouped themselves about me on the floor,
with the exception of the Khalifa who seated himself by me on the
divan, and conversation flowed easily with the help of Hamed.
The contents of my saddle-bags, the photographic apparatus, and
especially an entomological syringe, underwent careful investigation.
 But I could not afford to sit and idle
the time away, so went out to look
about me. Through Hamed I
expressed my desire to examine the
interior of a dwelling, and was
promised that I should see everything;
but several times we passed the
square openings on the tops of the
hills, as also the entrances to houses,
without anyone making a sign to us to
enter.
At last we arrived at a house into
which I was invited. On the whole it
much resembled that from which we
came, and was inhabited by a Jew
and a poor Berber family.
JEWISH FAMILY IN A CAVE
The yard was dirty; cooking DWELLING IN HADEIJ.
utensils lay scattered about,
intermingled with a few rush corn-bins
and some goats and poultry.
A woman, old, wrinkled, and tattooed, and both hideous and dirty,
was brought forward for me to see. It was, of course, the Jew’s wife.
His fellow-lodgers, the Berbers, I did not see; but as I stepped into
the dwelling, a vision of blue skirts and bare legs vanished into the
side caves.
Already I began to feel impatient and to fear that I was being
made a fool of and should never see, as I longed to do, where and
how the Berbers lived. Fortunately I had later a splendid opportunity
of studying the whole subject.
Accompanied by two sons of the Khalifa and some other persons
I walked round the valley and up the slopes, whence I could peer
down into the caves at the bottom of the valley, and could see
women going through the entrances to their dwellings, to the palm
and olive trees, followed by dogs and inquisitive children.
 My camera I had with me, and used it frequently.
As the sunset hour approached, the heat relaxed, and one
breathed with ease.
In a great open square, beautified with palms, at least fifty young
men and boys were running from side to side. They had cast aside
the burnous, and wore only red caps and shirts, which fluttered as
they ran. With long sticks, bent at one end, they struck at a soft ball
which flew to and fro, sometimes in the air, sometimes on the
ground.
It was beautiful to watch these bold muscular figures, so straight
and supple, with their light brown skins, regular features and bright
eyes, reminding me that thus must the Greek and Roman boys have
played on the plains beneath their blue mountains.

CAVES IN MATMATA.
 The game was kept up without a pause, until the sun sank
suddenly behind the mountains, and it was no longer possible to
see, for twilight is unknown in these regions.
I returned to my cave, lit my candle, smoked cigarettes and waited
until my dinner should be served.
Five figures appeared, each carrying a dish which was placed on
a table before me, and a pitcher of water was deposited beside me.
The meal consisted of soup with lumps of meat highly peppered, a
stew of chicken, and an enormous dish of kus-kus, made of barley
meal with goat’s flesh, and, finally, honey and bread; this last was of
barley meal, dry but well flavoured.

A CAVE DWELLING, MATMATA.

A knife I had with me; but a spoon, that treasure to a European in

these regions, was provided. Hamed stood by my side, filled my
glass whenever it was empty, and served the dinner. On one side sat
Mansur, the Khalifa’s third son, as ordained by their customs and
usages. I requested him to join me at dinner. With a graceful motion
of his hand to his breast, he bowed his head and begged me to
excuse him.
Hamed informed me that honoured guests always dine alone.
On the floor, somewhat aside, sat a row of white figures all staring
at me whilst I ate.
A great silence reigned.
This procedure rather disturbed me at first, but one soon gets
accustomed to this sort of thing.
Hamed constantly pressed me to eat. I thought it could be of no
consequence to him; but discovered later that he was prompted by
delicacy of feeling. For when I had concluded my meal, it was his
turn, with Mansur and others, to eat the remains. All the scraps of
meat, bones, etc. left were then put back into the dishes, and these
were carried into the adjoining room where the rest of the men
gathered round them; but before doing so, they poured water in a
basin and moistened their lips and fingers.
I peeped in on them, and was greeted by the sound of noisy
mastication.
Their shoes had been left beyond the edge of the rush mat on
which they were seated. Fingers were used in place of spoons or
forks.
At last they were satisfied. The remnants were again collected in
a dish, and it was then probably the turn of the boys and negroes,
and, after them, of the dogs; but the end I did not see.
After enjoying coffee I went out into the court where the stars
twinkled overhead. In the distance I heard a strange humming noise,
and the sound as of far-off explosions. After a little while the Khalifa
arrived to invite me to be present at the first day’s fête held to
celebrate his son Mohammed’s wedding to a second wife, and I then
understood that the sounds I had heard had been the hum of many
voices and of gunshots.
 The moon rose in the vault of heaven, and disclosed in front of
me, and on either side of the slopes, forms wrapped each in his
burnous, squatting side by side. From above, the moonlight shone
on the white crowd, giving them the appearance of spectres. The
group opposite looked as though moulded half in black, and half in
dazzling white.
Up above and to the left were depicted against the light a crowd of
black, pointed figures. These were men of the Matmata mountains;
they sat silent, watching apparently the dark corner in front of me,
where no light penetrated, as the moon rose high on her course.

