Biodeterioration of Wooden Cultural

Heritage Organisms and Decay

Mechanisms in Aquatic and Terrestrial
Ecosystems 1st Edition Anastasia
Pournou
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/biodeterioration-of-wooden-cultural-heritage-organism
s-and-decay-mechanisms-in-aquatic-and-terrestrial-ecosystems-1st-edition-anastasia
-pournou/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Dormancy in Aquatic Organisms Theory Human Use and

Modeling Victor R. Alekseev

https://textbookfull.com/product/dormancy-in-aquatic-organisms-
theory-human-use-and-modeling-victor-r-alekseev/

Biotechnology and Conservation of Cultural Heritage 1st

Edition Franco Palla

https://textbookfull.com/product/biotechnology-and-conservation-
of-cultural-heritage-1st-edition-franco-palla/

Nanoscience and Cultural Heritage 1st Edition Philippe

Dillmann

https://textbookfull.com/product/nanoscience-and-cultural-
heritage-1st-edition-philippe-dillmann/

Internet Memes and Society Social Cultural and

Political Contexts Anastasia Bertazzoli

https://textbookfull.com/product/internet-memes-and-society-
social-cultural-and-political-contexts-anastasia-bertazzoli/
Explorations in the History and Heritage of Machines
and Mechanisms Proceedings of the 2018 HMM IFToMM
Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms Baichun
Zhang
https://textbookfull.com/product/explorations-in-the-history-and-
heritage-of-machines-and-mechanisms-proceedings-of-the-2018-hmm-
iftomm-symposium-on-history-of-machines-and-mechanisms-baichun-
zhang/

Lead in Glassy Materials in Cultural Heritage 1st

Edition Bouquillon

https://textbookfull.com/product/lead-in-glassy-materials-in-
cultural-heritage-1st-edition-bouquillon/

Decline and Decay Alan Kay

https://textbookfull.com/product/decline-and-decay-alan-kay/

Cultural Heritage in a Changing World 1st Edition Karol

Jan Borowiecki

https://textbookfull.com/product/cultural-heritage-in-a-changing-
world-1st-edition-karol-jan-borowiecki/

Archaeology, Cultural Heritage Protection and Community

Engagement in South Asia Robin Coningham

https://textbookfull.com/product/archaeology-cultural-heritage-
protection-and-community-engagement-in-south-asia-robin-
coningham/
Anastasia Pournou

Biodeterioration
of Wooden
Cultural Heritage
Organisms and Decay Mechanisms in
Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Biodeterioration of Wooden Cultural Heritage
Anastasia Pournou

Biodeterioration of Wooden
Cultural Heritage
Organisms and Decay Mechanisms in Aquatic
and Terrestrial Ecosystems
Anastasia Pournou
Dept. of Conservation of Antiquities
and Works of Art
University of West Attica
Athens, Greece

ISBN 978-3-030-46503-2 ISBN 978-3-030-46504-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46504-9

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the
material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Kalliope Paliatsara and to
George Pournos
Preface

Everything is impermanent. Greek philosopher Heraclitus, wrote 2500 years

ago “πάντα ῥεĩ ” in his study “About Nature”, implying that everything flows and
nothing stands still. Wood is a remarkable material, which unfortunately cannot
escape the concept of “becoming”. Wooden Cultural Heritage, although unique to
each civilization that has created or utilised it, has constituted a legacy of sociocul-
tural and economic value for all humanity. However, in ecological terms, it is simply
dead organic matter that will inevitably be broken down by decomposers.
Wood biodeterioration involves complex physical and chemical processes
induced by organisms that disaggregate it, as part of a nutrient cycle. Thus, wood
is not truly lost and Antoine Lavoisier saying “nothing is lost, nothing is created,
everything is transformed” also appears to apply to wood which recycles within the
biosphere.
This book was inspired by the impermanence of the matter and the transformation
of wood, and it is devoted to all who fight to preserve it in a losing battle against
nature.
Wood scientists, conservators-restorers, museum curators, architects, archaeolo-
gists, museologists, engineers, archaeometrists, biologists, foresters, agriculturists,
and all scientists, researchers, academics, and professionals in the field of wooden
Cultural Heritage are considered potential readers of this book.
This heterogeneous audience, originating from different disciplines of physical
sciences and humanities, has very diffrent background knowledge. In order to solve
this problem and to not exclude readers, this book used a comprehensive scientific
language, by explaining basic terms and concepts and by keeping the amount of
specialized terms to a minimum. It is therefore anticipated that this will make the text
more accessible to anyone without expertise in any particular discipline and concur-
rently will cover the multi- and intra-disciplinary area of wood biodeterioration.
The book provides an extensive and up-to-date overview of wood decay caused
by key microorganisms and organisms in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. For the
better comprehension of wood performance in these environments, a holistic
approach is adopted, where the first three chapters introduce wood as a material,

vii
viii Preface

the ecological context of decay, and the general biology of the deteriogenic biota,
while in the following chapters, wood biodeterioration is systematically discussed.
Organisms’ taxonomy, distribution, biology, physiology, niche, and growth condi-
tions, along with their mechanisms, patterns, and diagnostic features of decay, are
examined in detail. The impact of biodeterioration on wood is illustrated and
numerous examples of wooden Cultural Heritage that have suffered biogenic
decay are given, intending to associate the detrimental consequences with the
necessary prevention, preservation, and mitigation strategies.
Effective preservation of wooden artifacts and monuments of historical and
cultural significance requires understanding of the extent of damage as well as the
cause and mechanisms of deterioration. Therefore, this book is hoped to be a useful
handbook for wooden Cultural Heritage professionals and specialists, in order to
assist them when taking preventive and remedial measures, design risk assessment
procedures and disaster planning policies and effectively address the problem of
wood biodeterioration.
By demonstrating wood vulnerability to deteriogens, this book also aims to raise
awareness of the danger and of the need for safeguarding wooden Cultural Heritage
for future generations. Wood can provide a tremendous wealth of information about
past civilizations and cultures and the economic and technological context of
mankind’s history, since it has always been closely linked with mans’ activities.
Finally, although a large amount of information has been examined and about
1500 references have been used, it is expected that in some cases important studies
may have been disregarded and this should be kept in mind. Moreover, it has to be
noticed that the systematics and taxonomy of organisms adopted in this book will
inevitably be soon outdated, considering the continuous discovery of new species
and the rapid progress of molecular phylogenetics.

