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Biomechanics and Gait Analysis
 Biomechanics and
Gait Analysis

Nick Stergiou
Department of Biomechanics, University of Nebraska at Omaha,
Omaha, NE, United States
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding,
changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own
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Dedication

This book is dedicated to my mentors and all those people who helped me
become the person I am.
Contents

LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................ xi
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS .......................................................................... xxi
PREFACE ................................................................................................ xxiii

CHAPTER 1 Introduction to biomechanics .................................................. 1

Nick Stergiou
1.1 Introduction .................................................................................. 1
1.2 The history of biomechanics ....................................................... 2
1.3 Areas of biomechanical inquiry: examples of diverse and
unique questions in biomechanics ............................................. 7
1.4 A quick look into the future of biomechanics.......................... 13
References .......................................................................................... 15
Suggested readings ............................................................................ 16
CHAPTER 2 Basic biomechanics ................................................................ 17
Aaron D. Likens and Nick Stergiou
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................ 17
2.2 Analysis of movement................................................................ 18
2.3 Basic terminology for analyzing movement ............................ 20
2.4 Basic bio considerations............................................................ 27
2.5 Basic mechanics considerations .............................................. 38
2.6 Summary and concluding remarks .......................................... 60
References .......................................................................................... 60
Further readings................................................................................. 63
CHAPTER 3 Advanced biomechanics ......................................................... 65
Barry T. Bates, Janet S. Dufek and Nick Stergiou
3.1 Injuries and biomechanics ........................................................ 65
3.2 Biomechanical statistics............................................................ 70
3.3 Final considerations................................................................... 76
vii
References .......................................................................................... 77
viii Contents

CHAPTER 4 Why and how we move: the Stickman story ......................... 81

Barry T. Bates, Janet S. Dufek and Nick Stergiou
4.1 Briefly introducing Stickman .................................................... 81
4.2 The Stickman’s evolution of movement ................................... 81
4.3 The Stickman’s performance of movement............................. 87
4.4 The Stickman learns how to move ........................................... 89
4.5 The Stickman’s mechanics ....................................................... 93
4.6 The Stickman’s goodbye............................................................ 97
References .......................................................................................... 97
CHAPTER 5 Power spectrum and filtering................................................ 99
Andreas Skiadopoulos and Nick Stergiou
5.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 99
5.2 A simple composite wave...................................................... 100
5.3 Spectral analysis.................................................................... 103
5.4 Fourier series......................................................................... 105
5.5 Discrete Fourier analysis ...................................................... 107
5.6 Stationarity and the discrete Fourier transform ................. 122
5.7 Short-time discrete Fourier transform................................ 124
5.8 Noise ....................................................................................... 127
5.9 Data filtering........................................................................... 129
5.10 Practical implementation ...................................................... 138
5.11 Conclusion .............................................................................. 145
References ........................................................................................ 145
CHAPTER 6 Revisiting a classic: Muscles, Reflexes, and Locomotion
by McMahon .......................................................................... 149
Douglas A. Rowen, Aaron D. Likens and Nick Stergiou
6.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 149
6.2 Fundamental muscle mechanics.......................................... 150
6.3 Muscle heat and fuel ............................................................. 157
6.4 Contractile proteins ............................................................... 164
6.5 Sliding movement: Huxley’s model revisited....................... 171
6.6 Force development in the crossbridge ................................ 179
6.7 Reflexes and motor control .................................................. 181
6.8 Neural control of locomotion................................................ 189
6.9 Mechanisms of locomotion ................................................... 198
6.10 Effects of scale....................................................................... 205
6.11 Conclusion .............................................................................. 209
References ........................................................................................ 210
Further reading................................................................................. 224
 Contents ix

CHAPTER 7 The basics of gait analysis ................................................... 225

Luis M. Silva and Nick Stergiou
7.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 225
7.2 The concept of skill.................................................................. 226
7.3 The skill of gait......................................................................... 230
7.4 Periods and phases of gait...................................................... 232
7.5 Spatiotemporal parameters of gait ........................................ 235
7.6 Determinants of gait ................................................................ 242
7.7 Conclusions .............................................................................. 245
References ........................................................................................ 246
Further reading................................................................................. 250
CHAPTER 8 Gait variability: a theoretical framework for gait
analysis and biomechanics .................................................. 251
James T. Cavanaugh and Nick Stergiou
8.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 251
8.2 Conceptual approaches to gait variability.............................. 254
8.3 Gait analysis and biomechanical measurements for gait
variability................................................................................... 262
8.4 Examples from clinical research............................................ 274
8.5 Future directions...................................................................... 279
References ........................................................................................ 280
CHAPTER 9 Coordination and control: a dynamical systems
approach to the analysis of human gait.............................. 287
Aaron D. Likens and Nick Stergiou
9.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 287
9.2 Hallmark properties of a dynamical system ......................... 288
9.3 A dynamical systems approach to gait analysis.................... 295
9.4 Applications of relative phase dynamics to human gait ....... 304
9.5 Summary and concluding remarks ........................................ 306
References ........................................................................................ 307
CHAPTER 10 A tutorial on fractal analysis of human movements........ 313
Aaron D. Likens and Nick Stergiou
10.1 Introduction ............................................................................ 313
10.2 Fractal theory and its connection to human movement..... 313
10.3 Fractal analysis of time series data ..................................... 323
10.4 Applications to laboratory data............................................. 334
10.5 Conclusion .............................................................................. 339
References ........................................................................................ 340
x Contents