THE BRIDAL FESTIVITIES.

(From a sketch by Knud Gamborg.)
 The Khalifa ordered chairs to be brought. On these we seated
ourselves, Hamed standing behind us, and bending forward to each
of us in turn, like a mechanical contrivance through which we carried
on our conversation.
Groups of men sat behind and beside us; they continued arriving
until the square was full to where the Matmata men sat on the banks.
Right in front, on the level ground, I distinguished a dark compact
mass. These were the women, closely enveloped in their sombre
garments; they were seated by the entrance to the caves.
A lantern was now lit and placed on the ground near my feet. At
first its light confused me, but without it I could not have seen what
took place.
One of the Khalifa’s horsemen named Belkassim, a relative and
an elderly man, was deputed to maintain order, and at once cleared
a little space between us and the women. He then led forward two
negroes, who performed a dance to the sound of a drum and a
clarionet. They marched towards us side by side, then retired
backwards, then again forward and back. This was repeated some
half-dozen times, with a swinging movement from the hips. Every
time they approached us, they waved the drum and the clarionet
over our heads, then turned towards the women before stepping
backwards again. The Khalifa raised his hand. The negroes bent
their heads backwards that he might place a coin on the forehead of
each. I followed his example; with the result that they continued their
parade and deafening noise of slow, harsh, wheezy, jerky music.
Suddenly it increased in pace, and both negroes whirled violently
round. The time then became slower, the parade recommenced, and
my sense of hearing was again endangered each time the loud drum
was swung over my head.
The din ceased abruptly, and from the rows of women came a
strange clucking sound as of the hurried calling of fowls, “Lu, lu, lu,
lu, lu, lu, lu.” This was a sign of approval. At the same moment a gun
was fired. The flash lit up the rows of women. The shots were
repeated again and again. It was the bridegroom’s nearest friends
firing a salute in his honour. The women responded with the “Yu, yu”
cry, the negro musicians joined, and more shots followed.
Then it struck me that I also would join in the festive
demonstration, so I told Hamed to bring me my revolver, and I fired
the six chambers into the air, one after the other.
The women at once broke into the cry of joy. Drums and
clarionets joined in.
“I am much gratified,” I said to the Khalifa, “that you have
introduced me to the circle of your people. Here is my hand in token
of my gratitude. May Allah protect you and yours.”
“Thanks for your good wishes,” he replied. “You come from a
strange and distant land. You are my friend and my brother, one for
whom I am responsible so long as you remain in the Matmata
mountains. You are free to travel anywhere you please; no one will
injure you.”
I said, “When I came I knew you would treat me as you would a
brother; I was told so by the Khalifa of Gabés; but I was not aware
that you had authority over all the tribes of the Matmata. But now I
know it. I arrived with this weapon by my side, as you may have
seen it hung by my saddle when you received me. Now I realise that
it is superfluous, and that I shall have no need of it so long as I am
amongst your people. As a sign, therefore, of my sincerity, and as a
token of my respect for and gratitude to yourself, my brother, I
present you with my weapon. But before I place it in your hands,
permit me to salute with it, after the manner of your countrymen, as
an expression of the pleasure I derive at being in your company
during the celebration of these festivities.”
Retiring outside the circle of spectators, I again fired the six
chambers of my revolver.
Then arose from the women a high-pitched and long-drawn “Yu,
yu, yu,” followed by some musket shots.
Bowing to the Khalifa I presented him with the revolver. He gave
me his hand, bringing it afterwards to his lips. This was the seal of
our friendship.
 “Would you like the women to sing for you, or would you prefer
men-singers?” asked the Khalifa.
“As you will, brother; I do not wish to interrupt your fête; let it go
on as arranged before my arrival.”
However, the old man insisted on my deciding which I preferred,
so I could not deny that I was inclined to hear the women sing.
They sat before me; I could not distinguish their features.
Amongst them, I was told, sat the first wife of the bridegroom
Mohammed—sharing in the universal rejoicings.
According to report, she is comparatively young and still pretty,
and who knows but that her heart aches at the thought that soon she
must share her husband with a younger rival—or perhaps it may
seem to her quite natural, and she congratulates herself on the
prospect of having someone to help in her work, which is not of the
