Content 2

Page no. Content

1 Front page

2 Content

3 Short note about carbohydrates

4 Flow chart of carbohydrates

5 Simple Sugar or Monosugar or Monosaccharide

6-7 complex sugar

8 Acknowledgement

9 Reference or Bibliography

10 Thank you
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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of naturally occurring compounds that are essential constituents of all living things . They are formed by green plants from
carbon dioxide and water during the process of photosynthesis . Carbohydrates are probably the most abundant and widespread organic substances in
nature . They are classified into four major groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides . Monosaccharides are the
simplest carbohydrates and are found in grapes, other fruits, and honey etc.

What are Carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are a class of organic compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in a ratio of roughly 1:2:1. They are the most
abundant organic compounds found in living organisms and are a major source of metabolic energy for both plants and animals . Carbohydrates also
serve as a structural material (cellulose), a component of the energy transport compound ATP, recognition sites on cell surfaces, and one of three
essential components of DNA and RNA . The formulas of many carbohydrates can be written as carbon hydrates, C n (H2O) n, hence their
name . Carbohydrates are called saccharides or, if they are relatively small, sugars. There are several classifications of carbohydrates, and they have
been given non-systematic names, although the suffix is generally used . The most common carbohydrate is glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ), which is a
monosaccharide, an aldohexose, and a reducing sugar.

Role of Carbohydrates in the Body

Carbohydrates play a vital role in the human body. They are molecules found in food that store and supply your body and brain with energy.
One of the primary functions of carbohydrates is to provide your body with energy. Most of the carbohydrates in the foods you eat are digested
and broken down into glucose before entering the bloodstream. Glucose in the blood is taken up into your body’s cells and used to produce a
fuel molecule called adenosine triphosphate (ATP) through a series of complex processes known as cellular respiration. Cells can then use ATP
to power a variety of metabolic tasks . Most cells in the body can produce ATP from several sources, including dietary carbohydrates and
fats. But if you are consuming a diet with a mix of these nutrients, most of your body’s cells will prefer to use carbs as their primary energy
source.
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Diagram/ flowchart