Athens, Greece Anastasia Pournou

Acknowledgments

I would like to express my deep gratitude to Thomas Nilsson, a pioneer of research

on wood biodeterioration and the “godfather” of tunneling, erosion, and cavitation
bacteria, who reviewed the manuscript attentively and improved it through his wise
and valuable comments.
I am also grateful to my colleague Stamatis C. Boyatzis, who carefully reviewed
the chemistry of white and brown rot decay and confirmed the scientific accuracy of
the provided data.
Furthermore, I would like to thank scientists from all over the world, who so
generously gave permission to use their figures, which was of paramount importance
for this book. These are listed alphabetically: Susan E. Anagnost, the State Univer-
sity of New York; Christin Appelqvist, University of Gutenberg; Rachel A. Arango,
USDA Forest Products Laboratory; Robert A. Blanchette, University of Minnesota;
Lech Borowiec, University of Wrocław; Elisabetta Chiappini, Università Cattolica
del Sacro Cuore; Andrew Cockburn, TIRPOR©; David Fenwick,
APHOTOMARINE©; Rod A. Eaton, University of Portsmouth; Mike D. Hale,
Bangor University; Valiallah Khalaji-Pirbalouty, University of Shahrekord; Maurice
Leponce, Université Libre de Bruxelles; Vernard R. Lewis, University of California,
Berkeley; Christopher Meyer, Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural
History; Mina Mosneagu, University of Iasi; Rinaldo Nicoli-Aldini, Università
Cattolica del Sacro Cuore; Thomas Nilsson, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences; Rudolf H. Scheffrahn, University of Florida; Ken Walker, Museums
Victoria; Laura L. Wilkinson, USA Army Corps of Engineers; and Janet Voight,
Field Museum of Natural History, USA.
Grateful thanks also go to photographers Sanjay Acharya, Sten Porse and James
St. John and especially to Udo Schmidt who had kindly provided copyright-free
pictures of exceptional quality via Flickr or Wikimedia.
Acknowledgments are also given to the Institute for Wood Technology and
Wood Biology (HTB) of the Johann Heinrich von Thünen Institute/Federal Research
Institute for Rural Areas, Forestry and Fisheries (vTI), Hamburg/Germany, for
giving me permission to take pictures of wood samples infested by insects.

ix
x Acknowledgments

Special thanks should be attributed to Vassilis Dimopoulos, the graphic designer

for the wonderful illustrations of this book; who not only had to understand my
unskillful drawings but learn about wood decay in order to execute them. His diligent
work has brought an added value to this book.
Gratitude and appreciation also go to Springer Editors, Judith Terpos, for her
valuable assistance, Éva Loerinczi, for her kindness, support, and endless help and
to Shella G. Bardas and especially Rajkumar Rajeswari for the English editing.
I also want to acknowledge many individuals such as librarians, publishers’ staff
responsible for copyright requests, journals’ editors, and staff working in CCC or
PLS platforms, who so kindly replied to my requests for reusing published material.
Finally, I would like to thank my students who were the motivation for writing
this book, my colleagues for their support, and my family for their limitless
encouragement.
Contents

1 Wood Anatomy, Chemistry and Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Elements of Botany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Xylem Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Xylem Cell Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Softwoods and Hardwoods Ultrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Macroscopic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6 Wood Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.1 Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.2 Hemicelluloses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.3 Pectins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.6.4 Other Glucans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6.5 Lignin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6.6 The Cell Wall Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6.7 Non-structural Components of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.7 Physical Properties of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7.1 Hygroscopicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.7.2 Shrinkage and Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.7.3 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.8 Mechanical Properties of Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2 Ecology and the Biodeterioration Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1 Basic Concepts of Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 Classification of Natural Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3 Terrestrial Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.3.1 Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.2 Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.3 Deserts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.4 Tundras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

xi
xii Contents

2.4 Aquatic Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

2.4.1 Seas and Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4.2 Freshwater Ecosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3 Biology of Wood Deteriogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.1 Wood Deteriogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2 Prokaryotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.2.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.2.2 Archaea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.3 Prokaryotes Involved in Wood Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.4 Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.4.1 Chytridiomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.4.2 Blastocladiomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.4.3 Neocallimastigomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.4.4 Glomeromycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.4.5 Cryptomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.6 Microsporidia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.5 Fungi Involved in Wood Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.5.1 Ascomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.5.2 Basidiomycota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.5.3 Zygomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.6 Marine Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.6.1 Molluscs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.6.2 Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.7 Marine Borers Involved in Wood Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.7.1 Bivalvia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.7.2 Malacostraca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.8 Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.9 Insects Involved in Wood Deterioration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.9.1 Coleoptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.9.2 Blattodea (Termitoidae) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.9.3 Hymenoptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.9.4 Lepidoptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.9.5 Ephemeroptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.9.6 Diptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4 Wood Deterioration by Aquatic Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
4.2 Bacteria Destroying Pit Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.3 True Wood Degrading Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3.1 Erosion Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
4.3.2 Tunnelling Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.3.3 Cavitation Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Contents xiii