CHAPTER 11 Future directions in biomechanics: 3D printing............... 345

Jorge M. Zuniga and Nick Stergiou
11.1 Introduction .......................................................................... 345
11.2 Lower extremity applications.............................................. 346
11.3 Upper extremity applications.............................................. 350
11.4 Methods for three-dimensional printing assistive
devices .................................................................................. 351
11.5 Anatomical modeling for surgical planning ...................... 352
11.6 Fracture casting................................................................... 356
11.7 Upper extremity three-dimensional printed exoskeleton
for stroke patients ............................................................... 357
11.8 Implementation of a three-dimensional printing
research laboratory ............................................................. 360
11.9 Current Food and Drug Administration
recommendations of three-dimensional printed
medical devices.................................................................... 362
11.10 Limitations............................................................................ 367
11.11 Future perspectives ............................................................. 369
References ........................................................................................ 370

INDEX ...................................................................................................... 375

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Schematic of the basic concepts in biomechanics. 18

Figure 2.2 Qualitative versus quantitative analysis of movement. 19
Figure 2.3 The phases of movement method (Hay & Reid, 1988) is 23
implemented here using an analysis rubric with the push-up.
This movement has two phases—up (lifting) and down
(lowering). This is a very simple movement with two phases. If
we have a more complex movement (i.e., gait), there may be
more phases that extend the rubric. In addition, movements
may occur in more planes and these movements can be
incorporated within the same boxes along with their
corresponding planes and axes. The purpose of this method is
to make you think about the movement you are analyzing and
organize your thoughts in an effective manner within this
rubric. This preliminary step could provide you with a solid
foundation in terms of your movement analysis. M-L, medio-
lateral.
Figure 2.4 A very simple free body diagram. 24
Figure 2.5 The load
deformation or stress
strain relationship. 31
Figure 2.6 The A.V. Hill muscle model (Gasser & Hill, 1924; Shadmehr & 33
Arbib, 1992).
Figure 2.7 The force
velocity relationship graph. 35
Figure 2.8 The force
length relationship graph. 35
Figure 2.9 The force
angle relationship graph. 36
Figure 2.10 The distance
displacement relationship. 39
Figure 2.11 The slope of the position over time graph is velocity 40
(slope=rise/run=Δposition/Δtime=velocity). Similarly, the
slope of the velocity over time graph is acceleration
(slope=rise/run=Δvelocity/Δtime=acceleration).
Figure 2.12 The position, velocity, and acceleration, plotted together versus 41
the corresponding time using the concept of slopes.
Figure 2.13 We analyze projectiles in terms of the vertical and horizontal 42
velocities of the projected object.
Figure 2.14 (A) One of the gait analysis laboratories at the Biomechanics 46
Research Building. (B) A closer look to one of the cameras. (C)
A subject with markers placed on them. (D) A computer model
of a subject with the markers.
xi
xii List of Figures

Figure 2.15 Angles are analyzed from video recordings. We start with 46
certain coordinates as we see below. Let us assume that we
want to calculate the absolute angle of the shank with respect
to the horizontal. Using trigonometry for each segment, we get
the following summarized formula: tan θshank=(y proximal
y
distal)/(x proximal
x distal)=y knee
y ankle/x knee
x ankle=
(5
1)/(2
1)=4/1=3=inverse tan(4)=76 degrees.
Figure 2.16 Linear displacement is the product of radius of rotation and 48
angular displacement (d=rθ). Thus the farther away is the point
of interest in the rotating object from the axis of rotation
(r2 . r1), the larger the linear displacement (d2 . d1). The
angular displacement θ is the same for all rotating points.
Figure 2.17 A subject is stepping on force platforms like those shown 50
installed on the ground of a gait analysis laboratory at the
Biomechanics Research Building (see Fig. 2.14A). (A) A closer
look at these force platforms. (B) A visual 3D generated model
of the subject with the resultant ground reaction force vector
identified in blue. (C) The three separate components of the
resultant ground reaction force vector during walking.
Figure 2.18 The relationship between applied force and friction force. 51
Figure 2.19 The three classes of levers. (A) First class where the fulcrum or 56
axis is between the effort and the resistance. (B) Second class
where the resistance is between the axis and the effort. (C)
Third class where the effort is between the resistance and the
axis.
Figure 3.1 The progression of scientific production. 68
Figure 3.2 The steps of scientific inquiry. 68
Figure 3.3 Here we can observe the strategy of the solution we selected to 71
flex and extend our knee during walking. We also observe the
variability from one trial to the next or from one stride to the
next over this strategy, as the trajectories do not perfect
overlap. Data are provided from the University of Nebraska
Biomechanics Research Building database.
Figure 3.4 In this graph we observe impact ground reaction force data from 71
three different landing conditions. It is evident that the group
response reveals almost negligible differences between
conditions, resulting in a lack of statistical significance in a group
model. However, the five subjects have quite different responses.
These individual responses are missed when all the subjects are
group together. Data are provided from Dr. Barry Bates’ personal
database.
Figure 4.1 The Stickman and Stickwoman as drawn by Dr. Barry Bates. 82
His artistic abilities are clearly displayed.
Figure 4.2 The complex interactions of human movement and 83
performance present a dilemma to Stickman in executing
motor skills.
Figure 4.3 An overall conceptual model of the Stickman as an individual. 83
Figure 4.4 The components of movement. 85
Figure 4.5 A schematic of what we are as humans from a movement 86
perspective.
 List of Figures xiii