lightest.
The Khalifa laid his hand on my shoulder to warn me that the
performance was about to begin.
In somewhat drawling measure, a sweet female voice improvised
a solo, the chorus being taken up by the surrounding women,
interrupted now and again by the shrill “Yu, yu.”
Hamed told me it was of myself they sang.
“This morning he came with weapons and followers—perhaps
straight from Paris. The pistol hung on his saddle; his horse was red.
The proudest charger you could see. He sat straight as a palm on
his horse, right over the steep hillside. Yu, yu, yu.
“Now he sits with us as a brother. Yes, like the Bey himself, by the
side of Sid Fatushe, our old Khalifa. He has given him his pistol, a
costly gift, of greater value than even the best camel. Yu, yu, yu.
“If he will be our friend and remain with us, we will find him a wife.
Fatima awaits him—of the beautiful eyes, her nails stained with
henna; on her hands are golden bracelets, and anklets on her feet.
“Yu, yu, yu.”
 There was a great deal more sung about me which I am too
modest to repeat.
The women sang for about an hour, improvising my praises,
giving honour to the Khalifa in flattering phrases, and not omitting my
friend and guide, Hamed and his horse.
At last the song ceased, and I thanked the Khalifa and begged
him to believe in my sincere appreciation.
Next stepped forward a mulatto. Amongst the Arabs these play
the part of the jesters of the Middle Ages. Accompanied by the drum
and the shrill notes of the clarionet, he delivered a lampoon in verse,
directed against the women, since they had not sung in praise of him
whom they knew, but, forsooth, had extolled the stranger whom they
saw for the first time.
He abused them in language far from decorous, and reaped
applause in half-stifled laughter from the men, who spent the whole
evening on the self-same spot where they had originally settled; only
now and then did one of them rise to wrap his burnous better about
him; his figure standing out sharply against the vault of heaven
above the edge of the bank.
There were many children and half-grown lads present. At the
commencement they were rather noisy, but were scolded by
Belkassim, or the Khalifa, and were kicked aside. Later, several fell
asleep enveloped in their burnouses and leaning against the elder
men.
When the negro singer had finished his song it was again the
women’s turn, and they paid him off for having ventured to imagine
that they might have sung in praise of him, a wretched creature, who
did not even possess a decent burnous.
The drum and clarionet again did their duty; after which the negro
took up his defence. They were not to suppose that he was poverty-
stricken; and he was the boldest rider amongst the Matmata (the
Khalifa told me the man had never mounted a horse). When he
appeared in flowing burnous, the hood thrown back as he sang the
war song, he rivalled the Khalifa himself when marching to battle.
 He and the women continued squabbling in this fashion for some
time. No doubt the women carried the day, for the negro was finally
shoved back upon the spectators, and hustled by them from one
group to another, until at last he vanished in the darkness.
Two men then performed a stick dance to the tripping time of
drum and clarionet, and towards the end the women joined in a song
with a chorus. They prayed Allah for rain and a good harvest. Then
sang of Mena, the married woman who took to herself a lover and
paid for her indiscretion with her life; of the hunter who bewitched a
lion with his flute, thus saving the life of a little girl; of love; of
charming cavaliers; of the Khalifa; and, finally, of myself; but,
strangely enough, not of the bridegroom, so far as I could gather,
and very slightly of the bride.
The wedding feast was to last eight days. On the last the bride
would be brought home. During these eight days Mohammed, the
bridegroom, was not to show himself in either his own or his father’s
house. He must remain concealed amongst his friends, and not
attend openly at the rejoicings, though he was probably present
incognito.
At last the Khalifa rose and bade me good-night. The men
dispersed and went their ways homewards, the women following.
I expressed a wish to leave next morning, and, in accordance with
my plans, to take a two days’ journey into the mountains to visit a
number of Berber villages, returning afterwards to be again the
Khalifa’s guest before finding my way back to Gabés.
The same evening the Khalifa sent an express courier to the
sheikhs of the villages with instructions that I should be well
received.
This arranged, I retired to rest. As I passed up the dark
underground passage, I patted my horse and wished my friends
good-night.
The door closed behind me, and soon I was sleeping as quietly
and peacefully in the caves of the Matmata mountains as I should in
my own bed at home.
 CHAPTER V