4.4 Aquatic Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

4.4.1 Soft Rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5 Wood Deterioration by Marine Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.1 Marine Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
5.2 Marine Borers and Cultural Heritage Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
5.3 Molluscs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.1 Teredinidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
5.3.2 Pholadidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
5.3.3 Xylophagaidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.4 Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.4.1 Limnoriidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
5.4.2 Sphaeromatidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
5.4.3 Cheluridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
5.5 Cohabitation of Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
6 Wood Deterioration by Terrestrial Microorganisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.1 Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.2 Terrestrial Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
6.2.1 Brown Rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.2.2 White Rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
7 Wood Deterioration by Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
7.1 Wood-Destroying Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
7.2 Insects Damaging Cultural Heritage Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
7.3 Coleoptera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
7.3.1 Anobiidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
7.3.2 Ptinidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
7.3.3 Bostrichidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
7.3.4 Cerambycidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
7.4 Blattodea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
7.4.1 Termitoidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
Abbreviations

13 13
C NMR C Nuclear magnetic resonance
13 13
C-TMAH C-labeled tetramethylammonium hydroxide, thermochemolysis
AFM Atomic force microscopy
CCA Copper chrome arsenate
FTIR Fourier transform infrared, spectroscopy
LM Light microscopy
NADH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced form)
NADPH Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form)
PHB Polyhydroxybutyrate
PLM Polarized light microscopy
RLS Radial longitudinal section
SANS Small angle neutron scattering
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
SFG Sum frequency generation, spectroscopy
TBTO Tributyltin oxide
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
TLS Tangential longitudinal section
TS Transverse section
XRD X-ray diffraction, analysis

xv
Chapter 1
Wood Anatomy, Chemistry and Physical
Properties

1.1 Elements of Botany

Land plants colonized the earth during the Paleozoic era, around 470 million years
ago (Graham 1993; Kenrick and Crane 1997; Wellman et al. 2003). Their ancestors
appears to be green algae (charophyte algae) which evolved to spore-producing and
then to seed-producing plants (Kenrick and Crane 1997; McCourt et al. 2004). Plants
having an organized tissue system consisting of tracheary1 elements are named
vascular plants or tracheophytes. Within this taxonomic superdivision of the plant
kingdom, timber-producing trees are principally found into two Spermatophyta
(seed-bearing plants) divisions (Simpson 2010), the Coniferophyta2 (cone-bearing
plants) (Gernandt et al. 2011; USDA, NRCS 2020) and the Magnoliophyta3
(flowering plants) (Takhtajan 2009; USDA, NRCS 2020) and particularly in the
classes of Pinopsida and Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons), respectively (Fig. 1.1).
Vascular plants, as highly organized organisms, have cells, tissues and vegetative
organs such as the root, the stem and the leaf (Fig. 1.2) (Esau 1977; Cutter 1978).
Wood is a stem tissue and has a multifunctional role consisting in transporting water,
soluble minerals and photosynthesis products, in storing food and in supporting the
stem. For this reason, wood cells’ shape, size, orientation, chemistry and mechanical
strength, have been designed in such a manner to serve effectively this multifaceted
role.
Wood in botany is referred to as secondary xylem,4 because it is formed through
the secondary growth of the plant, during which the stem increases in thickness.

1
Tracheary from trachea (τραχεα) in Greek: duct (vasculum in Latin).
2
Coniferophyta is synonymous to Pinophyta (Gymnospermae clade: naked seed), conifers,
softwoods.
3
Magnoliophyta is synonymous to Anthophyta (Agiospermae clade: seed closed into a fruit),
broadleaves, hardwoods.
4
Xylem from xylon (ξύλoν) in Greek: wood.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

A. Pournou, Biodeterioration of Wooden Cultural Heritage,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-46504-9_1
2 1 Wood Anatomy, Chemistry and Physical Properties

Fig. 1.1 The two taxonomic divisions of Coniferophyta and Magnoliophyta, containing timber-
producing trees

Fig. 1.2 Location of leaf, stem and root in a vascular plant. Secondary tissues produced by
cambium during a three-year period. The xylem and phloem cells of the third year (3) are located
next to the cambium, whereas xylem and phloem cells produced during the first year (1) are located
at the inner and outer parts of the trunk, respectively

Inversely, during the primary growth, the plant stem mainly increases in length
producing primary tissues. Secondary xylem is closely associated with the secondary
phloem,5 the second tissue constituting the stem which corresponds to the bark
(Fig. 1.2). Xylem cells are mainly water conducting in contrast to phloem cells
which are primary food conducting (Cutter 1978).
In conifers and woody dicotyledons, both secondary xylem and phloem are
produced by the vascular cambium, which is always found located between the
two (Fig. 1.2). Cambium is an embryonic region (zone) that produces cells by
division, and thus it is a lateral “meristem”,6 (Fahn 1974; Esau 1977; Singh et al.
1987). It originates from the procambium that was formed during the primary growth
of the apical meristem, another meristematic tissue found in the shoot tips.
The vascular cambium during the secondary growth of the plant produces
bilaterally and diametrically, secondary xylem and phloem (Fig. 1.2). The most
recently produced xylem and phloem cells are located next to the cambium, whereas

5
Phloem from phloios (φλoιóς) in Greek: bark.
6
Meristem from meristos (μεριστóς) in Greek: divisible (Singh et al. 1987).
1.2 Xylem Development 3

the oldest ones are found at the inner and outer part of the trunk, respectively
(Fig. 1.2).
The cambial activity in temperate regions occurs during spring and summer,
whereas in tropical climates they may be more than one period of active growth.
Vascular cambium usually consists of two types of primary cells, the fusiform
initials, which are long elongated cells with tapered ends and give rise to the axial
tissue systems of xylem and phloem and the ray initials, which are smaller cuboidal
and almost isodiametric cells that produce the horizontal tissue system of the plant
(Fahn 1974; Esau 1977). When a cambium initial divides, it produces a pair of
identical in morphology cells of phloem or xylem, at a time. One cell of the pair
remains merisomatic, preserving its ability to divide indefinitely, whereas the other
named “mother cell” may also further divide, although not endlessly, i.e. the fusi-
forms usually divide only twice to form four cells (Fahn 1974). The number of
xylem mother cells is always higher than the phloem mother cells and the production
ratio is in average tenfold; however, this varies significantly in species (Fahn 1974;
Esau 1977). Mother cells’ derivatives will then transform and mature to different cell
types which will carry out the various functions in the plant. This developmental
process of cell specialization, during which identical cells become diverse complex
tissues systems, is called “differentiation” (Esau 1977). In woody plants the differ-
entiation of procambial and cambial initials into mature xylem cells is
called xylogenesis (Fukuda 1997; Plomion et al. 2001; Roberts and McCann
2000). The duration of xylogenesis can be as short as 4 days for primary xylem
and from 14 to 21 days for secondary xylem (Myburg and Sederoff 2001).