Figure 4.6 A schematic of our feedback system along with our 87

feedforward system that allows for the generation and
improvement of movement performance.
Figure 4.7 A motor development-based model of movement. 88
Figure 4.8 A model of injury as part of movement performance. 89
Figure 4.9 The process of learning a movement. 90
Figure 4.10 Further expanding the motor development-based model of 91
movement in Fig. 4.7, we add strategies that produce individual
differences in our responses during the performance of a motor
task.
Figure 4.11 A graphical model of strategies. 92
Figure 4.12 Applying forces do not always cause movement (Newton’s first 93
law). A change in velocity is required.
Figure 4.13 Applying forces through Newton’s second law. 94
Figure 4.14 Another application of applying forces considering also 95
Newton’s third law.
Figure 4.15 Applying forces with respect to impulse and momentum. 96
Figure 4.16 Applying forces with respect to the special forces with respect 96
to gravity and friction.
Figure 5.1 The vertical displacement of (A) point A (WA) and of (B) point 101
B (WB) is plotted as a function of time t. The points A and B are
located on the perimeters of disks A and B, respectively (radius
of disk OA=1 m and radius of disk OB=1=3 m). Both disks are
rotating clockwise with uniforms angular speeds. Disk A
completes one cycle in 1 s (i.e., a frequency of 1 Hz), and disk B
completes 23 cycles in 1 second (i.e., a frequency of 23 Hz). (C)
When disk B is attached to disk A at point A without changing
any of the previous characteristics, the vertical displacement of
point B (WAB) as a function of time (red signal) is now the sum
(i.e., synthesis) of the displacements of point A (WA) and point
B (WB).
Figure 5.2 The time series data and the power spectra of the waves 102
generated by the rotation of the disks in Fig. 5.1: (A)
WA 5 sinðω0 t Þ, (B) WB 5 1=3sinð23ω0 t Þ, (C)
WAB 5 sinðω0 t Þ 1 1=3 sinð23ω0 t Þ, with ω0 5 2π rad/s (i.e.,
f0 5 1 Hz). The outcome of the Fourier transformation is a set
of discrete harmonics at integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency of the continuous signal. Wave A (WA) has an
amplitude of 1 m and rotates with a frequency of 1 Hz. WA
represents a paradigm for the data we want to collect. Wave B
(WB) has amplitude of 1/3 m and rotates with a frequency of
23 Hz. WB represents a paradigm for noisy data superimposed
to the signal. The composite waveform WAB is used to
demonstrate the superimposed noise in measurements.
Figure 5.3 A signal with Nyquist frequency 5 Hz, sampled at different 108
sampling rates. A lower sampling frequency than the Nyquist
frequency results in aliasing, and the original signal cannot be
reconstructed. 16 times higher sampling frequency reconstructs
the signal with more detail.
xiv List of Figures

Figure 5.4 The frequency domain of the digital periodic waveforms (A)
116
WA=sinðω0 t Þ, (B) WB=1=3sinð23ω0 t Þ, (C) WAB=sinðω0 t Þ 1 1=3
sinð23ω0 t Þ, with ω0=2π rad/s ( f0=1 Hz) are represented by bars
located at the different harmonics. The harmonics are
calculated as multipliers of the fundamental frequency f0 and
are measured in Hertz. The length of the bars is the absolute
value of the amplitude of each harmonic. When the recorded
time t is not equal to the period T0 of the waveforms (or an
integer multiple of it), the energy of the harmonic is leaked
over adjacent frequency bins.
Figure 5.5 (A) Signal to be recorded. (B) An example in which periodic 118
waveforms have circular continuity because the recorded time
equals to their period T0. (C) An example in which periodic
waveforms do not have circular continuity because the recorded
time is different to their period T0. The sudden gaps at the end
of the repeated waves provoke leakage in the frequency domain.
Figure 5.6 The Hann window reduces the spectral leakage of the digital 120
periodic waveform in the frequency domain. The spectral plot
of the waveform without tapered by a window function and
without leakage is presented in Fig. 5.4C.
Figure 5.7 Spectral and power spectrum density (PSD) plots of a digital 123
time series data.
Figure 5.8 (A) Signal to be recorded. (B) Discrete Fourier transform (DFT) 126
and (C) short-time discrete Fourier transform (STDFT) of a
nonstationary signal. Only the time
frequency analysis
provides time localization of the frequency components of the
signal. However, to achieve a good time localization, narrow
windows are needed at the expense of blurring the frequency
domain. In contrast, wider windows provide precision in the
frequency domain.
Figure 5.9 The first derivative (velocity) and the second derivative 131
(acceleration) of WAB, previously presented in Fig. 5.2C. The
blue line is the first derivative of the WA signal. Compare
the oscillations with Fig. 5.2C. Note the dramatic increase of
the high-frequency (WB) component of the signal WAB.
Figure 5.10 The power spectrum of the Lanshammar data (1982) and 132
of its two first derivatives. The power of the higher
frequency band increases dramatically, especially at the
second derivative.
Figure 5.11 There are four types of filters, although in human movement 134
we frequently use the lowpass for kinematic data filtering
and the band pass for EMG data filtering. The type chosen
depends on the frequencies that we want to eliminate. To
eliminate the higher frequencies we use a low-pass filter, to
eliminate the lower frequencies we use a high-pass filter, to
remove frequency components at the central part of the
power spectrum we use a band-stop filter, to keep central
frequency components and remove the components at the
lowest and the highest band of the spectrum we use a band-
pass filter. In the low-pass and high-pass filters Fc indicates
the cutoff frequency. In the band-stop and band-pass filters
Fc1 and Fc2 define a range in the frequency spectrum to
keep or remove specific frequency bands.
 List of Figures xv