Return to Gabés

Hamed woke me at sunrise. I was soon dressed, my saddle-bags

packed and coffee heated.
The horses had been led out from
their underground stable. Outside the
dwelling I met the Khalifa, coming
evidently fresh from his devotions as
he still grasped his rosary. Smiling, he
held out his hand to take leave
bidding me “Farewell till to-morrow
evening.”
As we rode over the hill, a rider
galloped up and took the lead; it was
Belkassim, the Khalifa’s relative, who
was to show me the way. I followed
him, and Hamed became the arrière
garde.
There are no springs or wells in
these regions; water, therefore, is
collected in deep tanks. By one of
these was a woman filling her pitcher. HOLD UP!
The rays of the rising sun gleamed
on Belkassim’s white burnous and the silver-inlaid gun which lay
across his saddle-bow, on the tips of the palm trees, on the mountain
peaks, and on the woman at the cistern. Snatching a rapid glance I
saw she was pretty, but she at once turned her back; so I could only
admire her slender feet and silver anklets as she placed the pitcher
on the side of the tank and drew her blue-striped kerchief over her
head.
“That is Mansur’s wife; his only wife,” said Belkassim.
Happy son of the Khalifa of Matmata!
When we had crossed to the other side of the vale I turned in my
saddle; she still stood there, and in the distance below I saw her face
indistinctly, like a pale spot amidst its dark blue wrappings. She
remained long standing thus and looking after us; then disappeared,
carrying the dull grey pitcher on her back, and up the slope other
blue figures came tripping along to the same spot.
The valley is very uneven, rising and falling, as it is furrowed and
cut up by watercourses. The palm and olive trees scattered along
these crevasses are protected by stone enclosures and ditches.
Just as we passed the last dip in the valley before climbing the
hill, there rushed out three dogs which had evidently been watching
us.
I looked about me, for it dawned on my mind that there must be a
habitation in the vicinity. I was right; for, by standing in my stirrups
and stretching my neck, I got a glimpse of the square upper rim of a
cave yard.
The dogs rushed on Hamed’s horse which was last, and had
possibly approached too close to the entrance of the dwelling. The
attack was so violent that we were obliged to turn and assist him.
The furious brutes held fast on to the tail of his horse, fearing to
come within reach of Hamed’s whip; but one of them succeeded in
biting the horse’s near hind-leg, drawing blood and laming it—a
pleasant beginning to our mountain trip!
We dismounted and threw stones at these furious white sheep-
dogs, and at last they retired, showing their teeth and ready to
resume the attack the moment we remounted. Fortunately a man
and a boy appeared and called the dogs off. Believing the man to be
their owner, I ordered Hamed to rate him soundly and threaten that I
would report what had occurred to the Khalifa. The man took the
rebuke quietly, but told us humbly that he was a poor devil who
possessed nothing—not even a dog. The proprietor of the dwelling
was absent.
“Then greet him from us and say that he should have his dogs
under better control, or he will have the Khalifa after him.”
The wrongly accused man kissed a fold of my burnous, and we
again mounted our horses and climbed the mountain in a zigzag
course, by difficult paths over loose stones.
Belkassim rode only a few paces in front of me, yet I saw his
horse above the level of my head, whilst Hamed, who was a couple
of paces behind dragging along his lame horse, appeared to be far
beneath me.
From the summit I looked back along the valley and to a high
undulating stretch, where the trees showed like spots on a panther’s
skin.

EXCAVATED STABLE.