Oligosaccharides

Complex sugar

Polysaccharides
Carbohydrates

Simple sugar Monosaccharide

Type of Elements in Examples Monomers of Structure of function

biomolecule biomolecule biomolecules monomer

Carbohydrate C,H,O Sugars and Monosaccharides Primary source of

1:2:1 Ratio starches, Ex: Glucose energy, receptor on
Glusose,fructose. cell membrane
Carbohydrates are majorly two types simple and complex sugars. 5
Simple Sugar
General Characteristics and structure
These are simplest type of carbohydrates formed of single aldehydic or ketonic derivatives of polyhydroxy alcohols.
Chemically, these are formed of C, H and O generally in the ratio of 1: 2: 1. General formula for monosaccharides is or (CH 2O), where n is the number of C-
atoms in a monosaccharide which varies from 3 to 7.
• Monosaccharides are called sugars as these are sweeter in taste.
Types of monosaccharide based on number of C-atoms:-
A. Triose (3-carbons): General formula = C3H6O3, e.g., Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone
B. Tetroses (with 4-carbons): General formula = C4H8O4, e.g., Erythrose, Threose.
C. Pentoses (with 5-carbons): General formula Xylose, Xylulose, Ribulose. = C5H10O5 e.g., Ribose, Deoxyribose.
D. Hexoses (with 6-carbons): General formula = C6H12O6 e.g., Glucose, Mannose, Galactose and Fructose.
E. Heptoses (with 7-carbons): General formula =.C7H41O7, e.g., Sedoheptulose.
On the basis of nature of carbonyl group:-
A. Aldoses: These monosugars have aldehydic group at C-1' e.g., Glucose, Galactose.
B. Ketoses: These monosugars have ketonic group at C-2' e.g., Fructose.
Two cyclic forms of monosaccharides:-
A. Furanoses: All the pentoses (e.g., Ribose, Deoxyribose) and Ketohexoses (e.g., Fructose) occur as a 5-membered ring form which resembles furan so
called furanose ring e.g., Ribose and Fructose.
B. Pyranoses. Most of aldohexoses (e.g., Glucose, Galactose and Mannose) occur as 6- membered ring form which resembles pyran so called pyranose ring.
Functions of simple sugar :-
A. As respiratory fuel. Glucose acts as chief respiratory fuel because it is easily oxidisable and is present abundantly in the body fluids. It is also called
Carbohydrate currency of the body. Physiological fuel value of glucose is 4.0 Kcal. Glucose provides energy for about 60 per cent of energy needs of
man. One glucose molecule produces about 38 ATP molecules (i.e., 280 Kcal).
B. Ribose is the structural component of RNA, certain coenzymes like FAD and NAD, and certain energy molecules like ATP, GTP, etc.
C. Deoxyribose is the component of DNA.
D. Intermediates of C3-cycle of photosynthesis e.g. Glyceraldehyde, Xylulose, Ribulose, Sedoheptulose, etc. V. Galactose is the component of medullary
sheath.
E. Monosaccharides act as monomers for formation of oligosaccharides like sucrose, maltose, etc. and polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose.
F. When excess, monosugars can be changed into amino acids or fats. 6
G. Glucose (grape sugar or blood sugar or dextrose' and fructose (fruit or sweetest sugar) are reserve food of grapes and fruits respectively.
H. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) is a sugar acid and maintains capillary wall and helps in tyrosine metabolism.
Complex Sugar
Complex sugar are those carbohydrates which are formed of multiples monosaccharides interlinked by glycosidic bonds formed by dehydration synthesis.
Polysaccharides are two types oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
• Oligosaccharides: Oligosaccharides are those carbohydrates which are formed of two to ten monosaccharides Among the oligosaccharides, most
important are disaccharides. Disaccharides are formed two units of monosaccharides.
important functions of oligosaccharides are:
A. Fuel. Disaccharides can act as fuel to provide energy.
B. Storage food. Sucrose is the reserve storage product in sugar beet and sugarcane.
C. Recognition point. Oligosaccharides attached with cell membrane help in recognising the cells of their own kind.
D. Sucrose is main transport sugar in the phloem of plants.
• Polysaccharides
General Characteristics :
Polysaccharides are those carbohydrates which are formed of more than ten monosaccharides.
General formula of polysaccharides is (C6H10O5)n where n is the number of monosaccharides.
Types: On the basis of nature of polysaccharides are divided into two categories: Homopolysaccharides & Heteropolysaccharides
1. Homopolysaccharides:- These are formed of only type of monosaccharides e.g., cellulose, starch, inulin, agar, xylan, araban, etc. Structure of some
important homopolysaccharides are:
A. Cellulose: It is an insoluble and rigid structural polysaccharide found in the cell wall of most of algae, all higher plants, certain protists and fungi. It is a
linear and unbranched homo-polysaccharide of about 6,000 to 10,000 a-D-Glucose molecules interlinked by a (1→4) glycosidic bonds. As cellulose does not
contain complex helices so cannot hold iodine and gives no color with iodine.
B. Starch: It is a storage homopolysaccharide of plants and is found as species specific shaped and sized grains in the potato tubers, corn seeds, cereals
like rice, wheat etc., and fruits like banana, mango, etc. Chemically, the starch is formed of two glucose polymers: á- Amylose (an unbranched but spiral
chain of about 200 to 2000 a-Glucose molecules interlinked by (1-4) glycosidic bonds) and amylopectin (a branched glucan of about 2,000 to 20,000 a-
Glucose molecules so forming helical secondary structure). Glucose molecules are interlinked by a(1-4) glycosidic bonds except the bond between Glucose
of main chain and first glucose of branch which is a(1-6) glycosidic bond. Starch can hold iodine molecules in the helices so gives blue color with iodine.
2. Heteropolysaccharides : Heteropolysaccharides are formed of two or more types of monosaccharides or their derivatives like amino sugars like 7
glucosamine, N-acetyl galactosamine; or sugar acids like glucuronic acid, etc. So, these are heteropolymers and are more complex than the
homopolysaccharides e.g. chitin, hyaluronic acid, peptidoglycan.
Functions of polysaccharides
As reserve food: Starch is the storage food of most of the plants while glycogen is the principal reserve food of liver and muscle fibres of animals. Inulin is
storage food of dahlias, onion, garlic, etc.
A. Cellulose, hemi-cellulose and pectins are structural polysaccharides of cell wall of plants.
B. Chitin is structural polysaccharide of cell wall of fungi and exoskeletal plates of arthropods.
C. Chondroitin sulphate is a structural heteropolymer of cartilages.
D. Peptidoglycans form the cell wall of bacteria and cyanobacteria.
E. Anticoagulation: It acts as anticoagulant and prevents blood clotting inside the blood vessels.
F. Cellulose forms the roughage of food and stimulates peristalsis and secretion of digestive juices from the digestive glands.
G. Agar is used as tissue culture, laxative and food.
H. Cellulose is also the main component of fibers and paper formed from paper pulp.
I. Hyaluronic acid lubricates the synovial joints between the bones and allows frictionless movements
J. Hormones like FSH and LH are glycoproteins in nature and help in reproductive activities.
K. Blood antigens are glycoproteins and give immunological properties to the blood.
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Reference or Bibliography

Dr. Soumya Banerjee sir’s note about Carbohydrates

Biology for engineers – Dr. S Mondal & Dr. A Ganguli
What is the classification of carbohydrates? (byjus.com)
Carbohydrates: Uses, health benefits, nutrition, and risks (medicalnewstoday.com)
Carbohydrates | The Nutrition Source | Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health
4.3: The Functions of Carbohydrates in the Body - Medicine LibreTexts
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