Figure 5.12 The angular displacement time-series data of the elbow joint 135
collected by Pezzack et al. (1977) and modified by
Lanshammar (1982a) filtered with the fourth-order zero-
phase-shift low-pass filter from Eq. (5.37) at three different
cutoff frequencies (1, 2, and 3 Hz). A higher cutoff frequency
will “push” the reconstructed signal toward the raw signal.
The cutoff frequency of 3 Hz provides an
acceptable reconstruction of the angular displacement data.
Figure 5.13 The calculated acceleration of a free-falling ball as recorded by 137
Vaughan (1982) after being filtered with a Butterworth digital
filter (cutoff frequency 4 Hz). The acceleration should be equal
to the gravitational acceleration (29.8 m/s2), but it appears not
to be. This graph demonstrates the effect of the order of the
filter. The increase in order from two to four and then to six
introduces unwanted oscillations in the acceleration pattern.
The problem of a nonconstant acceleration around the area of
29.84 m/s2 is more evident at the edges.
Figure 5.14 (A) Example of a low-pass filter (cutoff frequency=2 Hz) 142
applied to a sine wave sampled at 40 Hz, with amplitude equal
to 1 m, and frequency equal to 2 Hz. (B) The signal
interpolated by a factor of 2, and filtered with cutoff frequency
equal to the frequency of the sine wave (cutoff
frequency=2 Hz). (C) Since the amplitude of the filtered signal
has been reduced by a ratio of 0.707, the low-pass filter
correctly attenuated the signal. The power spectra of the
original and reconstructed signal are shown.
Figure 5.15 Example of a recursive low-pass filter applied to a sine wave 144
with amplitude equal to 1 m and cutoff frequency equal to the
frequency of the sine wave. Since the amplitude of the filtered
signal has been reduced by a ratio of 0.707, the low-pass filter
correctly attenuated the signal. However, the function without
the correction factor reduced the amplitude by nearly one-half
(0.51), indicating that the coefficients need correction.
Figure 6.1 The force produced during a twitch, unfused tetanus, and 151
tetanus.
Figure 6.2 The force
velocity relationship in blue (Eq. 6.1) and the 152
power
velocity relationship in green (Eq. 6.2). Maximum
force is produced at zero velocity, while maximum power is
produced at less than half of the maximum velocity.
Figure 6.3 The mechanical structure of the muscle with the contractile 152
component (CE), the parallel elastic component (PE), and the
series elastic component (SE).
Figure 6.4 The length
tension curves of the tetanized (green) muscle and 154
passive (blue) and active (red) components. The difference
between the tetanized and passive curve determines the active
elastic component of the muscle.
Figure 6.5 An example stress
strain relationship for a ductile material. 155
Stress is represented on the x-axis and strain is on the y-axis. 1:
Ultimate strength; 2: yield strength; 3: proportional limit stress;
4: point of rupture; 5: offset strain.
xvi List of Figures

Figure 6.6 Concentrations of lactic acid (red, circles), adenosine triphosphate 162
(ATP) (blue, crosses) and phosphocreatine (PCr) (yellow, diamonds)
during sustained tetanus. It can be seen that the concentration of
ATP stays about the same for the duration of tetanus while there
is a decrease in PCr and an increase in lactic acid.
Figure 6.7 The different types of muscle organization. Unipennate 164
muscles (A) have the tendon running along one side of the
muscle fibers. In a bipennate muscle (B), the tendon passes up
the center of the muscle and the fibers are attached on either
side. Multipennate muscles (C) have tendon material
approaching the belly of the muscle from both ends.
Figure 6.8 A schematic representation of a muscle fiber, and zoomed in as 165
a myofibril.
Figure 6.9 Schematic representation of the actin and myosin overlap during 167
relaxed and contracted conditions. This representation is updated
to include titin as a spring element connected to the myosin
filaments.
Figure 6.10 The tension
length curves of a single muscle fiber for different 168
sarcomere lengths.
Figure 6.11 The percentage of attached crossbridges for different 175
displacements. At zero shortening speed the number of
crossbridges remains constant. As the speed of shortening
increases, the number of attached crossbridges decreases for all
displacements.
Figure 6.12 The rate of energy liberation comparison between Hill original 177
(1938) and an updated (1964) model.
Figure 6.13 The organization of the central nervous system with arrows 182
showing the connections between different regions of the brain.
Figure 6.14 The muscle proprioceptors and the associated reflex pathway. 186
Reflex pathways typically only involve the spinal cord and do
not require any further central nervous system interaction. This
specific illustration details the extensor digitorum reflex.
Figure 6.15 The principle of reciprocal inhibition: (left) cocontraction and 192
(right) inhibition when a force is applied to the wrist.
Figure 6.16 A mechanical oscillator based on reflex reversal. 193
Figure 6.17 The setup of a motion-capture laboratory at the University of 198
Nebraska at Omaha with forceplates embedded into the
treadmill. Cameras are seen attached to the wall (see boxes).
Figure 6.18 The force profiles generated while walking over a forceplate. 199
Figure 6.19 A log
log graph with stride frequency and shoulder height 207
comparisons for different animals in Serengeti National Park.
Figure 7.1 The three separate components of the resultant ground 233
reaction force vector during the gait cycle; medial
lateral,
anterior
posterior, and vertical (in Newtons).
Figure 7.2 (A) Bauby and Kuo’s theoretical perspective for motor control 237
of gait. Note that the Bauby and Kuo (2000) model shows a
distinct division between the anatomical planes with no
potential for passive stabilization in the lateral direction.
(B) Proposed modifications of Bauby and Kuo’s theoretical
perspective for motor control of gait. In the proposed modified
 List of Figures xvii