1.2 Xylem Development

Xylogenesis of secondary xylem usually includes four stages: (a) cell expansion,
(b) cell wall thickening, (c) lignification and (d) programmed cell death (Fig. 1.3)
(Plomion et al. 2001).
(a) During the first stage, cells will form a primary wall which expands longitu-
dinally or radially so cells will reach their final size and shape and consequently
the various cells types of the wood tissue will be created (Fig. 1.3a) (Demura and
Fukuda 2007). Primary wall at this phase is typically a thin, flexible layer
(0.1–1 μm) consisting mainly of polysaccharides and some structural proteins
(Cosgrove 2005). It forms a mechanically strong network, which though will be
extensible until the end of the cell growth (Cosgrove 1999). This extensibility of
cells appears to be regulated by various proteins such as xyloglucan
endotransglycosylases (XETs), endoglucanases and expansins (Cosgrove
1999, 2005; Cosgrove et al. 2002; Campbell and Braam 1999; Plomion et al.
2001). Cells eventually, via the loosening and expansion of their primary
wall, will acquire their unique functional characteristics and their three-
dimensional orientation inside the wood structure (Plomion et al. 2001).
1.6 Wood Chemistry 15

Table 1.1 The chemical components of wood along with their percentage in wood (based on
Tsoumis 1991; Sjöström 1993; Rowell et al. 2005; Laine 2005)
Polymers 90–99%
Polysaccharides
Cellulose 40–55% Linear polymer of β-D glucose
Hemicelluloses 15–25% Heteropolysaccharides consisting of
(a) Hexoses (i.e. glucose, mannose, galactose)
(b) Pentoses (i.e. xylose, arabinose)
(c) Hexuronic acids (i.e. glucuronic, galacturonic)
Glucans 1% i.e. callose, laricinan, starch
Pectins 1% i.e. galacturan, arabinan, galactans
Lignin 18–35% (a) Guaiacyl lignin (coniferyl alcohol)
(b) Syringyl lignin (sinapyl alcohol)
Oligomers 1–10%
Organic 1–10 (a) Volatile compounds: Terpens
(extractives) (b) Resinous compounds: Resin acids, fatty acids (lipids and
waxes), sterols
(c) Phenolic compounds: Tannins, lignans, stilbenes, flavonoids,
phenols
Inorganic (ash) 0.1–5% Ca, K, Na, Mg oxides

1.6.1 Cellulose

Cellulose was firstly isolated from wood in 1839 by Anselme Payen who also
determined its molecular formula (C6H10O5) and its isomerism with starch (Hon
1994; Klemm et al. 2005). In 1920, Hermann Staudinger discovered that cellulose is
not made up of few small molecules of glucose, as it was believed until then, but it is
a covalently linked high-molecular-weight macromolecule (Hon 1994; Klemm et al.
2005). Cellulose is the main component of the plant cell walls and constitutes
approximately half the dry weight of wood (40–55%) (Tsoumis 1991; Sjöström
1993; Rowell et al. 2005; Stevanovic 2016). It is a semi-crystalline polymer,
insoluble in water and in most solvents, including strong alkali; however, it dissolves
in strong acids (Rowell et al. 2005; Stevanovic 2016).
Cellulose is a long linear homo-polysaccharide, consisting of β-D-glucose9 units,
linked by (1 ! 4) glucosidic bonds (Fig. 1.10). The linkage is formed by the removal
of a water molecule from the hydroxyl groups of two adjusted glucose units, from
the carbon 1 and 4 (Fig. 1.10). Every second glucose unit is rotated approximately
180 and thus the exact repeated unit of cellulose is not glucose, but the disaccharide
cellobiose (Fig. 1.10) (Fengel and Wegener 2003; Klemm et al. 2005).
The chain length of cellulose is expressed by the degree of polymerization (DP),
and plant cellulose has an average DP of at least 9000–10,000 and possibly as high

9
In solution the open-chain form of β-D glucose is mainly present in a cyclic form and is named β-D
glucopyranose.
16 1 Wood Anatomy, Chemistry and Physical Properties

Fig. 1.10 The cellulose macromolecule consisting or repeated units of β-D glucose, linked with 1–4
glucosidic bonds

Fig. 1.11 The supramolecular structure of cellulose, in where cellulose molecules are aggregated
into elementary fibrils, microfibrils and macrofibrils