Over the valley to the north rose the mountains, and beyond them
stretched an indistinct light blue plain, melting far away into a darker
blue—this was the sea.
Step by step, slowly but surely, our horses paced down the long
valley into which we descended. Now and again we put up a covey
of partridges that flew up the mountain, and the larks started in
couples from amongst the palms and stones. We presently hurried
on at the quick pace to which the Berber horses are accustomed;
Hamed singing, as we went along, a song that echoed above us and
on every side.
Perched on some stones at the bottom of the dry bed of a torrent
were three pretty little girls, who leaned against the bank and peeped
shyly at us over it. Their goats jumped from stone to stone seeking
food amongst the scanty forage afforded by the dry burnt pasture.
The tallest of the little girls ran suddenly away from the others
when I rode towards them. She scrambled up the rocky bank like a
squirrel, and paused on the top of a large boulder; the flock of black
goats following her. She was evidently old enough to know that
speech with a strange man is forbidden.
Belkassim tried to coax her down again; he assured her that the
kind stranger would give her money if she would come to him. But
no, she would not respond, remaining where she was and calling to
the two other little ones. These pressed nervously against each
other, in their thin blue garments, and, when I offered them some
coppers, shut their eyes as they extended their hands to me to
receive the money, and then took flight.
We were near some native dwellings. Dogs barked, under an
olive tree stood a donkey munching straw, and we perceived some
of the familiar blue figures, which looked nearly black against their
light brown surroundings. In the distance their ornaments glittered in
the light of the setting sun. Belkassim shouted to them to come
forward as it was a friend and brother of the Khalifa who wished to
see them. Most of them remained standing where they were and
stared at us. The men were apparently all away, either amongst the
mountains, busy with the date harvest, or building tanks in the
valleys, so from them there was naught to fear.
We dismounted and had a chat with the women. I unpacked my
camera and tried to take their portraits, but these girls and women
are so restless that it is difficult to make them keep still. There was
one exception, however, a pretty fresh young girl who came out of
one of the dwellings—a cave like those near Hadeij—and stared and
stared at the camera.
An old woman next came tripping up to offer herself, evidently of a
mind that coppers are worth having. I should have preferred her
good-looking daughters, who were engaged in driving a restive
camel into the cave passage. But this I saw plainly was not to be, for
she ordered the girls in and placed herself before me, and I had to
be satisfied.
This was the village of Judlig. The population cannot be large, but
by me it will always be remembered as the village of many women.
Continuing along the base of the valley for about an hour, we then
entered another valley through the great deep bed of a broad river
now dry; the banks were quite perpendicular. This river is the Sid
Barrak. The horses had difficulty in keeping their footing on the stony
bottom.
On a slight rise our guide bade us
halt, so we drew rein while he pointed
out Sid ben Aissa, but I could see
nothing.
When we had ridden some way
down the valley, we saw some half-
score white burnouses coming
towards us. These proved to be the
Sheikh and his people, who came to
bid me welcome; his brown-clad
followers walked beside their horses.
In time, the old greybeards and dark-
eyed merry lads joined our party.
Dogs barked, sombre clad females
BERBER WOMAN OF THE
with peaked white headgear peered VILLAGE OF JUDLIG.
over the crest of the mound, and
terrified little children fled to their
mothers and hid themselves in the folds of their garments.
 Palm trunks raised their lofty crowns towards the blue heavens,
where, on the mountains and in the valley, they grew mingled with
olive and fig trees, and the hot air of midday quivered about us as we
made our entry.

A CAVE INTERIOR.
(From a sketch by Knud Gamborg).