model the anatomical planes are no longer divided, rather

planes are organized according to the direction of progression
resulting in primary and secondary planes (Wurdeman &
Stergiou, 2013; Wurdeman et al., 2012). There is also now
potential for both directions to benefit from both active and
passive stabilization. The primary plane of progression will
benefit most from the mechanics of motion and thus have
greater passive control. The secondary plane has less (although
not absent) influence from passive stabilization, thus requiring
increased active control.
Figure 7.3 Body is oriented orthogonal to typical forward walking during 238
lateral stepping gait to alter the influence from passive
mechanics of motion.
Figure 7.4 Simplest passive dynamic walking model composed of a point 241
mass hip and two massless legs. This model also includes a hip
joint actuator which was used in some of the Kurz and
Stergiou experiments.
Figure 7.5 Simplified inverted pendulum model in the sagittal plane. 244
Figure 8.1 Six hypothetical time series with differing amounts and 252
complexities of variability. The sinusoidal time series featured in
the upper two panels contain patterns of fluctuation that differ
in amount but are entirely predictable (i.e., not complex). The
time series in the lower two panels contain patterns of
fluctuation that differ in amount but are much more random
(i.e., also not particularly complex). The center two time series
differ in amount and contain a complex temporal sequence that
appears to include approximately but not precisely repeating
patterns that are neither entirely predictable nor random. LyE,
Largest Lyapunov exponent (see Section 8.3.4).
Figure 8.2 Theoretical model of optimal movement variability. Less than 258
optimal variability can be either too random and unstable or
too predictable and overly rigid. Optimal variability is
associated with greater adaptive capacity.
Figure 8.3 Pressure-sensitive insole for a left shoe. Sensors can be used to 264
transmit stride time data to a nearby computer. This example
product is manufactured by TekScan, Inc., South Boston,
Massachusetts.
Figure 8.4 Performer walking on a treadmill wearing reflective markers for 266
three-dimensional (3D) motion capture data collection.
Figure 8.5 Periodic (upper panel), chaotic (center panel), and random (lower 271
panel) time series from Fig. 8.1 and their corresponding three-
dimensional phase space plots. LyE values were calculated
using an algorithm developed by Wolf, Swift, Swinney, and
Vastano (1985) and implemented using the Chaos Data
Analyzer software (Sprott & Rowlands, 1995).
Figure 9.1 (A) Inphase preparation of fingers in bimanual coordination 289
task. (B) Antiphase preparation of fingers in a bimanual
coordination task. (C) Phase portrait derived from the
Haken
Kelso
Bunz (HKB) model when fingers are oscillating
at a slow frequency. (D) Phase portrait derived from the HKB
model when the fingers are oscillating at collective frequency
beyond the critical value.
xviii List of Figures

Figure 9.2 (A) Phase portrait of a simple sinusoid. The horizontal axis has 291
arbitrary units and the vertical axis depicts its time derivative.
(B) Phase portrait of a lower limb segment captured from
several walking cycles on a treadmill. (C) Simulation of a
strange attractor, the Rössler equation, projected into the x
y
plane. Panel (C) also has arbitrary units.
Figure 9.3 (A) Demonstration of right thigh phase angle calculation for 292
approximately one stride of treadmill walking. The phase
portrait traces out its trajectory in a clockwise fashion. (B)
Phase portrait of right thigh angle over several cycles of
treadmill walking. Deviations from limit cycle behavior
resulted from a brief halt of the treadmill belts.
Figure 9.4 (A) Graphical representations of the segment angles. (B) Mean 298
ensemble continuous relative phase (CRP) curve showing
coordination patterns between shank and thigh segments
during several minutes of walking performed by a single
healthy exemplar subject. The dashed line reflects the mean
ensemble curve. Solid lines represent 6 1 standard deviation
from the mean. The dashed vertical line separates the stance
and swing phases of the gait cycle.
Figure 9.5 (A) Time series plots of nonsinusoidal signals. The signals are 301
identical, but one is shifted by 45 degrees. (B) Comparison of
normalization techniques with the Hilbert transform method
of continuous relative phase (CRP) estimation.
Figure 10.1 (A) Experimental setup for a visual-motor tracking experiment. 314
(B) Lateral position time series obtained for several cycles from
the experiment in depicted in (A). (C) Time series of
oscillation amplitudes obtained from the time series partially
depicted in (B).
Figure 10.2 Brassica oleracea (aka Romanesco broccoli). This vegetable is 317
famous for its characteristic fractal shape. The entire
vegetable is composed of a unique spiraling texture such that
small portions of the bud look like the entire thing.
Figure 10.3 Three drawings of Great Britain, with the length of its coastline 317
measured using three different rulers. Each successive ruler is
one-half the length of the previous one. This demonstrates the
scale-free property of fractals: changing ruler size changes the
length measurement. Hence, the coastline of Great Britain has
no characteristic length.
Figure 10.4 (A) Line drawing of a square. The area of the square does not 318
change as a function of the ruler used to measure it. Measuring
the perimeter with increasingly smaller rulers does not alter the
result of measurement. (B) The von Koch curve after 0
3
iterations (top to bottom). The von Koch curve is defined over an
infinite number of iterations, with the length of the curve also
increasing upon each iteration. Hence the von Koch curve has
no characteristic measurement of length.
Figure 10.5 Zooming into the amplitude time series from Fig. 10.1C. (A) 320
The entire time series. (B, C) Plots half and one-fourth of that
time series, respectively. Plotting the data in this way suggests
that, consistent with fractal theory, smaller portions of the time
series bear a striking resemblance to the entire series.
 1.2 The history of biomechanics 3

During the Renaissance, Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 1519) examined the

structure and function of the human body in a variety of movements and
Vesalius (1514 64) laid the foundation of modern anatomy. Following in
their footsteps, another group of scientists contributed heavily to the growth
of biomechanics. Galileo Galilei (1564 1642) studied the action of falling
bodies and provided the basis for the mechanical analysis of movement.
Alfonso Borelli (1608 79) was a student of Galileo. He examined muscular
movement and mechanical principles. His work De Moto Animalium com-
bined the sciences of mathematics, physics, and anatomy. The year the world
lost Galileo it gained Sir Isaac Newton (1642 1727), who developed his
famous mechanical laws, and was the founder of calculus, statistics, and
dynamics. The contribution of this time period to biomechanics included
Newtonian mechanics, which provided us with a theory for mechanical anal-
ysis, and an improvement in science through development of the process of
theory and experimentation.
During the 19th century the contribution to biomechanics included the foun-
dation of electromyography, the development of measuring techniques to
examine the kinematics and kinetics of movement, and the beginning of the
use of engineering principles in biomechanical analysis. Wilhelm Eduard
Weber (1804 91) published the Mechanism of walking in mankind which was
a study, undertaken in conjunction with his younger brother, Eduard
Friedrich Weber (1806 71). In this study the Weber brothers investigated
the influence of gravity on limb movements in walking and running and
were the first to study the path of the center of gravity during movement.
Eadweard Muybridge (1830 1904) studied animal (horses) and human
locomotion and was the first to use multiple cameras to capture motion in
stop-motion photographs. He also developed a device, the zoopraxiscope, to
project motion pictures and he produced over 100,000 images of animals
and humans in motion. Étienne-Jules Marey (1830 1904) used various
photographical methods to examine movement. He believed that movement
was the most important of all human functions and he described it graphi-
cally for biological research in his publications Du mouvement dans les fonc-
tions de la vie and Le Mouvement.
These early examples of photographic techniques would develop into the
motion capture used in modern cinema and biomechanics. During the 20th
century biomechanical research influenced applications in industrial, medi-
cal, and other practical areas, and biomechanics evolved as a necessary
science-based method in the study of human and animal movement.
Jules Amar (1879 1935) collected extensive experimental data during vari-
ous physical activities, including load bearing. Amar attempted to quantify
muscular output, creating tools to measure different types of effort using the
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Repton and its
neighbourhood
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: Repton and its neighbourhood