as 15,000 (Fengel and Wegener 2003; Klemm et al. 2005; Rowell et al. 2005;
Stevanovic 2016). Cellulose molecules have a strong tendency to form intra- and
intermolecular hydrogen bonds between OH-groups (Sjöström 1993; Fengel and
Wegener 2003). Thus, β-D-glucose units are associated together, forming parallel
chains which aggregate and structure isodiametric elementary fibrils with average
diameter between 2 and 4 nm (Fig. 1.11) (Hon 1994; Fengel and Wegener 2003;
Stevanovic 2016). Approximately 40 of these fibrils held together, create a fibrillar
bundle which is called microfibril that has a length of several tens of micrometers
and a diameter ranging from 10 to 25 nm corresponding to more of 200 cellulose
chains (Fig. 1.11) (Hon 1994; Fengel and Wegener 2003; Stevanovic 2016). Finally,
microfibrils will further aggregate to form long fibrils the macrofibrils, which are
the largest structural unit of cellulose with a diameter of about 400–500 nm
(Fig. 1.11) (Fahn 1974; Chen 2014) and can be visible with a light microscope
(Esau 1977).
Microfibrils contained highly ordered and less ordered regions of folded cellulose
chains which are longitudinally arranged and appear to be oriented for native
cellulose (cellulose I) in a parallel direction (Hon 1994; Fengel and Wegener
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 “Yes, querida.”
Hand in hand, the lovers left the adobe, and the somber echoing
tunnel, with the electric wires seen like a spider’s web across its
farther end, was to them an underground passage to Paradise.
—Copyright, and used by kind consent of the author.
Note.—Spanish words are pronounced according to the continental
pronunciation, and each vowel is given a syllable. “Si Ma-dre,” pronounced See
Ma´dray, yes, mother. “Ma-ma-ci-ta,” pronounced Ma-ma-cee-tah, little mother.
“Sin Ver-gu-en-za,” pronounced Seen Vehr-goo-ain´tha, shameless. “Que-ri-di-ta,”
pronounced Kay-ree-dee´tah, little love. “Por-ta-les,” pronounced Por-tah´lays,
covered sidewalks. “Gente decente,” pronounced Hen´tay day-then´tay, the
aristocracy. “Coch-i-no,” pronounced Co-chee´no, pig. “Lin-di-ta,” pronounced
Leen-dee´ta, pretty. “Que-ri-da,” pronounced Kay-ree´da, beloved.

THE INTERVENTION OF PETER

By Paul Laurence Dunbar
No one knows just what statement it was of Harrison Randolph’s
that Bob Lee doubted. The annals of these two Virginia families have
not told us that. But these are the facts:
It was at the home of the Fairfaxes that a few of the sons of the old
Dominion were giving a dinner, and a brave dinner it was. The
courses had come and gone, and over their cigars they had waxed
more than merry. In those days men drank deep, and these men
were young, full of the warm blood of the South and the joy of living.
What wonder then that the liquor that had been mellowing in the
Fairfax cellars since the boyhood of their revolutionary ancestor
should have its effect upon them?
It is true that it was only a slight thing which Bob Lee affected to
disbelieve, and that his tone was jocosely bantering rather than
impertinent. But sometimes Virginia heads are not less hot than
Virginia hearts. The two young men belonged to families that had
intermarried. They rode together, hunted together and were friends
as far as two men could be who had read the message of love in the
dark eyes of the same woman. So perhaps there was some thought
of the long-contested hand of Miss Sallie Ford in Harrison
Randolph’s mind when he chose to believe that his honor had been
assailed.
His dignity was admirable. There was no scene to speak of. It was
all very genteel.
“Mr. Lee,” he said, “had chosen to doubt his word, which to a
gentleman was a final insult. But he felt sure that Mr. Lee would not
refuse to accord him a gentleman’s satisfaction.” And the other’s
face had waxed warm and red and his voice cold as he replied: “I
shall be most happy to give you the satisfaction you demand.”
Here friends interposed and attempted to pacify the two. But
without avail.
Each of the young men nodded to a friend and rose to depart. The
joyous dinner-party bade fair to end with much more serious
business.

“You shall hear from me very shortly,” said Randolph, as he strode

to the door.
“I shall await your pleasure with impatience, sir, and give you such
a reply as even you cannot disdain.”
Peter, the personal attendant of Harrison Randolph, stood at the
door as his master passed out, and went on before him to hold his
stirrup. The young master and his friend and cousin, Dale, started off
briskly and in silence, while Pete, with wide eyes and disturbed face,
followed on behind. Just as they were turning into the avenue of
elms that led to their own house, Randolph wheeled his horse and
came riding back to his servant.
“Pete,” said he sternly, “what do you know?”
“Nuffin’, Mas’ Ha’ison, nuffin’ ’t all. I do’ know nuffin’.”
“I don’t believe you.” The young master’s eyes were shining
through the dusk. “You’re always slipping around spying on me.”
 “Now, dah you goes, Mas’ Randolph. I ain’t done a thing, and you
got to ’mence pickin’ on me—”
“I just want you to remember that my business is mine.”
“Well, I knows dat.”
“And if you do know anything, it will be well for you to begin
forgetting it right now. Take Bess around and see her attended to.
Leave Dale’s horse here, and—I won’t want you any more to-night.”
Pete turned away with an injured expression on his dark face.
“Bess,” he said to the spirited black mare, as he led her toward the
stables, “you jes’ better t’ank yo’ Makah dat you ain’t no human
bein’, ’ca’se human bein’s is cur’ous articles. Now you’s a horse,
ain’t you? And dey say you ain’t got no soul, but you got sense,
Bess, you got sense. You’s a high steppah, too, but you don’ go to
work an’ try to brek yo’ naik de fus’ chanst you git. Bess, I ’spect you
’ca’se you got jedgment, an’ you don’ have to have a black man
runnin’ aftah you all de time plannin’ his head off jes’ to keep you out
o’ trouble. Some folks dat’s human bein’s does. Yet an’ still, Bess,
you ain’t nuffin’ but a dumb beas’, so dey says. Now, what I gwine to
do? Co’se dey wants to fight. But whah an’ when an’ how I gwine to
stop hit? Doan want me to wait on him to-night, huh! No, dey want to
mek dey plans an’ do’ want me ’roun’ to hyeah, dat’s what’s de
mattah. Well, I lay I’ll hyeah somep’n’ anyhow.”
Peter hurried through his work and took himself up to the big
house and straight to his master’s room. He heard voices within, but
though he took many liberties with his owner, eavesdropping was not
one of them. It proved too dangerous. So, though he lingered on the
mat, it was not for long, and he unceremoniously pushed the door
open and walked in. With a great show of haste, he made for his
master’s wardrobe and began busily searching among the articles
therein. Harrison Randolph and his cousin were in the room, and
their conversation, which had been animated, suddenly ceased
when Peter entered.
“I thought I told you I didn’t want you any more to-night.”
 “I’s a-lookin’ fu’ dem striped pants o’ yo’n. I want to tek ’m out an’
bresh ’em; dey’s pintly a livin’ sight.”
“You get out o’ here.”
“But, Mas’ Ha’ison, now—now—look-a-hyeah—”
“Get out, I tell you.”
Pete shuffled from the room, mumbling as he went: “Dah now, dah
now! driv’ out lak’ a dog! How’s I gwine to fin’ out anyt’ing dis way? It
do ’pear lak Mas’ Ha’ison do try to give me all de trouble he know
how. Now he plannin’ and prijickin’ wif dat cousin Dale an’ one jes’
ez scattah-brained ez de othah. Well, I ’low I got to beat dis time
somehow er ruther.”
He was still lingering hopeless and worried about the house when
he saw young Dale Randolph come out, mount his horse, and ride
away. After a while his young master also came out and walked up
and down in the soft evening air. The rest of the family were seated
about on the broad piazza.
“I wonder what is the matter with Harrison to-night,” said the young
man’s father, “he seems so preoccupied.”
“Thinking of Sallie Ford, I reckon,” some one replied; and the
remark passed with a laugh. Pete was near enough to catch this, but
he did not stop to set them right in their conjectures. He slipped into
the house.
It was less than two hours after this when Dale Randolph returned
and went immediately to his cousin’s room, where Harrison followed
him.
“Well?” said the latter, as soon as the door closed behind them.
“It’s all arranged, and he’s anxious to hurry it through for fear some
one may interfere. Pistols, and to-morrow morning at daybreak.”
“And the place?”
“The little stretch of woods that borders Ford’s Creek. I say,
Harrison, it isn’t too late to stop this thing yet. It’s a shame for you
two fellows to fight. You’re both too decent to be killed yet.”
 “He insulted me.”
“Without intention, every one believes.”
“Then let him apologize.”
“As well ask the devil to take Communion.”
“We’ll fight then.”
“All right. If you must fight you must. But you’d better go to bed, for
you’ll need a strong arm and a steady hand to-morrow.”
“I’m going to write a couple of letters first,” he said; “then I shall lie
down for an hour or so. And, by the way, Dale, if I—if it happens to
be me to-morrow, you take Pete; he’s a good fellow.”
The cousins clasped hands in silence and passed out. As the door
closed behind them a dusky form rolled out from under the bed and
the disreputable, eavesdropping, backsliding Peter stood up and
rubbed a sleeve across his eyes.
“It ain’t me dat’s gwine to be give to nobody else. I hates to do it;
but dey ain’t no othah way. Mas’ Ha’ison cain’t be spaihed.” He
glided out mysteriously, some plan of salvation working in his black
head.