The village contains some fifty underground dwellings like those

of Hadeij, and about five hundred inhabitants. The approach to the
Sheikh’s dwelling was not covered in. From the highest point of the
hill a slope led through a gate to the great square court. In addition to
this entrance from the slope, one could enter from the hillside
through a deep excavated passage that ran parallel with the slope,
but naturally at a lower level.
Close to the point where the descent began was erected a
thatched roof of dry twigs and palm branches, supported on four
palm tree trunks. On this roof lay red and yellow bunches of freshly
gathered dates, and beneath its shade sat a few men. My horse was
tied up close by.
Hamed had told the Sheikh that I wished to see the interior of a
dwelling, so they at once led me into the courtyard and thence into
the long underground chamber.
In the courtyard a camel stood chewing the cud. It was pushed
aside, fowls fluttered out of our way, and a kid and several sheep
sprang on to some heaps of garnered dates, or hid behind the great
egg-shaped reservoirs, woven of rushes, used for storing corn.
In the caves I found it dark, chiefly because my eyes had been
dazzled by the daylight outside. Within were women, some grinding
corn, others weaving. None were very young, but all were overladen
with ornaments. They were quite friendly; one offered me dates,
another water, only one of them, probably a young wife or daughter,
hid in a corner and turned her back on me. The children flocked
about me without fear, one of the boys even pulling roguishly at my
burnous.
During my visit, Hamed and the other men had remained outside.
Hamed was very proud of having obtained permission for me to see
the cave. Usually, he said, no strangers are admitted into a house
where there are women. But I fancy my good reception was due as
much to the Khalifa’s influence as to Hamed’s.
On our way to the cave we had passed the vaulted guest-room,
tastefully excavated out of the soft calcareous soil. Here I stretched
myself on costly carpets whilst I ate my meal; my escort afterwards
consuming the remainder.
As I wished to learn all particulars concerning the costume of both
men and women, they brought me clothes and ornaments in
quantities. To the great amusement of those present, Belkassim was
dressed up in woman’s attire, the property of the Sheikh’s first wife.
Afterwards, I photographed him in the same dress, together with the
Sheikh and his boys in a group outside the caves.
After a stay of a couple of hours we rode on, being set on our way
by the Sheikh and his people.
We now followed the bed of the river Barrak, amongst rocks and
ridges and over rolling stones and rough pebbles. We saw a party of
women leave the valley for a deserted village, of which the ruins
showed waste and grim on the mountain-top. They were taking food
up to the shepherds in charge of the sheep and goats there, and
would take advantage of the cooler air of the heights to have a
midday nap in the shade of the ruins. In olden days the Beni Aissa
dwelt on these heights, but it was very trying, especially for the
women who had every day to descend to the plain to fetch water; so,
when more peaceful times came, they moved down to the caves at
the base of the valley.
This valley wound round the foot of the mountain, so for a couple
of hours we had the picturesque ruins to our right. At last we lost
sight of them, and then began a stiff ascent through wild and
desolate gorges, and, finally, we clambered up a very steep
mountain side where the stones rolled from under our horses’ feet.
Hamed thought it too bad, so dismounted, letting his horse follow
him; while we, by endless zig-zags, wound our way to the summit.
Here we waited a few moments to recover breath and give time to
the loiterer, whilst enjoying the lovely view over the Matmata
mountain peaks and vales.
Once more we descended into a valley, then toiled up another
mountain side, afterwards riding along the ridge at the summit to
reach “Tujud,” one of the eyries on the top of the Matmata heights.
On the horizon we could distinguish the low land to the south of
Gabés, and, beyond it, the sea. Farther east lay the mountain chain
of Jebel Teboga, a long blue line, and between it and us stretched a
level plain, partly concealed by the adjacent hilly ground, of which
the ridges surmounted each other in undulating lines. Below us, to
the north, was a deep valley.
Scanning the stony surface of the bridle-path, I discovered
accidentally some outlines scratched on the stones. They were
mostly of footprints, and later I was informed that these are said to
be carved by pious friends, in memory of the dead, on the spot
where they had last met the deceased.
Tujud lay before us. In the distance it resembles somewhat an old
German castle of the Middle Ages, with the usual mass of houses
attached thereto. The summit of the pile of dwellings was crowned
by a couple of camels, showing like black silhouettes against the sky.
On the flat grey plain, dark specks were moving: these were women.
The Sheikh came to meet and conduct me into the town, through
steep narrow alleys. The houses were all built of uncut stone, and
not whitewashed. The style of building was most irregular. As the
rock was very precipitous, the little dwellings were extraordinarily
varied in height and appearance. Their courtyards were crowded
with bleating sheep and goats, a few camels, various household
chattels, braziers, and all manner of dirt. In the doorways, and on the
flat roofs, women and children stood watching us.
Of men there were not many at home; at this season they are
probably mostly guarding their flocks on the far plains to the south-
west.
On a height close by, were a couple of Marabout tombs with
whitewashed walls; and in the distance to the north we could see,
over the mountain ridge, a village on a height. This was Zaraua; and
towards the west we sighted another, Tamezred. They both looked
like fortified castles.
After a short halt we continued our way towards Zaraua, the
Sheikh giving us a guide, quite a young fellow. He tried to slip off
when we had ridden about half-way; as it was near sunset he most
likely wished to return to his home before dark. Belkassim gave him
a sound thrashing and forced him to go on, as we could not
distinguish the bridle-road from the footpath. When we reached the
foot of the hill and could see the village at the summit, I dismissed
the lad, who quickly vanished behind us.
No one came to meet us until, when quite near the town, a young
man at last appeared, who welcomed me, announcing that he was a
near relative of the Sheikh who, he said, was absent.
Both Hamed and Belkassim told me they detected an intention to
slight me, therefore they abused the unlucky fellow because I had
not been received at the proper distance from the town, and with the
honours due to me.