a descriptive guide of the archæology, &c. of the district

Author: F. C. Hipkins

Release date: September 21, 2023 [eBook #71701]

Language: English

Original publication: Repton: A.J. Lawrence, 1899

Credits: MWS and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at

https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from
images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK REPTON

AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD ***
 Plate 1.

Repton Church.
 REPTON
AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD:
A DESCRIPTIVE GUIDE OF
THE ARCHÆOLOGY, &c., OF THE DISTRICT.

Illustrated by Photogravures, &c.

BY
F. C. HIPKINS, M.A., F.S.A.,
ASSISTANT MASTER AT REPTON SCHOOL.

SECOND EDITION.

A. J. LAWRENCE, PRINTER, REPTON.

MDCCCXCIX.

REPTON:
A. J. LAWRENCE, PRINTER.
 PREFACE.
In the year 1892, I ventured to write, for Reptonians, a short History
of Repton, its quick sale emboldened me to set about obtaining
materials for a second edition. The list of Authors, &c., consulted
(printed at the end of this preface), will enable any one, who wishes
to do so, to investigate the various events further, or to prove the
truth of the facts recorded. Round the Church, Priory, and School
centre all that is interesting, and, naturally, they occupy nearly all the
pages of this second attempt to supply all the information possible to
those who live in, or visit our old world village, whose church, &c.,
might well have served the poet Gray as the subject of his Elegy.

“Beneath those rugged Elms, that Yew-tree’s shade,

Where heaves the Turf in many a mould’ring Heap,
Each in his narrow Cell for ever laid,
The rude Forefathers of the Hamlet sleep.”