Just before daybreak next morning three stealthy figures crept out
and made their way toward Ford’s Creek. One skulked behind the
other two, dogging their steps and taking advantage of the darkness
to keep very near to them. At the grim trysting-place they halted and
were soon joined by other stealthy figures, and together they sat
down to wait for the daylight. The seconds conferred for a few
minutes. The ground was paced off, and a few, low-pitched orders
prepared the young men for business.
“I will count three, gentlemen,” said Lieutenant Custis. “At three,
you are to fire.”
At last daylight came, gray and timid at first, and then red and bold
as the sun came clearly up. The pistols were examined and the men
placed face to face.
 “Are you ready, gentlemen?”
But evidently Harrison Randolph was not. He was paying no
attention to the seconds. His eyes were fixed on an object behind his
opponent’s back. His attitude relaxed and his mouth began to twitch.
Then he burst into a peal of laughter.
“Pete,” he roared, “drop that and come out from there!” and away
he went into another convulsion of mirth. The others turned just in
time to see Pete cease his frantic grimaces of secrecy at his master,
and sheepishly lower an ancient fowling-piece which he had had
leveled at Bob Lee.
“What were you going to do with that gun leveled at me?” asked
Lee, his own face twitching.
“I was gwine to fiah jes’ befo’ dey said free. I wa’n’t gwine to kill
you, Mas’ Bob. I was on’y gwine to lame you.”
Another peal of laughter from the whole crowd followed this
condescending statement.
“You unconscionable scoundrel, you! If I was your master, I’d give
you a hundred lashes.”
“Pete,” said his master, “don’t you know that it is dishonorable to
shoot a man from behind? You see you haven’t in you the making of
a gentleman.”
“I do’ know nuffin’ ’bout mekin’ a gent’man, but I does know how to
save one dat’s already made.”
The prime object of the meeting had been entirely forgotten. They
gathered around Pete and examined the weapon.
“Gentlemen,” said Randolph, “we have been saved by a miracle.
This old gun, as well as I can remember and count, has been loaded
for the past twenty-five years, and if Pete had tried to fire it, it would
have torn up all this part of the country.”
Then the eyes of the two combatants met. There was something
irresistibly funny in the whole situation, and they found themselves
roaring again. Then, with one impulse, they shook hands without a
word.
And Pete led the way home, the willing butt of a volume of good-
natured abuse.—From “Folks from Dixie,” copyright by Dodd, Mead
& Company, New York, and used by arrangement.
 PART THREE
Melodious Reading
Conversational elements: Pitch, Inflection, Color, Stress, Pause,
Movement, Time. Separate discussions and illustrations with number
of exercises for the pupil to practice. Melody in verse and in prose.

EXPRESSIVE SPEECH[9]
By Robert Lloyd

’Tis not enough the voice be sound and clear,

’Tis modulation that must charm the ear.
When desperate heroines grieve with tedious moan,
And whine their sorrows in a see-saw tone,
The same soft sounds of unimpassioned woes
Can only make the yawning hearer doze.

That voice all modes of passion can express

Which marks the proper word with proper stress;
But none emphatic can the reader call
Who lays an equal emphasis on all.
...
He who in earnest studies o’er his part
Will find true nature cling about his heart.
The modes of grief are not included all
In the white handkerchief and mournful drawl.
A single look more marks the internal woe
Than all the windings of the lengthened O!
Up to the face the quick sensation flies,
And darts its meaning from the speaking eyes.
Love, transport, madness, anger, scorn, despair,
And all the passions, all the soul is there.
 CHAPTER X
MELODIOUS READING

What charm and delight surround a sweet, melodious voice,

whether of woman or man. Who is there that does not recall such a
voice and its influence upon him? Who does not have clinging
memories of the voice of the mother, crooning over her babe, or
singing a sweet lullaby as it lay at her breast; of a father, softening its
strong and resonant power to soothe the restlessness of his little one
who was sick; of the blushing maiden, who consciously or
unconsciously had learned the immeasurably greater power
exercised over her fellows, whether of her own or the opposite sex,
by a soft, pure, well-controlled voice, rather than the high-pitched,
tense, loud and harsh chatter of her associates. The calm, quiet, soft
and low-pitched, though firm, voice of the teacher, the parent, the
employer, the salesman, the speaker, the statesman, is far more
effective, far more likely to attain its end than the harsh, raucous,
loud, too emphatic and high-pitched voice of the uncontrolled,
untaught, or careless speaker. And to listen to a reader, be he
preacher, lawyer, judge, or orator, reading in public to a large
audience, or for the pleasure and instruction of his own loved ones,
or a few chosen friends, whose voice is melodious in every cadence,
whose every intonation is musical and in good taste, what joy such a
reader is able to bestow. How memory thrills as we recall a few
readers of this type. Why should they be so few? Why should there
be so many harsh, nasal, raucous, high-pitched, unmelodious
voices? The reason is found mainly in lack of training, lack of a little
thought, indifference to the possession of the finer gifts of life. For
every boy and girl has it in his or her power, by the exercise of a little
care, a little thought, a little self-restraint, a little time spent in
discipline to produce the sweet and charming voice, with clean-cut,
distinct, pleasing enunciation and pronunciation that will afford joy
during the whole of a long life.
 One’s own ear will tell whether his voice is properly pitched,
pleasing, melodious, or the opposite. A few minutes spent in speech
daily before a looking-glass will forever fix the habit of making the
face pleasing; and an hour a day for a month will fix perfect habits of
pronunciation and enunciation that will remain through life. When
these arts are fixed, then a few hours’ study of the thought of the
author and the inflections and modulations of the voice necessary to
represent, to convey to the ear of the listener, the full power of that
thought, and the reader has equipped himself, herself, to give joy to
countless thousands. Is it not worth while to spend a few hours to
gain such power?

Exercises in Inflection
By inflection is meant the glide of the voice within a word to a
higher or a lower pitch. This glide may be quick and short, or long
and slow. It may be a rising or a falling glide, or both. The value of
inflection rests in its power to make what is said more emphatic, to
aid in clear enunciation, to aid in overcoming monotony. On all
emphasized words we have an intensified inflection. This is
illustrated in Portia’s speech in “The Merchant of Venice.” In studying
this excerpt we discover that all the emphasized words have a
pronounced inflection. In the first group of words, “If to do were as
easy as to know what were good to do,” we find the most intensified
inflection is upon the word “know” because this is the most emphatic
word of the group. This reveals that inflection is one of the most vital
means of emphasis.
In regard to inflection as an aid to clear enunciation, we find that
inflection occurs upon the accented syllable of a long word, and if
due attention is given to the syllable upon which the accent falls, the
word will receive a more perfect utterance. For instance, we can
readily see in the following words, which are often mispronounced,
the important part that inflection plays in the proper pronunciation of
them:

abdomen
abject
acclimate
address
admirable
alias
brigand
caricature
chastisement
chauffeur
combatant
contumely
demoniacal
discourse
exquisite
finance
grimace
herculean
horizon
impious
impotent
incomparable
indisputable
industry
inexplicable
interpolate
inquiry
 lyceum
mausoleum
mischievous
obligatory
research
resource
superfluous
traverse
vagary
vehement
vehicle
virago
verbose
virtue
virtually

(For the correct pronunciations see Webster’s New International

Dictionary.)
We readily see that the proper use of inflection cannot help but
give variety and contrast to our speech, and this aids immeasurably
in overcoming the persistent use of monotones.
We shall take up the different kinds of inflection and illustrate them
with appropriate exercises. The student should consider the aim and
value of each kind of inflection and then proceed to practice orally
the exercises, listening intently to his voice to see that it responds.

Kinds of Inflection
Falling Glide in the voice indicates a complete and positive
assertion. For example:
 “The Prince’s banner wavered, staggered backward,
hemmed by foes!”

A command, although punctuated with a question mark, is

rendered with a falling glide in the voice. For example:

“Halt! who goes there?” “Speak, what trade art thou?”

Rising Glide in the voice indicates incompleteness and doubt. For

example:

“How ‘the fellow by the name of Rowan’ took the letter,

sealed it up in an oilskin pouch, strapped it over his heart, in
four days landed by night off the coast of Cuba from an open
boat, disappeared into the jungle, and in three weeks came
out on the other side of the island, having traversed a hostile
country on foot, and delivered his letter to Garcia, are things I
have no special desire now to tell in detail.”

Circumflex Glide indicates a twist in the voice which reflects a like

twist in the mind.

Well, I guess I’ll have to, since you say so.

Exercises for Inflectional Agility:

I find earth not gray but rosy, heaven not grim but fair of hue.
Do I stoop? I pluck a posy. Do I stand and stare? All’s blue.

—Browning.

I must have left my book on this table last night. (Read two ways.)
 There are three pleasures pure and lasting, and all derived from
inanimate things—books, pictures, and the face of nature.
—Hazlitt.

We are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not

forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed.

What right have you, O passer by the way, to call any flower a
weed? Do you know its merits? Its virtues? Its healing qualities?
Because a thing is common, shall you despise it? If so, you might
despise the sunshine for the same reason.

Oh, yes, I begin to remember you now. Do you really think it true?