In writing the history of Repton certain events stand out more

prominently than others, e. g., the Conversion of Mercia by Diuma,
its first bishop, and his assistant missionaries, Adda, Betti, and
Cedda, the brother of St. Chad: the Founding of the Monastery
during the reign of Peada or his brother Wulphere (a.d. 655-675): the
coming of the Danes in 874, and the destruction of the Abbey and
town by them: the first building of Repton Church, probably during
the reign of Edgar the Peaceable, a.d. 957: the Founding of the
Priory by Maud, Countess of Chester, about the year 1150, its
dissolution in 1538, its destruction in 1553, and the Founding of the
School in 1557. Interwoven with these events are others which have
been recorded in the Chronicles, Histories, Registers, &c., consulted,
quoted, and used to produce as interesting an account as possible of
those events, which extend over a period of nearly twelve hundred
and fifty years!
 The hand of time, and man, especially the latter, has gradually
destroyed anything ancient, and “restorations” have completely
changed the aspect of the village. The Church, Priory, Hall, and
“Cross,” still serve as links between the centuries, but, excepting
these, only one old house remains, in Well Lane, bearing initials
“T.S.” and date “1686.”
Even the Village Cross was restored! Down to the year 1806, the
shaft was square, with square capital, in which an iron cross was
fixed. In Bigsby’s History of Repton, (p. 261), there is a drawing of it,
and an account of its restoration, by the Rev. R. R. Rawlins.
During the last fifteen years the old house which stood at the
corner, (adjoining Mr. Cattley’s house,) in which the “Court Leet” was
held, and the “round-house” at the back of the Post Office, with its
octagonal-shaped walls and roof, and oak door, studded with iron
nails, have also been destroyed.
The consequence is that the History of Repton is chiefly
concerned with ancient and mediæval times.
The Chapters on the Neighbourhood of Repton have been added
in the hope that they may prove useful to those who may wish to
make expeditions to the towns and villages mentioned. More might
have been included, and more written about them, the great difficulty
was to curtail both, and at the same time make an interesting, and
intelligible record of the chief points of interest in the places
described.
In conclusion, I wish to return thanks to those who by their advice,
and information have helped me, especially the Rev. J. Charles Cox,
LL.D., Author of “Derbyshire Churches,” &c., J. T. Irvine, Esq., and
Messrs. John Thompson and Sons who most kindly supplied me
with plans of Crypt, and Church, made during the restorations of
1885-6.
For the many beautiful photographs, my best thanks are due to
Miss M. H. Barham, W. B. Hawkins, Esq., and C. B. Hutchinson,
Esq., and others.
 BOOKS, Etc., CONSULTED or
QUOTED.
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, (Rolls Series).
Bassano, Francis. Church Notes, (1710).
Bede, Venerable. Ecclesiastical History.
Bigsby, Rev. Robert. History of Repton, (1854).
Birch, W. de Gray. Memorials of St. Guthlac.
Browne, (Right Rev. Bishop of Bristol). Conversion of the
Heptarchy.
Cox, Rev. J. Charles. Churches of Derbyshire.
Derbyshire Archæological Journal, (1879-98).
Eckenstein, Miss Lina. Women under Monasticism.
Diocesan Histories, (S.P.C.K).
Dugdale. Monasticon.
Evesham, Chronicles of, (Rolls Series).
Gentleman’s Magazine.
Glover, S. History of Derbyshire, (1829).
Green, J. R. Making of England.
Ingulph. History.
Leland. Collectanea.
Lingard. Anglo-Saxon Church.
Lysons. Magna Britannia, (Derbyshire), (1817).
Paris, Matthew. Chronicles, (Rolls Series).
Pilkington, J. “A View of the Present State of Derbyshire,”
(1789).
Repton Church Registers.
Repton School Register.
Searle, W. G. Onomasticon Anglo-Saxonicum.
Stebbing Shaw. History of Staffordshire.
” ” Topographer.
Tanner. Notitia Monastica.
 CONTENTS.
page
List of Illustrations ix
Chapter I.
Repton (General) 1
Chapter II.
Repton (Historical)—The place-name Repton, &c. 6
Chapter III.
Repton’s Saints (Guthlac and Wystan) 11
Chapter IV.
Repton Church 17
Chapter V.
Repton Church Registers 25
Chapter VI.
Repton’s Merry Bells 42
Chapter VII.
The Priory 50
Chapter VIII.
Repton School 61
Chapter IX.
Repton School v. Gilbert Thacker 65
Chapter X.
Repton Tile-Kiln 71
Chapter XI.
Repton School Tercentenary and Founding of the School 75
Chapel, &c.
Chapter XII.
School Houses, &c. 81
Chapter XIII.
Chief Events referred to, or described 87
Chapter XIV.
The Neighbourhood of Repton. 91
Ashby-de-la-Zouch 92
Barrow, Swarkeston, and Stanton-by-Bridge 99
Bretby and Hartshorn 104
Egginton, Stretton, and Tutbury 108
Etwall and its Hospital 115
Foremark and Anchor Church 121
Melbourne and Breedon 124
Mickle-Over, Finderne, and Potlac 127
Newton Solney 130
Tickenhall, Calke, and Staunton Harold 132
Index 137
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Plate
1. Repton Church frontispiece
2. Prior Overton’s Tower to face page 1
3. Repton Church Crypt ” 17
4. Repton Camp and Church ” 22
5. Plans of Church and Priory ” 25
6. Bell Marks ” 46
7. Repton Priory ” 51
8. Sir John Porte and Gilbert Thacker ” 54
9. The Outer Arch of Gate House ” 61
10. Repton School Chapel and Mr. Exham’s ”
House 75
11. The Hall and Porter’s Lodge ” 81
12. Pears Memorial Hall Window ” 83
13. Mr. Cattley’s, Mr. Forman’s and Mr. Gould’s ”
Houses 85
14. Mr. Estridge’s and Mr. Gurney’s Houses ” 86
15. Cricket Pavilion, Pears Memorial Hall, &c. ” 90
16. Ashby Castle and Staunton Harold Church ” 93
17. Barrow Church and Swarkeston House ” 99
18. Anchor Church and Bretby Hall ” 104
19. Egginton Church and Willington Church ” 109
20. Etwall Church and Hospital ” 115
21. Breedon Church and Melbourne Church ” 125
22. Tickenhall Round House ” 136
 CORRIGENDA.
Page 12. For Eaburgh read Eadburgh.
” 14. ” Ggga ” Egga.
” 74. ” Solwey ” Solney.
” 96. ” Grindley ” Grinling.
” 99. ” preceptary ” preceptory.
” 111. ” now ” father of the.
” 115. ” Bumaston ” Burnaston.

Transcriber’s Note: These corrections have been made to the text.

 Plate 2.

Repton Hall. (Prior Overton’s Tower, page 81.)

 CHAPTER I.
REPTON (GENERAL).

Repton is a village in the County of Derby, four miles east of Burton-

on-Trent, seven miles south-west of Derby, and gives its name to the
deanery, and with Gresley, forms the hundred, or division, to which it
belongs.
The original settlers showed their wisdom when they selected the
site: on the north flowed “the smug and silver Trent,” providing them
with water; whilst on the south, forests, which then, no doubt,
extended in unbroken line from Sherwood to Charnwood, provided
fuel; and, lying between, a belt of green pasturage provided fodder
for cattle and sheep. The hand of time and man, has nearly
destroyed the forests, leaving them such in name alone, and the
remains of forests and pasturage have been “annexed.” Repton
Common still remains in name, in 1766 it was enclosed by Act of
Parliament, and it and the woods round are no longer “common.”
Excavations made in the Churchyard, and in the field to the west
of it, have laid bare many foundations, and portions of Anglo-Saxon
buildings, such as head-stones of doorways and windows, which
prove that the site of the ancient Monastery, and perhaps the town,
was on that part of the village now occupied by church, churchyard,
vicarage and grounds, and was protected by the River Trent, a
branch of which then, no doubt, flowed at the foot of its rocky bank.
At some time unknown, the course of the river was interfered with.
Somewhere, above or about the present bridge at Willington, the
river divided into two streams, one flowing as it does now, the other,
by a very sinuous course, crossed the fields and flowed by the town,
and so on till it rejoined the Trent above Twyford Ferry. Traces of this
bed can be seen in the fields, and there are still three wide pools left
which lie in the course of what is now called the “Old Trent.”
 There is an old tradition that this alteration was made by Hotspur.
In Shakespeare’s play of Henry IV. Act III. Hotspur, Worcester,
Mortimer, and Glendower, are at the house of the Archdeacon at
Bangor. A map of England and Wales is before them, which the
Archdeacon has divided into three parts. Mortimer is made to say:

“England, from Trent to Severn hitherto,

By south and east is to my part assign’d:
All westward, Wales beyond the Severn shore,
And all the fertile land within that bound,
To Owen Glendower; and dear Coz, to you
The remnant northward, lying off from Trent.”

The “dear Coz” Hotspur, evidently displeased with his share,

replies, pointing to the map;—

“Methinks my moiety, north from Burton here,

In quantity equals not one of yours:
See how this river comes me cranking in,
And cuts me from the best of all my land,
A huge half moon, a monstrous cantle out.
I’ll have the current in this place damm’d up;
And here the smug and silver Trent shall run
In a new channel fair and evenly:
It shall not wind with such a deep indent,
To rob me of so rich a bottom here.”

Whether this passage refers to the alteration of the course of the

Trent at Repton, or not, we cannot say, but that it was altered is an
undoubted fact. The dam can be traced just below the bridge, and on
the Parish Map, the junction of the two is marked. Pilkington in his
History of Derbyshire refers to “eight acres of land in an island
betwixt Repton and Willington” as belonging to the Canons of
Repton Priory. They are still known as the Canons’ Meadows. On
this “island” is a curious parallelogram of raised earth, which is
supposed to be the remains of a Roman Camp, called Repandunum
by Stebbing-Shaw, O.R., the Historian of Staffordshire, but he gives
no proofs for the assertion. Since the “Itineraries” neither mention
nor mark it, its original makers must remain doubtful until
excavations have been made on the spot. Its dimensions are, North
side, 75 yards, 1 foot, South side, 68 yards, 1 foot, East side, 52
yards, 1 foot, West side, 54 yards, 2 feet. Within the four
embankments are two rounded mounds, and parallel with the South
side are two inner ramparts, only one parallel with the North. It is
supposed by some to be “a sacred area surrounding tumuli.” The
local name for it is “The Buries.” In my opinion it was raised and
used by the Danes, who in a.d. 874 visited Repton, and destroyed it
before they left in a.d. 875.
Before the Conquest the Manor of Repton belonged to Algar, Earl
of Mercia. In Domesday Book it is described as belonging to him and
the King, having a church and two priests, and two mills. It soon after
belonged to the Earls of Chester, one of whom, Randulph de
Blundeville, died in the year 1153. His widow, Matilda, with the
consent of her son Hugh, founded Repton Priory.
In Lysons’ Magna Britannia, we read, “The Capital Messuage of
Repingdon was taken into the King’s (Henry III.) hands in 1253.”
Afterwards it appears to have passed through many hands, John de
Britannia, William de Clinton, Philip de Strelley, John Fynderne, etc.,
etc. In the reign of Henry IV., John Fynderne “was seised of an
estate called the Manor of Repingdon alias Strelley’s part,” from
whom it descended through George Fynderne to Jane Fynderne,
who married Sir Richard Harpur, Judge of the Common Pleas,
whose tomb is in the mortuary chapel of the Harpurs in Swarkeston
Church. Round the alabaster slab of the tomb on which lie the
effigies of Sir Richard and his wife, is the following inscription, “Here
under were buryed the bodyes of Richard Harpur, one of the
Justicies of the Comen Benche at Westminster, and Jane his wife,
sister and heyer unto Thomas Fynderne of Fynderne, Esquyer.
Cogita Mori.” Since the dissolution of the Priory there have been two
Manors of Repton, Repton Manor and Repton Priory Manor.
From Sir Richard Harpur the Manor of Repton descended to the
present Baronet, Sir Vauncey Harpur-Crewe. Sir Henry Harpur, by
royal license, assumed the name and arms of Crewe, in the year
1800.
 The Manor of Repton Priory passed into the hands of the
Thackers at the dissolution of the Priory, and remained in that family
till the year 1728, when Mary Thacker devised it, and other estates,
to Sir Robert Burdett of Foremark, Bart.
The Village consists of two main streets, which meet at the Cross.
Starting from the Church, in a southerly direction, one extends for
about a mile, towards Bretby. The other, coming from Burton-on-
Trent, proceeds in an easterly direction, through “Brook End,”
towards Milton, and Tickenhall, &c. The road from Willington was
made in 1839, when it and the bridge were completed, and opened
to the public. A swift stream, rising in the Pistern Hills, six miles to
the south, runs through a broad valley, and used to turn four corn
mills, (two of which are mentioned in Domesday Book,) now only two
are worked, one at Bretby, the other at Repton. The first, called
Glover’s Mill, about a mile above Bretby, has the names of many of
the Millers, who used to own or work it, cut, apparently, by their own
hands, in the stone of which it is built. The last mill was the Priory
Mill, and stood on the east side of the Priory, the arch, through which
the mill-race ran, is still in situ, it was blocked, and the stream
diverted to its present course, by Sir John Harpur in the year 1606.
On the left bank of this stream, on the higher ground of the valley,
the village has been built; no attempt at anything like uniformity of
design, in shape or size, has been made, each owner and builder
erected, house or cottage, according to his own idea or desire;
these, with gardens and orchards, impart an air of quaint beauty to
our village, whose inhabitants for centuries have been engaged,
chiefly, in agriculture. In the old Parish registers some of its
inhabitants are described as “websters,” and “tanners,” but, owing to
the growth of the trade in better situated towns, these trades
gradually ceased.
During the Civil War the inhabitants of Repton and neighbourhood
remained loyal and faithful to King Charles I. In 1642 Sir John Gell,
commander of the Parliamentary forces stormed Bretby House, and
in January, 1643, the inhabitants of Repton, and other parishes, sent
a letter of remonstrance to the Mayor and Corporation of Derby,
owing to the plundering excursions of soldiers under Sir John’s
command. In the same year, Sir John Harpur’s house, at
Swarkeston, was stormed and taken by Sir John Gell.
In 1687 a wonderful skeleton, nine feet long! was discovered in a
field, called Allen’s Close, adjoining the churchyard of Repton, now
part of the Vicarage grounds. The skeleton was in a stone coffin, with
others to the number of one hundred arranged round it! During the
year 1787 the grave was reopened, and a confused heap of bones
was discovered, which were covered over with earth, and a
sycamore tree, which is still flourishing, was planted to mark the
spot.
During the present century few changes have been made in the
village; most of them will be found recorded, either under chief
events in the History of Repton, or in the chapters succeeding.