Yes, he’s a millionaire. (Read two ways.)

Breathes there a man, with soul so dead,

Who never to himself hath said,
This is my own, my native land?
Whose heart hath ne’er within him burn’d,
As home his footsteps he hath turn’d
From wandering on a foreign strand?
If such there breathe, go, mark him well.

—Sir Walter Scott.

Now clear, pure, hard, bright, and one by one, like the hailstones,
Short words fall from his lips fast as the first of a shower,
Now in two-fold column: Spondæ, Iamb, Trochee,
Unbroken, firm-set, advance, retreat, trampling along,—
Now with a sprightlier springiness, bounding in triplicate syllables,
Dance the elastic Dactylics in musical cadences on;
Now their voluminous coil intertangling like huge anacondas,
Roll overwhelmingly onward the sesquipedalian words.

—Browning.

Resolve!
To keep my health!
To do my work!
To live!
To see to it that I grow and gain and give!
Never to look behind me for an hour!
To wait in weakness and to walk in power;
But always fronting onward to the light.
Always and always facing toward the right.
Robbed, starved, defeated, wide astray—
On, with what strength I have!
Back to the way!

A very interesting and helpful exercise in the study of inflection is

the use of the one-word dialogue. The following scene, written by a
pupil, is given as an illustration:

Scene: Midnight; and the two are awakened by a noise.

She. Philipe!
He. What?
She. Burglar!
He. Where?
She. Bathroom!
He. Gun?
She. No!
He. Sh-h!
She (fainting). Darling!
He. Huh! Cat! (catching her).
 It is by use of tone and inflection that the following exercises are
properly rendered.

How are you to-day? Ha. (inquiry, surprise).

I say how are you to-day? Ha. (rising doubt).
Have you suddenly become deaf? Ha. (indignation).
I have been trying to find out how you are Ha. (satisfaction,
to-day. laugh).
I am glad you heard me. Ha. (short grunt).
I am on my way to the store. Ha. (do not believe it).
Will you go with me? Ha. (glad to).

A Study of Pitch
Pitch is simply the modulation of the voice as high or low. In
natural speech we seldom have more than one word on the same
pitch. Note the constant change of pitch in a good conversationalist.
In listening to such, we discover what?
First: If one idea is expressed on one pitch, its antithesis is
instinctively expressed on another pitch. For example: “When our
vices leave us, we flatter ourselves we leave them.” “The prodigal
robs his heir, the miser robs himself.” “Excess of ceremony shows
want of breeding.”
Second: A quick leap of the mind causes a leap in the voice, or, in
other words, it causes a change of pitch. For example: “So you say
you are going to—Well, hello, John! How did you get here?”
There can be no definite rules laid down governing Changes of
Pitch. If we think progressively, giving ourselves completely to each
successive idea, permitting our movement of tone to be the direct
outcome of the action of the mind we shall have no difficulty in
modulating our pitch.
In reading the following selections, note carefully the natural
tendency of the voice to change pitch as the mind leaps from one
thought to another.
O larks, sing out to the thrushes,
And thrushes, sing to the sky!
Sing from your nests in the bushes,
And sing wherever you fly.

Then sing, O bird in the tree,

Then sing, skylark in the blue,
Sing loud, sing clear, that the King may hear,
And my soul shall sing with you.

I wield the flail of the lashing hail,

And whiten the green plains under:
And then again I dissolve in rain,
And laugh as I pass in thunder.

I slip, I slide, I gloom, I glance.

Away to the hills, to the caves, to the rocks,—

Ere I own a usurper, I’ll couch with the fox;
And tremble, false whigs, in the midst of your glee,
You have not seen the last of my bonnet and me.

If to do were as easy as to know what were good to do, chapels

had been churches, and poor men’s cottages princes’ palaces. It is a
good divine that follows his own instructions. I can easier teach
twenty what were good to be done, than be one of the twenty to
follow mine own teaching. The brain may devise laws for the blood;
but a hot temper leaps over a cold decree: such a hare is madness,
the youth, to skip o’er the meshes of good counsel, the cripple.
—“Merchant of Venice.”
 Extremely high: Half a league, half a league, half a league onward!
Very high: Hats off! along the street they come! The flag is passing
by.
High: Sail on, sail on, O ship of state!
Rather high: Now’s the day and now’s the hour!
Middle: In spite of rock and tempest roar.
Rather low: No stir in the air, no stir in the sea.
Low:

Sunset and evening star

And one clear call for me.

Very low: Quoth the raven, “Never more.”

Low as possible: O death, where is thy sting!

Study in Stress
If we read or speak aloud naturally and earnestly, there occurs in
our voice a succession of beats or pulsations. If these pulsations
occur at regular intervals, our speech will be “singsong” and
monotonous. Thus:

a
I wandered lonely cloud
as

and
That floats on high o’er hills,
vales

a
When all at once I crowd
saw
 o
A host of golden dills.
daff

The fault is that we are responding to the rhythm of the line

instead of the rhythm of the thought. There should be rhythmic action
of the voice, but, at all times, it should be in perfect harmony with the
rhythmic action of the mind. Therefore, we see again that correct
reading depends upon getting the correct thought.
It is very important that we have control of our voice in stress or
force of utterance. If a teacher requires one pupil out of a class of
twenty to go on an errand for him, there is but one way of clearly
expressing that thought in the following sentence: Thus:

Will you please return this book to the library?

If we make prominent any other word than “you,” we shall not be

clear as to who shall return the book. Read the above sentence in as
many ways as there are different meanings.
Practice reading aloud the following with especial attention to
stress. Be sure that the action of the voice corresponds to the action
of the mind. Stress is indicated by italics.

Rouse, ye Romans! Rouse, ye slaves!

Worcester, get thee gone, for I do see

Danger and disobedience in thine eyes.
You have good leave to leave us; when we need
Your use and counsel, we shall send for you.

—Shakespeare.
Abraham Lincoln used scripture quotations very frequently and
powerfully.